Convection Heat Transfer

Laminar Boundary Layer Flow

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 1 Mechanical Engineering

 2.1 Fundamental Problem in Convective Heat Transfer

U ¥ , T¥ , P¥ U¥ T¥

u
u
y
u ( x, y )
dt
d
x t
T0 ( > T¥ )
L q& ¢¢
Fig. 2.1 Velocity and temperature boundary layers near a plate parallel to a uniform flow

Questions:
1. The net resistive force exerted by the stream on the plate (F)
2. The resistance to heat transfer from the plate to the stream (Q)

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 2 Mechanical Engineering

 2.1 Fundamental Problem in Convective Heat Transfer

Force (F) & Heat Transfer (Q& )

t & q& ¢¢

æ ¶u ö æ ¶T ö
ç ÷ & ç ÷
è ¶y ø@ y =0 è ¶y ø@ y =0

Velocity & Temperature in the vicinity of

the solid wall

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 3 Mechanical Engineering

 2.1 Fundamental Problem in Convective Heat Transfer

☞ Total (resistive) force, F

L
F = ò t × W dx (2.1)
0
&
Total heat transfer rate, Q&
& L
Q = ò q& ¢¢ × W dx (2.2)
o

where, t º skin friction

æ ¶u ö Momentum (ru)
= mç ÷ m2×sec (2.3)
è ¶y ø@ y =0
q& ¢¢ º wall heat flux Thermal energy (rCPT)
= h (To - T¥ ) m2×sec (2.4)

W º the width of the flat plate in the direction perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 2.1

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 4 Mechanical Engineering

 2.1 Fundamental Problem in Convective Heat Transfer

§ Momentum Flux § Heat Flux

(
Momentum Diffusion ~ D Momentum / m3 ) (
Thermal Energy Diffusion ~ D Energy / m3 )
1 1
~ ^ ~
Dy Dy

r
D ( ru ) D ( r CT )
t =n q& ¢¢ = a
Dy Dy
r
m D (u ) k D (T )
= ×r× = × rC ×
r Dy rC Dy
r
D (u ) D (T )
= m× =k×
Dy Dy

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 5 Mechanical Engineering

 2.1 Fundamental Problem in Convective Heat Transfer

☞ “No-slip hypothesis” up to y = 0+ > 0

imaginary

motionless fluid layer

heat transfer from the wall to the fluid is first by “CONDUCTION”

called, “PURE CONDUCTION” layer

æ ¶T ö
q& = - k f ç
¢¢ ÷ (2.5)
è ¶y ø@ y = 0

Combining Eqs. (2.4) & (2.5), æ ¶T ö

h (To - T¥ ) = - k f ç ÷
è ¶y ø@ y = 0
æ ¶T ö
kf ç ÷
è ¶y ø@ y = 0
\ h=- (2.6)
To - T¥

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 6 Mechanical Engineering

 2.1 Fundamental Problem in Convective Heat Transfer

Assuming steady-state, incompressible, 2-D, constant properties, and no generation terms

¶u ¶u (2.7)
+ =0
¶x ¶y

¶u ¶u 1 ¶P æ ¶ 2u ¶ 2u ö (2.8)
u +u =- +n ç 2 + 2 ÷
¶x ¶y r ¶x è ¶x ¶y ø

¶u ¶u 1 ¶P æ ¶ 2u ¶ 2u ö (2.9)
u +u =- +n ç 2 + 2 ÷
¶x ¶y r ¶y è ¶x ¶y ø

¶T ¶T æ ¶ 2T ¶ 2T ö (2.10)
u +u =aç 2 + 2 ÷
¶x ¶y è ¶x ¶y ø

Four unknowns: u , u , P, T

Boundary conditions: u = 0, u = 0, T = T0 @ the solid wall

(2.11)
u = U ¥ , u = 0, T = T¥ infinitely far from the solid
in both x & y directions

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 7 Mechanical Engineering

 2.2 Concept of Boundary Layer

In the free stream,

u = U ¥ , u = 0, P = P¥ , T = T¥ (2.12)

Let d be the flow boundary thickness,

x : L, y : d , u : U¥ (2.13)

In the d ´ L region,
¶u ¶u 1 ¶P æ ¶ 2u ¶ 2u ö
u +u =- +n ç 2 + 2 ÷ (2.14)
¶x ¶y r ¶x è ¶x ¶y ø
U¥ U¥ P U¥ U¥
U¥ u n n
L d rL L2 d2
From the mass conservation Eq.,

¶u ¶u (2.7)
+ =0
¶x ¶y
U¥ u
: (2.15)
L d

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 8 Mechanical Engineering

 2.2 Concept of Boundary Layer

Governing equations of the boundary layer at the undergraduate level

Assumptions : i) Steady-state
ii) Laminar
iii) Incompressible
iv) 2-Dimensional
v) Constant properties
vi) Negligible body forces
vii) No heat generation
viii) In boundary layer thickness, additional assumptions:
u >> u ù
¶u ¶u ¶u ¶u ú velocity boundary layer
>> , , ú
¶y ¶x ¶y ¶x úû
¶T ¶T ù
>> ú thermal boundary layer
¶y ¶x û

