Chapter 8 - Stress, Strain and Deformation in Solids

2001, W. E.
Haisler Chapter 8: Stress, Strain and Deformation in Solids 1

Chapter 8 - Stress, Strain and Deformation in Solids
For a beam in bending, we are often interested in determining the
transverse displacement along the beam as shown below.
y
x
u y(x)
u y ( x )  d is p la c e m e n t in y d ire c tio n
To do that, we would start with Conservation of Linear
Momentum. Unfortunately, COLM is in terms of stress,  .
Consequently, we must have some way to relate stress to
deformation. We will need additional equations as follows:
Constitutive relations - relate stress to strain
Kinematic relations - relate strain to displacement (gradients)
2001, W. E. Haisler Chapter 8: Stress, Strain and Deformation in Solids 2
In the study of the motion of a solid or fluid, we will find it
necessary to describe the kinematic behavior of a continuum
body by defining expressions called strains in terms of the
gradients of displacement components. In the example below, we
consider an elastic bar of length L. If the bar is subjected by an
axial force F, it will stretch
an amount  as shown in
figure b). The quantity /L L
is a measure of the change
in length relative to the a) undeformed
original length and is
defined to be the axial F F
strain for the bar.
L+
b) stretched (deformed)
In figure d), a shear load is applied that
is parallel to the top surface as shown. o
90
The angle  measures the amount the
original right angle in figure c) has
changed from a right angle, and the
c) undeformed
angle  is related to the shear strain.

What causes strain? F
 Mechanical loads (forces,

pressures, etc.)
 Temperature change (thermal
expansion)
 Moisture absorption d) sheared (deformed)
 ** Stress (relationship between stress and strain is the
constitutive relationship)
In this chapter we will mathematically formalize these simple
ideas to develop expressions for strains in terms of displacement
components. We will consider two approaches:
1) mathematically precise approach and

2) a simpler geometrical approach.
Deformations in solids are characterized by displacements
of points and by elongations and rotations of line segments
in the solid.
Initial State of Body
z Deformed State
u(r+dr)
Q
Q*
P dr
dr*
u(r) P*
r
r*
y
r =position vector of point P (initial)
r* =position vector of point P* (deformed)
x u(r) =displacement vector of point P

dr = vector line segment between P and Q
Note the following geometry quantities:
P moves to P*,
Q moves to Q*,
line segment P-Q deforms (stretches/rotates) to P*-Q*:
r
r = position vector of point P (initial state)
r* = position vector of point P (in deformed state)
rr r
u (r ) = displacement vector of point P (from initial to
deformed state)
r
dr = vector line segment between P and Q (initial state)
r
dr * = vector line segment between P and Q (deformed
r r r state)
u (r  dr ) = displacement vector of point Q (from initial to
deformed state)
From geometry of the vectors, we can write two equations:
displacement vector of point P: ur (rr )  rr*  rr
and
r r r r r r r* or drr*  drr  ur (rr  drr )  ur (rr )
dr  u (r  dr )  u (r )  dr
The last two terms represent the change (gradient) in

r r
displacement u with respect to position r , i.e.,
r r r r r r r rr
u (r  dr )  u (r )  du  dr  (u )
u x uy x uz x
displacement gradient
 
   x 
u ux y

uy y uz y
 
ux z uy z uz z
matrix (3x3). Note: not



 

symmetric!
Definition of strain. Strain is a measure of the deformation
and rotationr of line
r segments. Consider two material
dr dr
elements 1 & 2 , which undergo deformations that will
r* r*
bring them into new locations dr1 & dr2 ; respectively.
z Initial State of Body Deformed State

dr
1
dr 2 dr*
1
u(r) dr*
2
r
r*
y
x
Previously, we obtained for a line segment drr*:
r* r r r r r r r r r r rr
dr  dr  u (r  dr )  u (r )  dr  du  dr  dr  (u )
We will obtain identical expressions for the two line

r* r*
segments dr1 and dr2 defined in the figure above:
r* r r rr r* r r rr
dr  dr  dr  (u ) and dr  dr  dr  (u )
1 1 1 2 2 2
Consider the dot product of these two vectors (a scaler result!)
r* r* r r rr r r rr
dr  dr  [dr  dr  (u )]  [dr  dr  (u )]
1 2 1 1 2 2
r r r r rr
 dr  dr  dr  [dr  (u )] 
  1 r 2r r 1 r 2 r rr r rr 
 [dr  (u )]  dr  [dr  (u )]  [dr  (u )] 
 1 2 1 2 
r r r rr rrT rr rrT r
=dr  dr  dr  [(u )  (u )  (u )  (u ) ]  dr
1r 2 1 2
r rrT
Recall that (u ) is a 3x3 matrix. The “T” in (u ) means
rr
that the matrix (u ) is transposed. The underlined term is
r r* r* r r r r r
defined as 2E so that dr1  dr2  dr1  dr2  dr1  (2 E )  dr2
and
r rr rrT rr rrT
E  1 2[(u )  (u )  (u )  (u ) ] Finite Strain Tensor
Note that the expression for the finite strain tensor
r rr rrT rr rrT
E  1 2[(u )  (u )  (u )  (u ) ]
contains two distinctive terms:

