Impact of the Current and the Temperature Variation
on the Ni-Cd Battery Functioning
Hind Chit Dirani, Eliane Semaan, Nazih Moubayed
Doctorate School of Science and Technology, Renewable Energy Department
Lebanese University and Saint Joseph University
Beirut, Lebanon
nmoubayed@ieee.org
Abstract-In electrical systems, the battery, which is a device
converting the stored energy as chemical to electrical one, is
composed of one or more electrochemical cells. Nickel Cadmium
batteries (Ni-Cd) are used in different applications as emergency
lighting, mobile phones and others. The "high surge current"
obtained in these batteries is depending on the internal resistance
which is "relatively low". This paper describes the Ni-Cd battery
and its functionality. It represents two models of the battery and
the simulation of its charging and discharging modes. The load
current and temperature influence on the battery functioning is
also treated.
Keywords-battery; Ni-Cd; modeling; sinmlation; temperature
impact
I. INTRODUCTION
The Nickel-Cadmium batteries are a type of rechargeable
batteries. Comparing to lead-acid batteries, used in renewable
energy systems [1-4], Compared to the lead acid batteries, the
energy density of the Ni-Cd batteries is about 30-40 Wh/kg.
However, their efficiencies in charging and discharging phases
are also lower (60-70%) [5-8]. [n addition, these batteries have
different advantages. The density of their energy storage is
high, their cost is lower than that of the other types of batteries,
the given current to the load can reach high values and their
charging time constant is very small [9]. Their working life is
important. In fact, Ni-Cd's are used for portable and mobile
electrical systems [10-11]. Gold Peak produces cells with small
modules and Saft manufactures produces those with large
modules. Other manufacturing processes are developed to
obtain important energy density. Thus, the "lithium ion
polymer" and the "nickel metal hydride" are used in these
processes. "Eagle Picher-KOKAM" and "GP Industrial"
produce these types of batteries which are used for small
electronic systems. In other hand, "Valence" and "Ovonic­
Cobasys" produce "large units" in order to be used in some
other applications such as electric vehicles [12].
This paper is divided in six Sections. Section II presents a
description of the Ni-Cd battery operation. Its modeling is
treated in Section III. Simulation results of the battery charging
and discharging modes are discussed in Section IV. The
influences of the current and the temperature variations on the
battery functioning are described in Sections V and VI. Finally,
a conclusion is given in Section V[1.
ISBN: 978-1-4673-5613-8©2013 IEEE
[I. DESCRIPTION OF THE NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERY
OPERATION
The invention of the first Ni-Cd battery was made in 1899
and the "sealed type" appeared in 1947. The electrochemical
reactions and the voltage of one cell can be obtained from
different references [13].
Ni-Cd battery contains the chemicals Nickel (Ni) and
Cadmium (Cd). It's composed of Nickel hydroxide and
Cadmium hydroxide with the electrolyte itself made of
potassium hydroxide, KOH. The Ni(OH)2 is placed on the
positive electrode and the Cd(OH)2 on the negative electrode.
The operation is based on the following reactions.
At the negative electrode, the chemical reaction is:
20R + Cd � Cd (OH)2 + 2e- - 0.82 V (1)
And at the positive electrode, another reaction appears as:
As a result and during discharge:
Ni02 + Cd + 2H20 � Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2 : 1.31 V (3)
Equation (3) is reversed during recharge, from right to left.
Fig. 1 illustrates the composition of one cell of a Ni-Cd
battery. As shown in this figure, the number of the plates
placed in a long form are two, it appears the "thin metal foils".
These foils are "sandwiched between insulating but porous
separator fihns. The sandwich is then rolled up and packaged
in a nickel-plated steel can, with a sealing system built into the
positive terminal end. A spring-loaded vent allows electrolyte
and/or gasses to be released in the event of a dangerous
pressure buildup due to overcharging" [9].
The nominal voltage of each cell of the Ni-Cd battery is
equal to 1.2 V. This voltage can undergo some modifications
after different discharge cycles. The charging current of these
type of batteries can take different values which are functions
of the manufacturing process. Catalog of these batteries are
then used to determine the charging current.
339
 "'"", � � �
3
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) )
,, �
termi nal
/ � ..-r- V gasket
Sprt load ed