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 9 Mechanical Engineering

 2.2 Concept of Boundary Layer

If the boundary layer region d ´ L is “SLENDER”(@ the GRADUATE level),

d = L (2.16)

Then,
U¥ U¥ ¶u ¶u 1 ¶P æ ¶ 2u ¶ 2u ö
n = n u +u =- + n ç 2 + 2 ÷ (2.14)
L2 d2 ¶x ¶y r ¶x è ¶x ¶y ø
U U
n 2¥ n ¥2
Therefore, the x-momentum Eq. becomes L d

¶u ¶u 1 ¶P ¶ 2u (2.17)
u +u =- +n 2
¶x ¶y r ¶x ¶y

In a similar way, the y-momentum Eq. reduces to

¶u ¶u 1 ¶P ¶ 2u
u +u =- +n 2 (2.18)
¶x ¶y r ¶y ¶y

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 10 Mechanical Engineering

 2.2 Concept of Boundary Layer

In general, P = P ( x, y )
¶P ¶P
dP = dx + dy (2.19)
¶x ¶y
dP ¶P ¶P dy (2.20)
⇒ = +
dx ¶x ¶y dx
¶u ¶u 1 ¶P ¶ 2u ¶u ¶u 1 ¶P ¶ 2u
In both Eqs. (2.17) & (2.18) u +u =- +n 2 u +u =- +n 2
¶x ¶y r ¶x ¶y ¶x ¶y r ¶y ¶y

¶P U¥
: m 2
(2.21)
¶x d
¶P u
: m U¥ u (2.22)
¶y d2 ∵ Mass continuity, Eq. (2.15)
L
:
d
u
⇒
( ¶y ) ( dx )
¶P × dy
:
m
d2 ×d :
u d
×
æd ö
: ç ÷
2

= 1 (2.23)
¶P U¥ L U¥ L èLø
m
¶x d2

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 11 Mechanical Engineering

 2.2 Concept of Boundary Layer

Therefore, from Eq. (2.20)

¶P dP
= (2.24)
¶x dx

⇒ Pressure is almost a function of x only.

The pressure inside the boundary layer region is practically the same as the pressure
immediately outside it.

Coinciding with the assumption of slender boundary layer thickness

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 12 Mechanical Engineering

 2.2 Concept of Boundary Layer

We finally obtain the following x-momentum equation.

¶u ¶u 1 ¶P¥ ( x ) ¶ 2u (2.26)
u +u =- +n 2
¶x ¶y r ¶x ¶y

“the Boundary Layer Equation for Momentum”

¶T ¶T æ ¶ 2T ¶ 2T ö
The boundary layer equation for energy from Eq. (2.10) u
¶x
+u
¶y
=aç 2 + 2 ÷
è ¶x ¶y ø
by neglecting (NET) thermal diffusion in the x-direction. Þ Pe ? 1

¶T ¶T ¶ 2T
u +u =a 2 (2.27)
¶x ¶y ¶y

Three unknowns: u, u , & T

Three equations: Eqs. (2.7), (2.26), & (2.27)
vs.
Four equations & Four unknowns

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 13 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers

Referring to d and dt as the velocity boundary layer thickness and the thermal boundary layer
thickness, respectively
æ ¶u ö
t = mç ÷ (2.3)
è ¶y ø@ y =0
In scaling terms,
U
t : m ¥ (2.28)
d
Consider a simplest free stream with uniform/constant pressure P¥ and from Eq. (2.26)

¶u ¶u 1 ¶P¥ ( x ) ¶ 2u (2.26)
u +u =- +n 2
¶x ¶y r ¶x ¶y
Inertia Friction

U ¥2 uU ¥ U¥
, : n (2.29)
L d d2
1
2
æn L ö d -1
\ d : ç ÷ or : Re L 2 (2.30)(2.31)
U
è ¥ø L

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 14 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers

From Eq. (2.28)

U¥
t : m (2.28)
d
U¥ L U
: m × : m ¥ × Re1L 2
L d L
: rU ¥2 Re -L1 2 (2.32)

t
\ 2
: Re -L1 2
rU ¥

Therefore, Cf º the dimensionless skin friction coefficient

Flow Resistance t
Cf º =
Inertia (Driving Force) 1 rU 2
¥
2

Cf : Re -L1 2 (2.33)

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 15 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers

Recalling the definition of the convection heat transfer coefficient h in Eq. (2.6)
æ ¶T ö
-k f ç ÷
è ¶y ø@ y = 0
\ h= (2.6)
T0 - T¥
By scaling analysis,
k f æç DT ö÷ kf
h : è dT ø : (2.34)
DT dT
From Eq. (2.27), a balance between conduction from the wall into the stream and
convection (i.e., enthalpy flow) parallel to the wall:
¶T ¶T ¶ 2T (2.27)
u +u =a 2
¶x ¶y ¶y
convection ~ conduction
DT DT DT (2.35)
u , u : a 2
L dT d T

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 16 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers

dt scale
n
1. Thick thermal boundary layer, dt ≫ d ; ® Pr =
a
= 1

The u scale outside the velocity boundary layer & inside the dt layer = U¥
U¥ u
From the continuity Eq. (2.15), :
L d