rr rrT
1 [(u )  (u ) ]  linear in displacement gradients
2
rr rrT
1 [(u )  (u ) ]  quadratic in displacement
2
gradients
Infinitesimal Strain Tensor
If the higher order terms are neglected from the finite strain
tensor [E] (i.e., keep only linear displacement gradient
terms), we obtain the infinitesimal strain tensor, []:
r rr rrT
  1 2[(u )  (u ) ]
where [] is a 3x3 matrix given by:

   
 xx xy xz 
 
     yx  yy  yz 
 
   
 zx zy zz 
 u 1 u u 1  uz  ux 
x y
 (  x) (  )
 x 2 x y 2 x z 
 
1  ux  u y u
y 1  uz u
y 
 (  ) (  )
2  y x y 2 y z 
 u 
1  u
 ( x  z)  u 1 y  uz u 
(  ) z
2  z x 2 z y z 
 
Note: Both [E] and [] are symmetric matrices.
A 2-D geometrical look at  xx (defined to be the change in
length of a line segment dx which is originally oriented in
the x direction) and undergoes displacements u x and uy:
y
Q*
dx*
P* uy(x+dx)
ux(x) u (x) u (x+dx)

y x
P Q
dx
x (x+dx) x
dx * dx
 xx  = (change in length)/(original length) .
dx
2 1/ 2
dx*   dx  u x ( x  dx)  u x ( x)   u y ( x  dx)  u y ( x) 
2
 
 
2 1/ 2
  ux
2
  uy  
  dx  dx  dx  
 x  x 
  dx(1  )  dx(
2 1/ 2
 u u 2
 y  
 x
)   
 x x   
 dx 1  
2 1/ 2 2 1/ 2

u u 2
 u u        uy 
2

  x
 dx 1  2
  y
   x

x
   
x
 x  x x      x  
Note: 1  a  1  (1/ 2) a (for small a). Thus, the last result is
approximately:
 2  u 2
 u 1   u  1  y
dx*  dx 1  x   x     
 x 2   x  2   x  
   
The strain now becomes
 2  u 2
  ux 1   ux  1 y  
dx 1         dx
 x 2   x  2   x  
dx * dx    
 xx  
dx dx
After canceling the dx terms, the finite strain term becomes
2 2
 ux 1   ux  1   u y   finite strain
 xx       
 x 2  x  2  x 
For small gradients, we assume that the squared terms are

small compared to the un-squared terms and we obtain the
linear, or small strain expression:
 ux
 xx   small strain
x
Shear strain (rotation of line segments):
dux Note that
y
dy
dy*
dx*
du
 y
dy
dx

dx
x
 u
1 y  ux
xy = (  ) . Geometrically, each of the two terms is an
2 x y
angle as shown at the left. xy is called a shear strain and
geometrically is 1/2 (average) of the angular rotation of line
segments dx & dy which originally form a right angle. In
contrast, the engineering shear strain  xy is defined as the sum
u
y  ux
of these two angles, ie, xy = 2 xy =  .
x y
The definition of the engineering shear strain xy from a graphical
viewpoint is an approximation (similar to the square root
approximation made in xx ). From the geometry above,
r r r r
dx * dy*  cos * dx * dy * . Define xy to be the sum of the
u
y  ux
angular rotations, ie, xy =  . (engineering shear strain)
x y
u
y  ux
cos *  cos( / 2   )  sin       2
xy xy xy  x  y xy
As in the square root approximation made for xx (for the

geometrical interpretation of strain), an assumption of “small”
rotations has been made in defining the shear strain xy .
Some examples
Consider a bar of lenght L, u(x)
fixed at the left end, and P
with a force P applied at the
L
right end. The bar stretches
x u
an amount uL at the right L
end. If the “engineering”
strain in the x direction is defined to be (change in length)/
(original length), then xx = uL/L.
We could also find the expresssion for u(x) and apply the
mathematical definition of xx . We have two boundary
conditions on u(x): u(0)=0 and u(L)= uL. Assume
u ( x)  C1  C2 x where C1 and C2 are constants. Applying B.C.s
gives C1 = 0 and C2 = uL/L so that u(x) = (uL/L) x. Thus the strain
 ux
is given by  xx  = (uL/L).
x
Example: At the point "A" shown on the wheel, the displacement
field has been determined to be as Point A
follows (using the finite element
method):
u x ( x, y )  (0.38 x 2  1.31xy  0.045 y 2