�r �� ���
.,--, resea able vent

..:::::.. � .-" J
Positive --
(ollector to b
�� 11
Ds • �Is •
Vn

Nickel-plated
steel (ase

:1
(Negative
terminal) Figure 2. Ni-Cd battery electrical model

�,\ � ..
oSltlve B. Paatero battery model
" .::::=:- =-
::::--�
Negative Porous
.... Plate foil
Porous The Paatero model of the Ni-Cd battery is given in [15]. Its
collector tab Separator Negative Separator output voltage is written as:
Plate foil

Figure I. The construction of a typical Ni-Cd battery cell [9]

(4)

III. MODELING OF THE NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERY

where the open circuit voltage, Uoc, is [15]:

A. Electric battery model "Uoc = a + b.DOD + (c+d.DOD).T" (5)

Different tests, based on computer software, were used to
gather the data for the battery characteristic in order to obtain and the over potential, Uop, is:
the values of the elements of the battery model [14]. In fact, the
Nickel Cadmium batteries are studied by researchers for the
"UMASS Lowell Battery Evaluation Laboratory". Several tests
were made, and, based on the obtained results, an electric
battery model composed of capacitors and resistors was given
(Fig. 2). This model is then consists of a "non-linear bulk
capacitance", "three impedances" and a "self discharge Zener with I and T are the battery current and temperature
diode" connected as a shunt component. respectively, and DOD represents the Depth Of Discharge. In
addition, SOC designs the State Of Charge of the battery
The U across RL designs the charger voltage of the battery. (SOS I - DOD). The parameters of the model a, b, c, d and
=

The load current is the current I through the branch formed by Xi (i 1 to 10) are determined. The calculation of the DOD is
Rae and RL. In battery's charging phase, I is negative, and it is
=

based on [15]:
positive when discharging. The ac resistance of the battery is
Rae. The self discharge current loss that characterize the shunt
element diode Ds is Is. Ib, which is the current of the battery, is
"DOD = � fot I(t). dt + DODinit" (7)
the difference between the current of the load and that of the
self-discharge. The impedance formed by Cd and RI has a short with, I(t) represents the instantaneous current and DODinit
time constant. It is "presumed to result from a charge depletion designs the initial value of the battery DOD, which takes the
layer on the plates". In other hand, the impedance formed by Ce value 0 if the battery is fully charged and the value I if the
and Re has a slower time constant. It is "presumed to result battery is empty. C is the battery capacity.
from diffusion of electrolyte from plate pores". Uoc, which is
To make the Paatero model more realistic, C is not
the open circuit voltage, is the sum Vn (nominal voltage) and
considered constant. In fact, the capacity varies with the battery
the voltage across Cb (the bulk capacitance) [14].
current variation and with the ambient temperature:
Table I gives the components values for the proposed
model of the Saft STM 5-140 Ni-Cd battery model [12]. C(I,T) = ad(bJ+T)/(cl+T)].(dl+eJI)

THE BATTERY ELECTRICAL MODEL PARAMETERS

+ [fl + gl artan(hl+ilI)] (8)
TABLE!.

Ra,=3 mQ Cb =1.6 MF Vn =6.7 V where a], b], CI, db el, f], g]' hI, and il are the function's
Rl =1.5 mQ Cd =400 F Vp=O.1 V parameters.
Rc=10 mQ C,=0.2 MF V,=0.2 V
The capacity equation and the Paatero model's parameters,
calculated in [IS], are given in Tables II and III.