¶T ¶T ¶ 2T d dT
u
¶x
+u
¶y
=a 2
¶y u : U¥ d
L
In Eq. (2.35),
DT DT d
u : U¥ (2.36)
dT L dT
Comparing 1st & 2nd terms Eq. (2.35), u
DT
, u
DT
: a
DT
(2.35)
L dT d T2
DT DT
u vs. u
L dT
Velocity varies only Q d ? d ® u ~ U¥
t
within the velocity boundary layer.
DT DT d
⇒ U¥ vs. U ¥
L L dT

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 17 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers

In conclusion,
DT DT
U¥ : a 2 From Eq. (2.35), u
DT
, u
DT
: a
DT
L d L dT d T2
T

d T2 a
⇒ :
L2 LU ¥
n a
: ×
(2.35) LU ¥ n
: Re -L1 Pr -1 : Pe -L1

dT
\ : Pe -L1 2 : Re -L1 2 Pr -1 2 (2.37)
L
for FORCED CONVECTION
n æd ö
with Pr = = 1 ç = 1÷
dT
a è dT ø
d

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 18 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers

Comparing Eq. (2.37) with Eq. (2.31),

dT
: Re -L1 2 Pr -1 2 (2.37)
L
dT
d d
: Re -L1 2 (2.31)
L
dT
⇒ : Pr -1 2 ? 1 (2.38)
d
or
Pr = 1 (Liquid Metal)

kf kf
h : : Re1L 2 Pr1 2 (2.39)
dT L

& only if only Pr = 1

hL
Nu : : Re1L 2 Pr1 2 (2.40)
kf

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 19 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers
u dT
2. Thin thermal boundary layer, d ≫ dt ; : @ the undergraduate level
U¥ d

inferring that Pr ≫ 1
d
dT
The scale of u in the dt layer,
dT
Linear assumption of velocity profiles u : U¥ (2.41)
d
From Eq. (2.35)
DT DT DT (2.35)
u , u : a 2
L dT d T

1 1
⇒ cf ) u ~ U u : a
¥ inside the TBL L d T2
for d t ? d
U ¥ dT 1
⇒ × : a
L d d T2
d T3 d a d a
⇒ : × : ×
L3 L2 U ¥ L LU ¥

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 20 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers
d T3 d a d a
: × : ×
From Eq. (2.31) L3 L2 U ¥ L LU ¥ d -1
3
: Re L 2

d n a L
T
3
: Re -L1 2 × ×
L LU ¥ n d T3 d a
3 3
: ×
L L LU ¥
æ dT ö
⇒ : -3 2 -1
ç ÷ Re L × Pr
èL ø
Therefore,
dT d
: Re -L1/2 × Pr -1/3 L
-1
: Re L 2
(2.42)
L æ dT ö
ç : Re -L1 2 Pr -1 2 for d t ? d , Pr ? 1÷
& èL ø
dT
: Pr -1/3 = 1 Pr ? 1 (2.43)
d æ dT ö
ç : Pr -1 2 ? 1 for Pr ? 1÷
èd ø
kf kf (2.44)
dT
d h : : Re1L 2 Pr1 3
dT L
& only if only Pr ? 1
hL
Nu : : Re1L 2 Pr1 3 (2.45)
kf æ hL ö
çç Nu : : Re1L 2 Pr1 2 for Pr = 1÷
÷
è kf ø

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 21 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers

Reynolds Number
U¥L
The definition of the “Reynolds number”, Re = can be made only if there exists
n
a balance between inertia & friction. The only physical interpolation of the Reynolds
number in the boundary layer (= viscous resistance layer) flow,

Wall Length
Re1/2
L =
B. L. Thickness

d -1
Check back Eq. (2.31) : Re L 2
L
“Geometric Parameter” of the flow region

æ Inertia Driving ö
“the Slenderness Ratio” ç Re = ÷
è Viscous Resistance ø

Laminar vs. Turbulent flows

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 22 Mechanical Engineering

 2.3 Velocity & Thermal Boundary Layers

From Eq. (2.30) 1

2
æn L ö
d : ç ÷ (2.30)
U
è ¥ø

⇒ d : L1/2

Along the wall, (0 < x < L)

d : x1/2
(O)
(X)

Infinite slope at the tip

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 23 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

Looking back Eqs. (2.3) & (2.6),

æ ¶u ö (2.3)
t = mç ÷
è ¶y ø@ y =0
æ ¶T ö
-k f ç ÷
è ¶y ø@ y =0
\ h= (2.6)
T0 - T¥

From Eqs. (2.32), (2.39) & (2.44),

t : rU ¥2 Re -L1 2 Þ Cf : Re -L1 2 (2.32)

kf
h : Re1L 2 Pr1 2 only if Pr = 1 (2.39)
L
kf
h : Re1L 2 Pr1 3 only if Pr ? 1 (2.44)
L

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 24 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

⇒ t & h : L-1/2

t, h

∴ The skin friction & heat flux are more intense near the leading edge of the flat plate.

