Modeling & Simulation 2018

Lecture 8. Bond graphs

Claudio Altafini
Automatic Control, ISY
Linköping University, Sweden
Summary of lecture 7

• General modeling principles

• Physical modeling: dimension, dimensionless quantities, scaling
• Models from physical laws across different domains
• Analogies among physical domains
Lecture 8. Bond graphs

Summary of today
• Analogies among physical domains
• Bond graphs

In the book: Chapter 5 & 6

Basic physics laws: a survey

Electrical circuits
Hydraulics

Mechanics – translational
Thermal systems

Mechanics – rotational
Electrical circuits

Basic quantities:
• Current i(t) (ampere)
• Voltage u(t) (volt)

• Power P (t) = u(t) · i(t)

Electrical circuits

Basic laws relating i(t) and u(t)

• inductance
Z t
d 1
L i(t) = u(t) ⇐⇒ i(t) = u(s)ds
dt L 0

• capacitance
Z t
d 1
C u(t) = i(t) ⇐⇒ u(t) = i(s)ds
dt C 0

• resistance (linear case)

u(t) = Ri(t)
Electrical circuits

Energy storage laws for i(t) and u(t)

• electromagnetic energy
1 2
T (t) = Li (t)
2
• electric field energy
1 2
T (t) = Cu (t)
2
• energy loss in a resistance
Z t Z t Z t Z t
2 1
T (t) = P (s)ds = u(s)i(s)ds = R i (s)ds = u2 (s)ds
0 0 0 R 0
Electrical circuits

Interconnection laws for i(t) and u(t)

• Kirchhoff law for voltages
On a loop:
(
X +1, σk aligned with loop direction
σk uk (t) = 0, σk =
k
−1, σk against loop direction

• Kirchhoff law for currents

On a node:
(
X +1, σk inward
σk ik (t) = 0, σk =
k
−1, σk outward
Electrical circuits
Transformations laws for u(t) and i(t)
• transformer

u1 = ru2
1
i1 = i2
r
u1 i1 = u2 i2 ⇒ no power loss

• gyrator

u1 = ri2
1
i1 = u2
r
u1 i1 = u2 i2 ⇒ no power loss
Electrical circuits
Example

State space model:

d 1
i = (us − Ri − uC )
dt L
d 1
uC = i
dt C
Mechanical – translational

Basic quantities:
• Velocity v(t) (meters per second)
• Force F (t) (newton)

• Power P (t) = F (t) · v(t)

Mechanical – translational
Basic laws relating F (t) and v(t)
• Newton second law
Z t
d 1
m v(t) = F (t) ⇐⇒ v(t) = F (s)ds
dt m 0

• Hook’s law (elastic bodies, e.g. spring)

Z t
1 d
F (t) = v(t) ⇐⇒ F (t) = k v(s)ds
k dt 0

• viscosity (e.g. dry friction)

F (t) = bv(t)
Mechanical – translational

Energy storage laws for F (t) and v(t)

• kinetic energy
1
T (t) = mv 2 (t)
2
• potential energy
1 2
T (t) = F (t)
2k
• energy loss due to friction
Z t Z t Z t Z t
2 1
T (t) = P (s)ds = F (s)v(s)ds = b v (s)ds = F 2 (s)ds
0 0 0 b 0
Mechanical – translational
Interconnection laws for F (t) and v(t)
• sum of forces; same velocity (series connection)

F = F1 + F2
v1 = v2

• sum of velocities; same force (parallel connection)

F1 = F2
v = v1 + v2
Mechanical – translational

Transformations laws for F (t) and v(t)

• levers

`2
F1 = − F2
`1
`1
v1 = − v2
`2
• pulleys

1
F1 = F2
2
1
v1 = − v2
2
Mechanical – rotational

Basic quantities:
• Angular Velocity ω(t) (radians per second)
• Torque M (t) (newton · meter)

• Power P (t) = M (t) · ω(t)

Mechanical – rotational
Basic laws relating M (t) and ω(t)
• Newton second law
Z t
d 1
J ω(t) = M (t) ⇐⇒ ω(t) = M (s)ds
dt J 0

• torsion of a body
Z t
1 d
M (t) = ω(t) ⇐⇒ M (t) = k ω(s)ds
k dt 0

• rotational friction (typically nonlinear)

M (t) = h(ω(t))
Mechanical – rotational

Energy storage laws for M (t) and ω(t)

• rotational energy
1 2
T (t) = Jω (t)
2
• torsional energy
1 2
T (t) = M (t)
2k
• energy loss due to rotational friction
Z t Z t
T (t) = P (s)ds = M (s)ω(s)ds
0 0
Mechanical – rotational
Interconnection laws for M (t) and ω(t)
• sum of torques; same angular velocity (series connection)

M = M1 + M2
ω1 = ω2

• sum of velocities; same force (parallel connection)

M1 = M2
ω = ω1 + ω2
Mechanical – rotational
Transformations laws for M (t) and ω(t)
• gears

M1 = rM2
1
ω1 = − ω2
r

• “gyrator”

My = rωz
1
ωy = − Mz
r
Flow system

Basic quantities:
• Flow Q(t) (cubic meters per second)
• Pressure p(t) (newton per square meter)

• Power P (t) = p(t) · Q(t)

Flow system
Basic laws relating p(t) and Q(t)
• Newton second law
Z t
ρ` d 1
Q(t) = p(t) ⇐⇒ Q(t) = p(s)ds
A dt
|{z} Lf 0
Lf =inertance