ISBN: 978-1-4673-5613-8©2013 IEEE 340

 TABLE II. BATTERY CAPACITY EQUATION PARAMETERS B. Model simulation during discharge
a,=22.385 d,=- 0.24781 g1=- 1.1538 During the discharge mode, it is considered that the battery
is discharging at constant current load. [t should be noted that
b,=57.594 e,=- 4.9694xl0-4 h,=- 94.743
the battery could also feed a constant power load and a constant
c,=35.629 f,=62.292 i1=0.79808 resistant load. The discharge current, which is positive (Fig. 2),
is considered equal to 70A. At t Omin, the battery is assumed =

TABLE III. PARAMETERS FOR THE PAATERO MODEL fully charged. Thus, the initial value of DOD is DODinit O. =

Then, it varies with time from 0% for the full charged battery,
a =26.058 X3 =12.528 X9=- 1.4581 X 10-4
to [00%, when the battery becomes empty (Fig. 4). Fig. 5
b =10.606 x4=- 1.5316 X]()=3.3144 illustrates its voltage variation versus time. At t 30min, this =

c =6.7958xlO-J Xs=l.3647 xll=- 17.183

voltage is 22.5V. The total discharging time is 42 min.

d =- 7.8309xI0-3 X(,=- 4.5473 X12=- 11.431 e. Model simulation during charge

x,=18.143 X7=1.5962x10-5 xl1=II.311 Constant charge current is recommended for Nickel
Cadmium battery. Greater the current value is, less the battery
X2 =- 1.5704xlO-2 Xs=4.9049
takes time to charge. [t is considered that the battery charges
via a lOA charger. The charge current is negative, I -lOA =

IV. MODEL SIMULATION DURING CHARGE AND DISCHARGE

(Fig. 2). [n the charge mode, the battery is assumed empty at
A. Model implementation t Omin, therefore, the initial value of the DOD is considered
=

DODinit I. Thus, it varies from 100% at t Omin, to 0%,

[n this paper, in order to simulate the charge and the
= =

when the battery is fully charged, at t 3lOmin (Fig. 6). The

discharge of the Ni-Cd battery, the Paatero model with its
=

battery voltage for the charge simulation mode is given in

given parameters was used and implemented on the
Fig. 7. At t 30min, the battery voltage is 22.5V. The battery
Matlab/Simulink software. The inputs of the model are the
=

took 3 [Omin to be completely charged. The battery charge time

battery current and the ambient temperature. Its output is the
is considerably long which is not very practical. To decrease
voltage of the studied battery.
this time, fast charge methods are used. [n this case, the battery
The first step was to implement the model that calculates could be overcharged. As a result, pressure and temperature
the capacity, in ampere hour, depending on the load current and builds up within the battery. This may cause damage to the
the temperature based on (8). The capacity is multiplied by 60 battery. Therefore, charge control should be used.
to have a unit of ampere minute, Then, using the obtained
capacity value in addition to the load current, and based on (7),
the depth of discharge, DOD, is calculated. In fact, the
0.8
integrated current is multiplied by the capacity of the battery.
The answer is then added to DODinit that takes the values 0 or [
depending on the battery status. Finally, the calculation of the 0.6
Q
battery voltage depends on those of the open circuit voltage 0
Q
and the over potential values based on (4), (5) and (6). 0.4

Therefore, to determine the battery voltage (output of the

battery model), two inputs are needed: the load current and the 0.2

room temperature. Fig. 3 illustrates the block diagram of the

studied Ni-Cd battery which is used to calculate its voltage. 0.0
0 5 IO 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
The simulation is evaluated in minutes. As for the Time (min)
parameters of the simulation, the step size maximum value is
of O. [s for a proposed variable-step solver. [n fact, 24 V is used Figure 4. DOD during discharge (1 =70 A)

as rated voltage of the studied battery. In this section, the 25

temperature is defined with the worst case scenario, T -20°C. =

The impact of the temperature will be discussed in Section V. 20

€ 15
\
s

�
1k
IO
\
5 ..

