Unit 7 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

7.1 Maxwell equations

Integral form Differential form (point form)

 D  dS  Q
S
div D    D   V Gauss’ Law
d
l E  dl   dt  S ( t )  d S Curl E    E   t
B B
Faraday’s Law

l S dt
dD D
H  dl  I   d S Curl H    H  J 
t Ampère’s Law
SB  dS  0 div B    B  0 No isolated magnetic charge

1
Material properties:
D E
B  H
J   (E  E e ) Ee :
external electric field source
J  V v convection current density
 

7.2 Poisson’s Equation

 Poisson’s Equation in electrostatic field

V
According to Gauss Law:   D  V or E  (D E )

E x E y E z V
   
x y z 

2
  V V V 
E  E x a x  E y a y  E z a z  V   ax  ay  a z 
 x y z 
V V V
 Ex  
x
, Ey  
y
, Ez 
z
 2V  2V  2V V
 2  2 
 x 2
y z 
V
or   V  

V
or  2V   (Poisson’s Equation) (7.15)

 Laplace’s Equation
Under charge-free condition, V = 0
 2V  0 (Laplace’s Equation)

3
  2V  2V  2V
 2  2 0
or x 2
y z (7.16)
 2V  2V
 2 0
The 2-D Laplace’s Equation: x 2
y (7.17)

7.3 Finite difference method for solving the Laplace’s

Equation

Taylor series:
f ( x ) 1 f 2
( x)
f ( x )  f ( x 0 )  ( x  x0 )  ( x  x0 ) 2  
x x  x0 2 x 2 x  x0

4
 x H  xG  h x F  xG   h y K  yG  h yC  yG   h
Express the potentials as a Taylor series at G, we have:
V  VG   x  xG    x  xG 
V 1 2 V
2
 
x G 2 x 2 G

  y  yG    y  yG 
V 1 2 V
2
 
y G
2 y 2 G

5
Retain only the second order terms,
V  VG   x  xG    x  xG    y  yG    y  yG 
V 1 2 V
2
V 1 2 V
2

x G 2 x 2 G
y G
2 y 2 G

The potentials at F, H, C and K,

VF  VG   x F  xG    x F  xG 
V 1 2 V
2

x G 2 x 2 G

  y F  yG    y F  yG 
V 1 2 V
2

y G
2 y 2 G
K

V 1 2  2V
 VG  h  h
h

x G 2 x 2 G
F H
V 1 2 V G
2 h h
VH  VG  h  h
x G 2 x 2 G
h
y

V 1 2  2V
VC  VG  h  h C x

y G
2 y 2 G

6
 V 1 2  2V
VK  VG  h  h
y G
2 y 2 G

Adding the above equations:

1 2  2V 1 2  2V 1 2  2V 1 2  2V
VF  VH  VC  VK  4VG  h  h  h  h
2 x 2 G
2 x 2 G
2 y 2 G
2 y 2 G

  2
V  2
V 
VF  VH  VC  VK  4VG  h 2  2  2 
 x y G
Using Eq. (7.17) to eliminate the second order terms, we
have
VC  VF  VH  VK  4VG
or
VG  Vc  VF  VH  VR 
1
4 (7.18)
 2-D Laplace’s Equation in difference form
7
The method of simple iteration*

The method of simple iteration involves writing the equation f(x) = 0

in a form suitable for the construction of a sequence of
approximations to some root, in a repetitive fashion.

Procedure:
The iteration procedure is as follows. In some way we obtain a
rough approximation x0 of the desired root, which may then be
substituted into the right-hand side to give a new approximation,
x1   ( x0 ) . The new approximation is again substituted into the
right-hand side to give a further approximation x2   ( x1 ) , and so
on until (hopefully) a sufficiently accurate approximation to the
root is obtained. This repetitive process, based on a   (a) , is
called simple iteration; provided that xn1  xn decreases as n
increases, the process tends to a   (a) , where a denotes the root.
8
Example:
The method of simple iteration will be used to find the root of the
equation: 3xex=1.
1
We first write: x  ex
3
Assuming x0 = 1, successive iterations
1
x1  e x0  0.12263
3
1 x1
x2  e  0.29486
3
1
x3  e x2  0.24821
3
1 x3
x4  e  0.26007
3
1
x5  e x4  0.25700
3

9
 1 x5
x6  e  0.25779
3
1
x7  e x6  0.25759
3
1 x7
x8  e  0.25764
3
We see that after eight iterations the root is 0.2576. A graphical
interpretation of the first three iterations is shown in the flowing
figure:

Simple iterative method.