From Eqs. (2.3) & (2.6), we are more interested in the gradient of u & T at the wall.

⇒ ∴ The y > 0 variation of u & T is less important to evaluate t & h.

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 25 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions
y

Y max(d , d T )
Path of Integration

0 x
0
MY
dm&
Why integrating ?
P¥ P¥ + dP¥

Mx M x + dx
m& m& + dm&

t dx
x x + dx
Fig. 2.3 Derivation of the integral boundary layer equations: force balance on a control volume of height Y and thickness dx.

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 26 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

Simplifying Eqs. (2.26) & (2.27) by eliminating y as a variable,

¶u ¶u 1 ¶P¥ ( x ) ¶ 2u (2.26)
u +u =- +n 2
¶x ¶y r ¶x ¶y
LHS of Eq. (2.26) can be rewritten, Assumptions ?

æ ¶u ¶u ö ¶u ¶u
uç + ÷ + u + u
è ¶ x ¶ y ø ¶x ¶y
¶u ¶u ¶u ¶u
=u +u +u +u
¶x ¶y ¶x ¶y
¶ ¶
= ( u 2 ) + ( uu )
¶x ¶y
Therefore,
¶ 2 ¶ 1 ¶P¥ ( x ) ¶ 2u
¶x
( u ) + ( uu ) = -
¶y r ¶x
+n 2
¶y
(2.47)

&
¶T ¶T ¶ 2T (2.27)
u +u =a 2
¶x ¶y ¶y

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 27 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

LHS of Eq. (2.27) can be rewritten,

¶T ¶T æ ¶u ¶u ö
u +u +T ç + ÷
¶x ¶y ¶ 2T
è ¶x ¶y ø u
¶T
¶x
+u
¶T
¶y
=a 2
¶y
(2.27)

¶u ¶T ¶u ¶T
=T +u +T +u
¶x ¶x ¶y ¶y
¶ ¶
= ( uT ) + (uT )
¶x ¶y
Therefore,
¶ ¶ ¶ 2T
( uT ) + (uT ) = a 2 (2.48)
¶x ¶y ¶y
Integrating Eqs. (2.47) & (2.48) from y = 0 to y = Y, using Leibnitz’s integral formula,
Y > max (d , d T ) d u( )
x du du u ( ) ¶f ( x, t )
x
ò f ( x, t ) dt = f ( x,u ( x ) ) - f ( x, u ( x ) ) + ò dt
dx ( )
u x dx dx ( )
u x ¶x

Y é¶ 2 ¶ 1 dP¥ ( x ) ¶ 2u ù
ò ê ( u ) + ( uu ) = - + n 2 ú dy
o
ë ¶x ¶y r dx ¶y û
d Y 2 1 dP¥ æ ¶u ö æ ¶u ö
⇒ dx òo
( )
u dy + u u
Y Y - u u
0 0 = -
r dx
Y + n ç ÷ - n ç ÷ (2.49)
è ¶y øY è ¶y ø0

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 28 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

Y é ¶T ¶T ¶ 2T ù
ò o êu ¶x + u ¶y = a ¶y 2 ú dy
ë û
d Y æ ¶T ö æ ¶T ö
⇒ uT dy + u T - u T = a - a
dx òo
Y Y 0 0 ç ÷ ç ÷ (2.50)
è ¶y øY è ¶y ø0
Since the free stream is uniform,
¶
= 0, uY = U ¥ , & TY = T¥
¶y @ y =Y
&
u0 = 0 (∵ The wall is impermeable.)
Performing the same integral on the CONTINUITY Eq. (2.7),
Y é ¶u ¶u ù Y
ò +
ê ¶x ¶y ú dy = ò 0 dy
o o
ë û
d Y
⇒ dx òo
u dy + uY - u0 = 0 (2.51)

d Y
⇒ uY = - ò u dy
dx o
+ or - (2.51*)

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 29 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

Substituting uY into Eqs. (2.49) & (2.50) and assuming T¥ = T¥ ( x )

d Y d Y 2 1 dP¥ æ ¶u ö æ ¶u ö d Y æ ¶T ö æ ¶T ö
uY = -
dx òo
u dy
ò ( u ) dy + uYuY - u0u0 = - Y + n ç ÷ -n ç ÷ ò
dx o
uT dy + uY TY - u0T0 = a ç ÷ -a ç ÷
dx o r dx è ¶y øY è ¶y ø0 è ¶y øY è ¶y ø0

d Y 2 æ d Y ö 1 dP¥ æ ¶u ö
dx òo
( )
u dy + U ¥ç - ò
è dx o
u dy ÷ = -
r dx
Y - n ç ÷
æ æ ¶u ö ö
ççQ ç ÷ = 0 ÷÷
è è ¶y øY
ø è ¶y ø0 ø

d Y 2 d Y 1 dP¥ æ ¶u ö
⇒ - ò ( u ) dy + U ¥ × ò u dy = Y +n ç ÷
dx o dx o r dx è ¶y ø0
Integrating the 2nd term on the left-hand side above by parts,
d
dx{ ( ò u dy )} = dUdx × ( ò u dy ) + U × dxd ( ò u dy )
U¥ ×
Y