0
0 5
,

10 15 20 25 30 35
,
,\
40 45
Time (min)
Figure 3. Block diagram for the battery voltage calculation
Figure 5. Battery voltage during discharge (1 =70 A)

ISBN: 978-1-4673-5613-8©2013 IEEE 341

 �!
I

'-...-.
�
0_8

0.6
�
� '-...-.

�
0
�
0.4

0.2
�
0.0
0 50 100 150 200
��
250 300 350
100 150
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 6. DOD during the battery charge mode (I = lO A) Figure 9. Battery voltage during the charge mode (I = 5 A. 10 A and 30 A)

25 VI. TEMPERATURE IMPACT ON THE BATTERY FUNCTIONING

In this Section, the temperature will take three values,

20 ....... "" .......
(+20°C, O°C and -20°C). Fig. 10 represents the voltage
variation for these three values during the discharge mode
� 15 Odisch 70A). The battery discharges faster if the temperature is
=
"
0/,
J'3 low. The discharge time increases with the increase in the
� 10 ....... ............ .
temperature value. In addition, the use of the battery at very
high temperature is not tolerated. In other hand, Fig. 11 shows
05 the voltage curve for the three values of temperature during the
charge mode (leh lOA). The battery charges faster when the
=

0
temperature increases. The charge time can be 140min for a
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 battery working at 20°C which is faster by 30 min for a battery
Time (min)
working at -20°C.
Figure 7. Battery voltage during the battery charge mode (I = lOA)
25
V. VARIATION OF THE LOAD AND SOURCE CURRENTS
20
��:...... . -.- -.- ..

\ .\ ....
This Section treats the current impact on the battery
functioning at T -20°C. Firstly, it is supposed that for three
=

different loads, the discharging currents are 70A, 100A and � 15

\ \\
"

"0 10
ISOA respectively. Their complete discharging time will
OI'

>
J'3

. . . j-T=20·C
decrease from 42min to 28min, then to 17min (Fig. 8). Thus,

��:�CI
the discharging time decreases when the load value increases.
I
Secondly, three constant currents of SA, 10 A and 30A 5

provided by three different sources are considered to charge the

studied battery. Fig. 9 represents the battery voltage during the
charge modes. This figure illustrates that the complete charge
0
0 10 20
Time (min)
30 40
I\ � 50

time increases when the charging current decreases.

Figure 10. Battery voltage during discharge at different temperature
3.

I
1-70A 25

� �.
-1=100A
"
-1=150A
�
20 '- '- ' - -
L�--'-------- ; --'-------------'- " - --'------ ; _ . ____ . ____ c

� � �
� 15� . .'.-V
2.

\ \ .. #'-.- -- �

-
. . •......• - , c
•....... ' •.. -- ....•.... . . - . ..•..... -- ....•.... , . . - . . ... . . . . . ; •....... -- .......•.. ..• _ ..... _ . •. .•

�
� 15

\ \ \
� l!
1
I.

\ \
\
� : • • •;-1- -· - - 1 11 : ���?:
.. ; ___ _________________ ; _______________________; ______________________ .;_____ . _________________; _ _ __

1
5

•
0 5 10 15
\ 20
Time (min)
25
\ 30 35 ,.
\ "
0
o 20 40 60 80
Time (min)
100 120 140

Figure 8. Battery voltage during discharge (I = 70 A. 100 A and 150 A) Figure 11. Battery Voltage during charge at diflerent temperature

ISBN: 978-1-4673-5613-8©2013 IEEE 342

 VII. CONCLUSION
This paper presents the Nickel Cadmium battery. It
describes the battery operation, defines an electrical model and
discusses the Paatero model for the studied battery. The current
and the temperature impact during the discharge and the charge
modes are treated using Matlab/Simulink. Obtained results
show their influence on the battery functioning. From these
results, a proper operation for the Ni-Cd battery, in its charging
and discharging modes, appears at the temperature of 20°C.
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