10
Example of finite difference method for solving the
Laplace’s Equation:

Fig. 7.5 shows an infinite long square metal box. The potentials
on the top side equal 100V, on the other three sides are zero, on
the two top corners are 50V. Calculate the potential distribution
inside the box.
50 100 100 100 50
v v v v v

(7) 43.8 (8) 53.2 (9) 43.8 0

0

(4) 18.8 (5) 25v (6) 18.8

0 0

(1) 6.2 (2) 9.4 (3) 6.2

0 0

0 0 0 0
0
Fig. 7.5
11
1. Estimation of initial values

100  0  0  0/ 4  25.0 ( VG  4 Vc  V F  V H  V R  )

1
At node 5:
At node 1: 0  25  0  0/ 4  6.2 (Diagonal average)
At node 7: 50  100  25  0/ 4  43.8 (Diagonal average)

Diagonal average is only used for initial solution.

2. Calculate the potential at each point (starting from left to

right, from bottom to top), using
V j K  V jn1, K  V jn, K 1  V jn1, K  V jn, K 1  / 4 (7.19)
n 1

12
 50 100 100 100 50

(7) (8) (9) 0

0 43.8 53.2 43.8
43 53.2 43
43 52.8 43
42.9 52.7 42.9
(4) (5) (6)
0 18.8 25 18.8
0
18.8 25 18.8

18.7 25 18.7
(1) (2) (3)
0 6.2 9.4 6.2
0
7.0 9.4 7.0

7.2 9.8 7.2

Fig. 7.6
0 0 0 0
0

100  53.2  18.8  0/ 4  43.0 ( G 4 Vc  V F  V H  V R  )

1
At node 7: V 

Calculate stops when the difference between two

consecutive iterations is below a specified value.
13
7.4 Plane-wave propagation in lossless media

If the medium is nonconducting (=0), the electromagnetic

wave does not suffer any attenuation as it travels through the
medium, and hence the medium is said to be lossless.

Only study the situation in uniform media, no external field

E e and charge density .

In Maxwell’s equations, we have four unknown: B , E , D ,

  

H.
H  H
 
 H     2  0
2

Eliminate B, E, D, we have:
2

t t
  

14
 B  B
 
 B     2  0
2

Eliminate H , E, D, we have:
2

t t 
  

E 2E
 E     2  0
Eliminate B, H , D, we have:
2

t t 
  

D  D
 2 D     2  0
2

Eliminate B, H, E, we have:

t t
  

The above four equations can be expressed in one matrix

equation:
 2 
t
2  
     2  H
t 
 B E
 

D 0


This matrix equation means:

15
  2 H  H
 
 H     2 
 2

 t t 
 B  B 0
  2 B     2  0
 2

 t t     
   
  2 E    E  E  0
  2
 2

 t t   0
 2 D 2D 
  D     2 
 t t 
In dielectrics,  = 0, we have:
 2 2  
   2  H
t 
 B E
 

D 0


or
 2 1 2  
  2 2  H
v t 
 B E
  

D 0
Wave equations


16
 1
v
where  (speed of electromagnetic wave)

Its general solution:

1 1
E x ( z, t )  F  (t  z )  F  (t  z )
v v

or
 1   1 
E x ( z, t )  F  (vt  z )  F  (vt  z )


 v  v 
 1   1 
 F  ( z  vt )  F  ( z  vt )


 v  v 
E x ( z, t )  f  ( z  vt )  f  ( z  vt )

17
18
Electromagnetic waves

x
Wave motion
v v
x x
z' z
0 vt z'
z
position of position of
wave at t=0 wave at t>0
Fig. 7.7
Let’s consider: x = f(z-vt)
As shown in the above diagram, the wave profile moves with
a constant velocity v in the z-direction.
19
 At t = 0, the wave profile is given by x = f(z) = f(z).
 At t = t, the wave profile is given by x = f(z) = f(z-vt).
Hence f(z-vt) represents a wave of profile f(z) which is
travelling forward in the z direction at velocity v .
Similarly, f(z+vt) is a wave of profile f(z) traveling backward,
i.e., in the –z direction.

A very important type of waveform is the sinusoidal

waveform:
Acos(t – z).

20
Speed, wavelength, propagation constant

0 =2 /

t=0 t= /2 t= /
Fig. 7.8

Consider a sinusoidal wave traveling in +z direction (Fig.

7.8):
Ex+(z, t) = Eo+ cos (t - z)

21
 = 2f, f : frequency of the wave
 : propagation constant

Write Ex+(z, t) in the format of f(z-vt):

Ex+(z, t) = Eo+ cos (t - z)

  
 E cos   t  z 


  
0

   
 E0 cos   z  t 


   

v
v  
22
If we fix our attention on a particular point (a point of a
particular phase) on the wave, we set cos (t - z) = constant
or t - z = constant
We obtain:
d
t  z   0 , dz
 0
dt dt
dz  
v  v
dt  ,  (7.20)

This is the velocity of propagation of an equiphase front and

is named phase velocity or speed of the travelling wave.

The speed of an electromagnetic wave in a medium depends

on the properties of the medium.
23
For the Eor from the solution of wave equations, the
H
 

speed is given by
1
v

In free space, the speed is given by
1
vo 
1   3 108 m
s
 o o 1
4 10  10 9
7 (speed of light)
36
(7.21)
1 1 v0 v0
v   v
  r  r  0 0 r r r r

Wavelength:
24
In the function cos (t - z),
the period of z is 2.
the period of z is 2/.
Therefore, the spatial period
2

 (7.22)
2 2v2v v v
    
  2f f f

25
26
Plane wave
A plane wave is one for which the phase is the same for all
point on a plane surface.