0
¥
Y

o ¥ 0
Y

d Y 2 d Y dU ¥ Y 1 dP¥ æ ¶u ö
- ò ( u ) dy + ò U ¥ u dy - × ò u dy = Y +n ç ÷
dx o dx o dx o r dx è ¶y øo

d Y 1 dP¥ dU ¥ Y æ ¶u ö
⇒ ( ¥ )
U - u u dy = Y + × u dy + n
dx òo dx òo
ç ÷ (2.52)
r dx è ¶y øo

“Integral Boundary Layer Equation for Momentum”

What about y-momentum ?
Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 30 Mechanical Engineering
 2.4 Integral Solutions
d Y æ ¶T ö æ ¶T ö
uT dy + uY TY - u0T0 = a ç ÷ -a ç
dx òo
÷
è ¶y øY è ¶y ø0 d Y æ ¶T ö æ ¶T ö d Y
uT dy + u T - u T = a - a
dx òo
Q TY = T¥ & uY = - u dy
ç ÷ ç ÷ dx òo
d Y Y Y 0 0
uY = - ò u dy
dx o è ¶y øY è ¶y ø0
d Y æ d Y ö æ ¶T ö
⇒ dx òo
uT dy + ç - ò
è dx o
u dy ×
÷ ¥
ø
T = -a ç
¶y
÷
è ø0
d Y d æ ¶T ö
⇒ - ò uT dy + T¥ ×
dx o dx (ò Y

o )
u dy = a ç
è ¶y
÷
ø0
Integrating the 2nd term on the left-hand side above by parts,
d Y d dT¥ Y æ ¶T ö
⇒ -
dx òo
uT dy +
dx (òo
Y
uT¥ dy -) × ò u dy = a ç
dx o
÷
è ¶y ø0
Rearranging the equation above,

d Y dT¥ Y æ ¶T ö
(¥ )
T - T u dy = × u dy + a
dx òo dx òo
ç ÷ (2.53)
è ¶y ø0

“Integral Boundary Layer Equation for Energy”

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 31 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions
y
y n=
d

U¥
d 1

0 u 0 m
0 0 1
Figure 2.4 (a) velocity profile for integral boundary layer analysis

y
y p=
dT

dT 1

0 T m 0
0 T¥ To 1 0
Figure 2.4 (b) temperature profile for integral boundary layer analysis

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 32 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

For the uniform flow (U¥, P¥ = constant) with the assumption of

u -Uo U -u ìïU ¥ × m ( n ) 0 £ n £1
= o = m( n) u=í (2.54)
U¥ -Uo Uo -U¥
ïîU ¥ n >1
Non-dimensional velocity (profile)
or Relative velocity variation/magnitude Profile shape
where, m º an unspecified shape function, varying from 0 to 1
n= y d Þ y = nd Non-dimensional length scale for velocity

Why ?

Assuming the temperature profile shapes,

T - To T -T ìïTo - T = (To - T¥ ) × m ( p ) 0 £ p £1
= o = m( p ) í (2.58)
T¥ - To To - T¥
ïîT = T¥ p >1
Non-dimensional temperature (profile)
or Relative temperature variation/magnitude with p = y d T Non-dimensional length scale for temperature

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 33 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions
d Y 1 dP¥ dU ¥ Y æ ¶u ö
Momentum boundary layer thickness, d dx òo
(U ¥ - u ) u dy =
r dx
Y+
dx ò
o
u dy + n ç ÷ (2.52)
è ¶y øo
Substituting the assumption (2.54) into Eq. (2.52), o £ y £ Y Þ o £ y £ d Þ o £ nd £ d Þ o £ n £ 1
d d æ ¶u ö u -Uo U -u
(U ¥ - u ) u d ( nd ) = n ç ÷
dx òo
Additional Assumptions ? = o = m(n) (2.54)
U¥ -Uo Uo -U¥
è ¶y øo
d d æ ¶ (U ¥ m ) ö
⇒ (U ¥ - U ¥ m )U ¥ m d ( nd ) = n çç
dx òo
÷÷
è ( ) øn =0
¶ nd
d d n æ dm ö
⇒ U¥ (1 - m ) m d ( nd ) =
dx òo d çè dn ÷øn =0
dd é 1 ù = n æ dm ö
⇒ U¥ (1 - m ) m dn
dx êë òo úû d çè dn ÷ø n =0

dd é 1 ù n æ dm ö
⇒ d (1 - m ) m dn =
dx ëê òo
d : x : f ( x)
ûú U ¥ çè dn ÷ø n =0
dd n æ dm ö é 1 (1 - m ) m dn ù
⇒ d = ç ÷
dx U ¥ è dn ø n =0 êë òo úû ºg