 2.22 x  8.41y )104 in
u y ( x, y )  (0.25 x 2  1.62 xy  1.65 y 2

+3.44 x  7.03 y )104 in
u z ( x, y )  0
Determine the strains at point "A" which is located at x=4in,

y=5in.
u x ( x, y )  (0.38 x 2  1.31xy  0.045 y 2
 2.22 x  8.41y )104 in
u y ( x, y )  (0.25 x 2  1.62 xy  1.65 y 2

+3.44 x  7.03 y )104 in
u x
 xx   (0.76 x  1.31y  2.22)104 in / in  7.37 x104 in / in
x x  4", y 5" x  4", y  5"
u y
 yy   2.01x104 in / in
y x  4", y 5"
1 �� ux � uy � 4
 xy  �  �  3.27 x10 in / in , Note:  xy  2 xy
2 �� y �x �
x  4", y 5"
 xz   yz   zz  0
Now, do again, but consider finite strain.
Comparing the two results, is it OK to assume small strains for

this problem?
Some Thought Exercises
Suppose we have an 8x8 square area outlined on a larger chunk of
planar material (like a plate). Suppose the plate is loaded in the x-y
plane so that the square is displaced and deformed to a rectangle as
shown below [new x-y coordinates starting at lower left corner and
going CCW are: (8,4), (20,4),
(20,12) and (8,12)]. Picture shows
“deformed” and “undeformed”
area. What are your guesses for
the strains? There is stretching in undeformed
the x direction, so  xx  0 . There
is no stretching in the y direction,
so  yy  0 . All right angles deformed
remain right angles, hence there is
no shear strain and  xy  0 .
We can actually solve for the displacements and strains since we
know the initial and final positions of the 4 corner points.
Assume that the displacements are given by (a 2-D curve fit):
u x ( x, y )  C1  C2 x  C3 y  C4 xy
u y ( x, y )  C5  C6 x  C7 y  C8 xy
Four constants are chosen because we know information at 4
points. Now apply know conditions for the four corner points:
u x (0,0)  8  0  C1  C2 (0)  C3 (0)  C4 (0)(0)
u x (8,0)  20  8  C1  C2 (8)  C3 (0)  C4 (8)(0)
u x (8,8)  20  8  C1  C2 (8)  C3 (8)  C4 (8)(8)
u x (0,8)  8  0  C1  C2 (0)  C3 (8)  C4 (0)(8)
u y (0,0)  4  0  C5  C6 (0)  C7 (0)  C8 (0)(0)
u y (8,0)  4  0  C5  C6 (8)  C7 (0)  C8 (8)(0)
u y (8,8)  12  8  C5  C6 (8)  C7 (8)  C8 (8)(8)
u y (0,8)  12  8  C5  C6 (0)  C7 (8)  C8 (0)(8)
In each of the above, the displacement at a point is set equal to
the “final position” – “initial position” of that point. Solve for
the constants and substitute back into u x and u y to obtain:
u x ( x, y )  8  0.5 x  0 y  0 xy  8  0.5 x
u y ( x, y )  4  0 x  0 y  0 xy  4
Last equation says that displacement of all points in y direction (

u y ) is a constant, which is consistent with the “picture” of
deformed and undeformed area. Now calculate the strains:
�ux
 xx   0.5 in / in (a positive value indicates stretching)
� x
�uy
 yy  0 (no stretching in y direction)
�y
1 ��ux � uy �
 xy  �  � 0  0  0 (no shear strain)
2 �� y � x �
Suppose we have an 8x8 square area outlined on a larger chunk
of planar material (like a plate). Suppose the plate is loaded in
the x-y plane so that the square is displaced and deformed to a
parallelogram as shown below [new x-y coordinates starting at
lower left corner and going CCW are: (8,4), (16,4), (19,12) and
(11,12)]. Picture shows
“deformed” and “undeformed”
area. What are your guesses for
the strains? There is no
stretching in the x direction, so undeformed deformed
 xx  0 . There is no stretching in
the y direction, so  yy  0 .
However, original right angles
are no longer right angles, hence
there is some shear strain and
 xy  0 .
Suppose we have an 8x8 square area outlined on a larger chunk
of planar material (like a plate). Suppose the plate is loaded in
the x-y plane so that the square is displaced and deformed to a
quadrilateral as shown below [new x-y coordinates starting at
lower left corner and going
CCW are: (9,4), (16.8,6),
(17.5, 14.5) and (10.8,12.5)].
Picture shows “deformed” and
“undeformed” area. What are
your guesses for the strains? It
appears that there is shortening
or stretching in the x and y
direction; hence,  xx  0 and
 yy  0 . Original right angles
are no longer right angles,
hence there is some shear strain and  xy  0 .
Note on Tensor Stress & Strain Transformation
For 2-D, Cauchy's formula provided the following relation:

r r rr
t( n)  n  
(3.31)
r y’ r
The component of t( n ) in the t(n) t(n)
x’
direction of the unit outward
r
s
n’
normal n of a surface (or in x' n
direction is: xx  n
r r
xy
 n   x ' x '  t( n )  n
yx
yy
Substitute Cauchy's formula into the above, and write in
both vector and matrix notation: r
r r
n   x'x'  n   n
 [ n] [ ] [n]
(1x 2) (2 x 2) (2 x1)
The expression  n  [n][ ][n] gives the component of stress,

r
 n , in the direction of the unit normal n (or in the direction of
the x'-axis which makes an angle  CCW from the x-axis).
Lets do both the vector and matrix operations to show that
they are the same. First, Cauchy's formula is
r r rr r r rr rr rr rr

t( n)  n    (cos i  sin  j )   xxii   yx ji   xy ij   yy jj 
r r
 ( xx cos   xy sin  )i  ( yx cos   yy sin  ) j
r r
 ( xx cos   xy sin  )i  ( xy cos   yy sin  ) j
Note  yx   xy . Now do the remaining vector operation for
 n to obtain:
r
r r  ( xx cos   xy sin  )i  r r
 n   x ' x '  t(n )  n  
  ( xy cos   yy sin  ) rj  
 cos i  sin  j 
 
  xx cos2   2 xy sin  cos   yy sin 2 
If we do this in matrix notion we obtain:
 xx  xy  cos 
 n  [n][ ][n]   cos sin     

 yx  yy   sin   (5.3)
  xx cos 2   2 xy sin  cos   yy sin 2 
The above is called the stress transformation equation (see

eq. 5.3 in the notes). The stress transformation transforms
stresses from an (x,y) coordinate system to an (x',y') system
where x' is rotated by an angle  CCW from the x-axis.
We can similarly show that the strain transformation is

given by:
r r r
n   x' x'  n    n
 [ n] [ ] [n]
(1x 2) (2 x 2) (2 x1)
The quantity  n is the component of strain in the direction
r
of a unit normal n .  n is often called the unit elongationr in
r
the n direction (just as  xx is the unit elongation in the i or
x-coordinate direction).
Notes:
1. Both [ ] and [ ] are second order tensors.
2. All second order tensors follow the same transformation

form in transforming from (x,y,z) to another orthogonal
coordinate system (x',y',z'), i.e.,
r r r
 n   x'x'  n   n
 [ n][ ][n]
and
r r r
n   x'x'  n    n
 [ n][ ][ n]
3. The same transformation applies to y’ y

moments of inertia of a cross-section
A (which is also a second order x’
tensor): 
x
I xx   y dA , I xy   xydA, I yy   x dA
2 2
A A A
With respect to the x'-y' coordinate
system at some angle , we have:
I x ' x '   ( y ') 2 dA
A
Can also get I x ' x ' by applying the coordinate transformation
r
to the x-y moments of inertia written as a matrix: ( n is unit
vector in x' direction):
 I xx I xy 
[I ]    , then I n  I x ' x '  [n][ I ][n]
 I yx I yy 

Chapter 8 - Stress, Strain and Deformation in Solids

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Chapter 8 - Stress, Strain and Deformation in Solids

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2001, W. E.

Haisler Chapter 8: Stress, Strain and Deformation in Solids 1

 Mechanical loads (forces,

1) mathematically precise approach and

x u(r) =displacement vector of point P

The last two terms represent the change (gradient) in

z Initial State of Body Deformed State

We will obtain identical expressions for the two line

contains two distinctive terms:

where [] is a 3x3 matrix given by:

ux(x) u (x) u (x+dx)

The strain now becomes

For small gradients, we assume that the squared terms are

As in the square root approximation made for xx (for the

u x ( x, y )  (0.38 x 2  1.31xy  0.045 y 2

u y ( x, y )  (0.25 x 2  1.62 xy  1.65 y 2

Determine the strains at point "A" which is located at x=4in,

u y ( x, y )  (0.25 x 2  1.62 xy  1.65 y 2

Comparing the two results, is it OK to assume small strains for

Last equation says that displacement of all points in y direction (

For 2-D, Cauchy's formula provided the following relation:

The expression  n  [n][ ][n] gives the component of stress,

The above is called the stress transformation equation (see

We can similarly show that the strain transformation is

2. All second order tensors follow the same transformation

3. The same transformation applies to y’ y

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