If the amplitude is also constant over this surface, it is a

uniform plane wave.

Example:
E  E o sin t  z a x is a uniform plane wave because at any
plane z = zo, the phase is a constant zo and amplitude is a
constant Eo.

 
E  E o sin t   x 2  y 2  a x is not a plane wave. Actually, the
27
constant phase surface for this wave is a cylindrical surface.

For a uniform plane wave of frequency  in free space,

using the sine-wave representation, we may write
E  E x1 sin t  z a x
H  H y1 sin t  z a y
It can be proved that (see Example 1):
E x1 
Z 
H y1 
Z is called the intrinsic impedance (or wave impedance):

Z
 (ohms)

28
 0
Z0   120
In free space: 0 (ohms)
Note that E has values only in the x-direction, and H has
values only in the y-direction and they are in phase with each
other. They can be represented graphically as follows.

29
 Fig. 7.9

Both E and H are uniform plane waves. Note that the

uniform plane wave is a TEM wave i.e. transverse
electromagnetic wave because everywhere the E and H
vectors are orthogonal to the direction of propagation.

A uniform plane wave cannot exist physically because it

stretches to infinity and would represent infinite energy.
However, if a wave in considered some distance from its
source, then it may be approximate by a uniform plane wave.

Direction of polarization:

30
If E has an x-component, it is said to be polarized in the
x-direction.

Poynting vector

The total power flowing out of the volume is:

31
   
E  H  dS
  
S

The Poynting vector: p  EH (watts/m2)

  

which is interpreted as an instantaneous power density.

For the waveform:
E  E x1 sin t   z a x
H  H y1 sin t   z a y
the Poynting vector:
p  E  H  E x1 H y1 sin 2 t   z a x  a y  E x1 H y1 sin 2 t   z a z
  

Poynting vector’s direction is the wave’s traveling direction.

To find the time-average power density, we integrate over

one cycle and divide by the period T = 1/f,

32
p av   E x1 H y1 sin t   z dt   sin  t   z d ( t ) 
1 T E x1 H y 1 E x1 H y 1

2
2 2

T 0 T 0 2
E x1 H y1 E x21
p av  
2 2Z ( T  2 )

( 0 sin d  
1
1  cos 2 d    0 cos 2d 2   )
1 4
2 2
2
0 2 2

33
[If a field H varies in sinusoidal function, making use of Euler’s identity
dH
e jt
 cos t  j sin t , we express H in phasor, then in phasor (complex
dt
quantity) is jH .]

Example 1
Given  a x in free space, find B, D, E .
j  t   z 
H H m e

Solution: magnetic field  electric field

ax ay az
   D
D 
 H  x y z t
t H m e j t  z  0 0

z

H me j  t   z 
ay  
D
t , j H m e j  t   z 
ay 
D
t ,
34
D
 j D
t
 H m j  t   z 
D  e ay

D  H m j  t   z 
E   e ay
o  o
B  o H  oH me j  t   z 
ax

Wave travelling in the -z direction.

1
v
Wave speed:  o o
2

Wavelength: 
Direction of polarization: positive y axis.
35
 
Hm
Ey  0    0 0 0
Z    
Wave impedance: Hx Hm  0  0 0
 
 
        
 v 1 0 0

 
  
0 0 

Example 2 electric field  magnetic field

In free space, D  Dm sin t  z a x . Using Maxwell’s equations,
 o Dm
sin t  z a y
show that B    . Sketch the field at t=0
along the z-axis, assuming that Dm > 0,  > 0.
Solution:
36
  o Dm
B sin t  z a y
Suppose we know  , to see whether
we can get: D  Dm sin t  z a x
magnetic field  electric field
ax ay az
   D
D  H y H y D
 H  x y z t  ax  az 
t , 0 Hy 0
, z x t

 o Dm Dm
sin t  z a y sin t   z a y
B

B H 
 , 0 
H y H y
 Dm cost  z  0
z , x

Dm cost  z a x 
D
t

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 D   Dm cost  z a x dt  Dm sin t  z a x

D or E

B or H

Another method: electric field  magnetic field

ax ay az
   B
B 
 E   x y z t
t , Ex 0 0

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E x E x B
ay  az  
z y t

sin t   z a x
Dm
D  Dm sin t  z a x , E
0
E x Dm 
cost  z 
E x
 0
z 0 , y
Dm 
cost  z a y  
B
0 t
Dm  Dm 
B   cost  z a y dt   sin t  z a y
0  0

Wave travelling in the -z direction.

1
v
Wave speed:  o o

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 2
Wavelength:   
Direction of polarization: positive x axis
Dm
Ex 0   0 0
Z   0  
1 Dm     0 0 0
Wave impedance: Hy
 0  0

(    00 )
v

40