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 34 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions
d dd = g dx
1 2
⇒ 2
d = g dx
æ dm ö
2 2ç ÷
⇒ æd ö è dn ø n =0 n
ç ÷ =
èxø
1
×
xU ¥ = Re -x 1
ò m (1 - m ) dn
0
1
é æ dm ö ù 2
2ç ÷
æ d ö ê è dn ø n =0 úú
ê
⇒ \ ç ÷= 1 × Re -x1 2
è x ø ê m (1 - m ) dn ú
ê ò0 ú
ë û
Comparing with Eq. (2.31), æd ö
\ ç ÷ : Re -x1 2 (2.31)
èxø
= a1 × Re -x1 2 (2.56)
1
2
é æ dm ö ù
ê 2 ç dn ÷ ú
where, a1 = ê è øn =0
1 ú
ê ò0 m (1 - m ) dn ú
êë úû

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 35 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

æ ¶u ö
mç ÷
t è ¶y øo
C f ,x º =
1 2 1
rU ¥ rU ¥2
2 2 1
2
é æ dm ö ù
¶ ( mU ¥ ) ê 2ç
æ d ö ê è dn ø
÷ ú
m \ ç ÷= n =0
ú × Re -x1 2
¶ ( nd ) n =0
1
x
è ø ê m (1 - m ) dn ú
ê ò 0 ú
= ë û
1
rU ¥2
2
x n æ dm ö x -1 æ dm ö
=2 × ×ç ÷ = 2 × Re x ×ç ÷
d xU ¥ è dn øn =0 d è dn ø n =0
1
é 1 ù 2
ê ò m (1 - m ) dn ú dm ö
= 2ê 0 ú × Re -x1 2 × æç ÷
ê 2 æ dm ö ú è dn ø n =0
ê çè dn ÷ø ú
ë n =0 û

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 36 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

1
é æ dm ö 1 ù 2 -1 2
C f ,x = ê2 ç ÷ × ò0 m (1 - m ) dn ú × Re x (2.57)
ë è dn ø n =0 û

Comparing with Eq. (2.33),

\ Cf : Re -x1 2
= a2 (2.33)
-1 2
= a2 × Re x

1
2
é æ dm ö 1 ù
where, a2 = ê 2 ç ÷ × ò m (1 - m ) ú
dn
ë è dn ø n =0
0
û

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 37 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

Thermal boundary layer thickness, dT

Setting,
dT
=D A function of Pr #
d
&

Based on dT < d High Pr # fluids

∵ Assuming T¥ = constant

From Eq. (2.53),

d Y dT¥ Y æ ¶T ö
( T - T ) u dy = × u dy + a
dx òo dx òo
¥ ç ÷ (2.53)
è ¶y ø0

Dividing both sides of Eq. (2.53) by (T¥ - To ) ,

é (T - To ) ù
ê ¶
d Y (T¥ - T ) ( T¥ - To ) ú (**1)
ò u dy = a ê ú
dx (T¥ - To )
o
ê ¶y ú
êë úû y =0

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 38 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions
Here,
m(n), Non-dimensional velocity (profile) u = U¥m ( n) n, Non-dimensional length scale for velocity(**2-1)
&
(To - T ) = m p
( ) 0 £ p £1
( o ¥)
T - T
m(p), Non-dimensional temperature (profile) p, Non-dimensional length scale for temperature
(T¥ - T ) = 1 - m p
( ) 0 £ p £1 (**2-2)
(T¥ - To )
é (T - To ) ù
ê ¶
d Y (T¥ - T )
u dy = a
(T¥ - To ) ú (**1)
dx òo (T¥ - To )
ê ú
Substituting Eq. (**2) into Eq. (**1), ê ¶ y ú
êë úû y =0
d é dT ù ¶m ( p )
U ¥ m ( n ) × éë1 - m ( p ) ùû d ( pd T ) = a
dx êë òo úû ¶ ( pd T ) p =0

ddT é 1 ù a dm ( p )
U ¥ m ( n ) × éë1 - m ( p ) ùû dp =
dx êë òo úû d
T dp p =0
dm ( p ) 0£ y £Y Þ 0 £ y £ dT
a dp p =0 Þ 0 £ pd T £ d T Þ 0 £ p £1
dT ddT = dx
U ¥ é 1 m ( pD ) × é1 - m ( p ) ù dp ù Qn =
y dT y
êë òo
= × = D× p
ë û úû d d dT

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 39 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions
Setting, dm ( p )
dp p =0
ºb
é 1 m ( pD ) × é1 - m ( p ) ù dp ù
ëê òo ë û ûú
Integrating,
1 2 a ×x
dT = ×b
2 U¥

1 d T2 a n
2
= ×b
2x n U¥ x
2 2 2
n æ x ö 1 æxö 1 æd ö
=ç ÷ × × 2b = ç ÷ × × ç ÷ × 2b
a è d T ø Re x d
è ø Re x è dT ø

æd ö
From Eq. (2.56), -1 2
ç ÷ = a1 × Re x
èxø 2 2
æ 1 ö æxö 1
=
ç ÷ ç ÷ ×
è a1 ø è d ø Re x
Therefore,
n 1 1
= 2 × 2 × 2b
a a1 D

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 40 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

dm ( p )
n 1 p =0
dp
= 2
×2× 1
a ( a1D ) é m ( pD ) × é1 - m ( p ) ù dp ù
ò êë ë o û úû