• pressure of a liquid column

Z t
A d 1
p(t) = Q(t) ⇐⇒ p(t) = Q(s)ds
ρg dt Cf 0
|{z}
Cf =capacitance

• flow resistance (laminar flow)

p(t) = Rf Q(t)
|{z}
flow resistance
Flow system

Energy storage laws for p(t) and Q(t)

• kinetic energy (fluid in a tube)

1
T (t) = Lf Q2 (t)
2
• potential energy (fluid in a tank)

1
T (t) = Cf p2 (t)
2
• energy loss due to flow resistance
Z t Z t
T (t) = P (s)ds = p(s)Q(s)ds
0 0
Flow system
Interconnection laws for p(t) and Q(t)
• series connection

p = p1 + p2
Q1 = Q2

• parallel connection

p1 = p2
Q = Q1 + Q2
Flow system

Transformations laws for p(t) and Q(t)

• flow transformer

p1 = rp2
1
Q1 = Q2
r
where r = A2 /A1
 Analogies among physical domains

Electrical Mechanical Mechanical Hydraulic Thermal

translational rotational
flow current velocity angular volume heat flow
velocity flow
effort voltage force torque pressure temperature
power power power power power power ·
temperature
inductive coil inertia moment of inertia of −−
element inertia fluid
capacitive capacitor spring torsional tank heat
element spring storage
resistive resistance friction friction friction thermal
element resistance
transformer transformer lever gears transducer −−
gyrator gyrator −− gyro −− −−
Conversions among domains

• Mechanical (translational) – Hydraulics

transformer:

1
p= F
A
Q=Av
• Mechanical (rotational) – Electrical

gyrator:

M =ki
1
ω= u
k
Analogies among physical domains

• two "power" variables

1. flow 
f = i, v, ω, Q, q
2. effort 
e = u, F, M, p, T

• their product: power


e·f = u · i, F · v, M · ω, p · Q, T ·q
Analogies, cont’d

• three energy "exchange" relationships

1. inductance =⇒ effort storage
Z t
df 1 1
= e =⇒ f (t) = e(s)ds
dt α α 0

2. capacitance =⇒ flow storage

Z t
de 1 1
= f =⇒ e(t) = f (s)ds
dt β β 0

3. resistance =⇒ loss of energy

e = γf (possibly nonlinear: e = h(f ))

Bond graphs

Bond graph theory: an exchange of energy is a bond

e
−−−*
f

• line = connection between parts of the system

• above the line (harpoon side): effort
• below the line: flow
• direction of half arrow = direction of energy flow
(i.e., direction in which power p = e · f is positive)

u F M p T
−−* −−−* −−−* −−−* −−*
i v ω Q q
Bond graphs for energy exchanges

• bond graph for effort storage: I-type element

Z t
1 e
f (t) = e(s)ds ⇐⇒ −−−* I : α
α 0 f

• bond graph for flow storage: C-type element

Z t
1 e
e(t) = f (s)ds ⇐⇒ −−−* C : β
β 0 f

• bond graph for resistive elements: R-type element

e
e(t) = γ f (t) ⇐⇒ −−−* R : γ
f
Bond graphs for sources

• bond graph for effort source

e 
Se −−−−* system ]
f

• bond graph for flow source

e 
Sf −−−−* system ]
f
Bond graphs for junctions

bond graph for series connection: s - junction

e2 f2
....
...
e1 .......
.
......
s
f1 ...
....

en fn

f1 = f2 = . . . = fn =⇒ common flow
e1 + e2 + . . . + en = 0
outgoing harpoon at ej : change sign to ej in the summation
Bond graphs for junctions

bond graph for parallel connection: p - junction

e2 f2
....
...
.
e1 ......
....... p
f1 ..
...
...

en fn

e1 = e2 = . . . = en =⇒ common effort
f1 + f2 + . . . + fn = 0
outgoing harpoon at fj : change sign to fj in the summation
Bond graphs for transformer and gyrators

• bond graph for transformer: T F - junction

e e
−−−1−* TF −−−2−*
f1 f2

1
e2 = ne1 , f2 = f1
n
• bond graph for gyrator: GY - junction
e e
−−−1−* GY −−−2−*
f1 f2

1
e2 = rf1 , f2 = e1
r
Both conserve power
Bond graphs and ports

Edges (bonds) of the bond graph are connecting points (or ports) of the
system. The number of ports can be
• one port: Se , Sf , C, I, R
• two ports: T F , GY
• multiport: s-junction, p-junction
Example: electrical circuit / hydraulic system
Example: electrical circuit
Example: electrical circuit
Example: an hydraulic system
Example: an hydraulic system
State space description

Is it possible to obtain a state space description out of a bond graph?

Information flow in a state space model

ẋ = f (x, u)

• for given x och u it is possible to compute ẋ?

• in a bond graph: causality marking

Information flow

Information flow for bond graphs of C , I, and Se , Sf types:

| {z }
integral causality
Causality
Causal strokes
• “A sets e and B sets f ” (i.e., A is of C and Se types)

• “B sets e and A sets f ” (i.e., A is of I and Sf types)

Causality, cont’d

• Bond graphs with fixed causality strokes:

1. sources

2. C and I type

3. transformers

4. gyrators
Causality, cont’d
• Causality at junctions
1. s-junctions

2. p-junctions
Causality, cont’d

• Elements with free causality

1. R-type
– e can be computed from a given f
– f can be computed from a given e
– certain nonlinearities may constitute an exception

e = φ(f ) f = φ−1 (e)

Bond graphs

Meaning of bond graphs:

• describes various physical domains in the same way
• expresses simple addition rules for effort and flow variables
• illustrates the structure of a system from its components
• translates physical laws into graphical interactions
• formalism prone to object-oriented programming
Claudio Altafini
www.liu.se