Here,
n
= Pr
a

dm ( p )
2×
dp 1 -1
\ Pr = p =0
× ò m ( pD ) × éë1 - m ( p ) ùû dp ù
é (2.60)
( a1D )
2 êë o úû

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 41 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

Assuming the simplest temperature profile, m ( p ) = p (linear variation of temperature)

dm ( n ) dm ( pD )
2× 2×
dn n =0 d ( pD ) n = 0
a12 = 1
= 1
ò m ( n ) éë1 - m ( n ) ùû dn ò m ( pD ) éë1 - m ( pD )ùû d ( pD )
0 0

2 2 1
= 1
= 1
0 £ n £1 Þ 0 £ D× p £1 Þ 0 £ p £
D

ò p [1 - D × p ] dp
2 2
D ò D
m ( p ) éë1 - D × m ( p ) ùû dp D D
0 0

2
= = 12
1 1
6
dm ( p )
2×
dp 1 -1
\ Pr = p =0
× é ò m ( pD ) × éë1 - m ( p ) ùû dp ù
( a1D )
2 êë o úû
D
=
Therefore, 6

1 æ dT ö
\ Pr = where, ç D º
D3 è d ÷ø

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 42 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

For Pr ≫1 (i.e., d ≫dT) fluids (e.g., engine oil),

dT (2.43)
æd ö : Pr -1/3 = 1 Pr ? 1
\ ç ÷ : Re -x1 2 d
èxø By the scaling law !!!
= a1 × Re -x1 2
-3 3
1 1 æd ö dT æd ö
é æ dm ö
ê 2 ç dn ÷
ù 2
Pr = 3 = ç T ÷ Þ = Pr -1 3 or Pr = ç ÷ (2.61)
a1 = ê è øn =0
1
ú
ú D èd ø d è dT ø
ê ò m (1 - m ) dn ú By integral solution !!!
0
ëê ûú 1
é æ dm ö ù 2
2
p 2 ç ÷
æ d ö ê è dn ø n =0 úú
For a case of the cubic profile, e.g., m ( p ) = (3 - p ) \ ç ÷=ê 1
x
× Re -x1 2
2 è ø ê m (1 - m ) dn ú
ê ò0 ú
ë û
dT
D= = 0.976 Pr -1 3 (2.62)
d
kf kf
h= = 0.331 × × Pr1 3 × Re1x 2 (2.63)
dT x
hx (2.64)
Nu = = 0.331 × Pr1 3 × Re1x 2
kf

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 43 Mechanical Engineering

 2.4 Integral Solutions

Homework (Due 2 weeks later)

1. Show that in the case of liquid metal (D ≫1), we obtain

dm ( p )
2×
dp 1/ D 1 -1
Pr = p =0
× é ò m ( pD ) × éë1 - m ( p ) ùû dp + ò éë1 - m ( p ) ùû dp ù (2.65)
( a1D )
2 êë o 1/ D úû

2. Taking again the simplest profile m = p, we obtain

dT -1 2
D= = ( 3 × Pr ) ( Pr = 1) (2.66)
d

* PPT formatted solutions are preferred !!!

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 44 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

Blasius-Pohlhausen solutions for a flat plate

T¥
T¥ , U ¥
U¥

u ( x, 0) = 0
u ( x, 0) = 0
T ( x, 0) = To

Assumptions:
1. Steady state. ¶u ¶u
Continuity Eq.: + =0
2. Laminar flow. ¶x ¶y
3. Incompressible
4. 2-Dimensional ¶u ¶u ¶ 2u
5. Homogeneous media Momentum Eq.: u +u =v 2
¶x ¶y ¶y
6. Constant properties
7. No body force (Fx=Fy=0). ¶T ¶T ¶ 2T
8. No heat generation Energy Eq.: u +u =a 2
¶x ¶y ¶y
9. Negligible viscous dissipation

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 45 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

※ The Blasius-Pohlhausen solutions describe the y variation of the flow and temperature fields
in the boundary layer regions.
u
= function (h ) (2.70)
U¥
y
h= & d : x × Re -x1/2
d ( x)
Reference thickness in y-dir.

Two independent variables ⇒ Single independent variable

y (2.71)
h= × Re1/2
x
x

&
u df
º f ¢ (h ) = (2.70¢)
U¥ dh

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 46 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

※ The conservation of mass & momentum at every point in a P¥ = constant boundary layer:

¶u ¶u
+ =0 (2.72)
¶x ¶y
¶u ¶u ¶ 2u
u +u =n 2 (2.73)
¶x ¶y ¶y
▷ B.Cs.
u =u = 0 @ y=0 (2.74)

u ® U¥ as y®¥ (2.75)

Introducing a stream function, y ( x, y ) and from Eq. (2.72), (Option 1)

¶y ¶y (2.76)
u= , u=-
¶y ¶x
Substituting Eq. (2.76) into Eq. (2.73),
¶y ¶ 2y ¶y ¶ 2y ¶ 3y (2.77)
× - × =n
¶y ¶x¶y ¶x ¶y 2 ¶y 3

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 47 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions
Subject to
¶y (2.78)
=0, y =0 @ y =0
¶y
¶y
® ¥ as y ® ¥ (2.79)
¶y
From Eq. (2.76)
1/2
y = (U ¥ ×n × x ) × f (h ) (2.80)

¶y y u
º f ¢ (h ) =
df
cf) u= ® y = ò u dy + f ( x ) & f ( x ) = 0 (Qy = 0 @ y = 0 )
¶y 0 U¥ dh

y y ¶y y ¶h
y = ò0 u dy = ò0 U ¥ × f ¢ (h ) × dh & h= ® = U ¥ / (n x )
¶h n x U¥ ¶y

\ y = (U ×n × x ) × f (h )
¥

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 48 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

¶y ¶y ¶h 1/2 ¶y 1/2
u= = × & y = (U ¥ ×n × x ) × f (h ) → = (U ¥ ×n × x ) × f ¢ (h )
¶y ¶h ¶y ¶h
y ¶h
h= → = U ¥ / (n x ) = g ( x ) (BP.1)
n x U¥ ¶y

U¥
u= (n × x ×U ) × f ¢ (h ) ×
¥
® \ u = U ¥ f ¢ (h ) (BP.2)
nx
¶h h
= y × g¢( x ) = - (BP.3)
¶x 2x
2
¶ 2u ¶ æ ¶u ö ¶ 2u æ ¶h ö U¥
= ç ÷= ×ç ÷ = U ¥
× f ¢¢¢ (h ) ×
¶y 2 ¶y è ¶y ø ¶h 2 è ¶y ø nx
¶u ¶u ¶h æ h ö
= × = U ¥ × f ¢¢ (h ) × ç - ÷
¶x ¶h ¶x è 2x ø
¶u ¶u ¶h U¥
= × = U ¥ × f ¢¢ (h ) ×
¶y ¶h ¶y nx

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 49 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions
¶y U ¥n ¶f
u=- =- × f (h ) - U ¥n x ×
¶x 2 x ¶x
¶f ¶f ¶h h
= × =- × f ¢ (h )
¶x ¶h ¶x 2x
U ¥n h
u=- × f (h ) + × f ¢ (h ) × U ¥n x
2 x 2x

1 U ¥n
u= × {h f ¢ (h ) - f (h )}
2 x
¶u ¶u ¶ 2u
Plugging all available terms into Eq. (2.73), u +u =n 2
¶x ¶y ¶y
U ¥2 U ¥2
× f ¢¢¢ (h ) + × f × f ¢¢ = 0
x 2x
1
\ f ¢¢¢ (h ) + × f × f ¢¢ = 0 “Blasius Equation” (2.82)
2
B.Cs. f¢= f =0 @ h =0 (2.83)
f ¢ ® 1 as h ® ¥ (2.84)

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 50 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

Defining u & h, (Option 2)

u º f (h ) , h º y × g ( x ) from Eqs. (BP.1), (BP.2), & (BP.3)

and/or geometrically similar

From the governing equations of Eqs. (2.72) & (2.73),

¶u ¶u
+ =0 (2.72)
¶x ¶y
¶u ¶u ¶ 2u
u +u =n 2 (2.73)
¶x ¶y ¶y
Here,
¶u ¶f ¶h ¶u ¶f ¶h
= × = f ¢ × y × g¢ , = × = f ¢× g
¶x ¶h ¶x ¶y ¶h ¶y
¶ 2u ¶ 2 f ¶ æ ¶f ö ¶ ¶h ¶ ¶h
= = ç ÷ = × × f ¢ (h ) × g = [ f ¢ × g ] × = f ¢¢ × g 2

¶y 2 ¶y 2 ¶y è ¶y ø ¶h ¶y ¶h ¶y

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 51 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

Plugging all available equations into the Eqs. (2.72) & (2.73),
¶u
f ¢ × y × g¢ + =0 (BP.4)
¶y
n × f ¢¢ × g 2 = f × f ¢ × g × g ¢ + u × f ¢ × g (BP.5)

Combine Eqs. (BP.4) & (BP.5) to eliminate u and then rearrange to separate variables.
As an initial step, differentiate Eq. (BP.5) with respect to y:
¶ ¶ ¶
(n × f ¢¢ × g 2 ) = ( f × f ¢ × y × g ¢ ) + (u × f ¢ × g ) (BP.6)
¶y ¶y ¶y
Here,
¶ ¶ ¶h
(n × f ¢¢ × g 2 ) = (n × f ¢¢ × g 2 ) × = n × f ¢¢¢ × g 2 × g = n × f ¢¢¢ × g 3 (BP.7a)
¶y ¶h ¶y
¶ 2
( f × f ¢ × y × g ¢ ) = ( f ¢ ) × y × g ¢ × g + f × f ¢¢ × y × g ¢ × g + f × f ¢ × g ¢ (BP.7b)
¶y
¶ ¶u ¶h
(u × f ¢ × g ) = × f ¢ × g + f ¢¢ × g 2 ×u Q =g & g = g ( x ) only (BP.7c)
¶y ¶y ¶y

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 52 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

Substituting Eq. (BP.7) into Eq. (BP.6),

2 2
n × éë f ¢¢¢ × f ¢ - ( f ¢¢ ) ùû × g 3 = f × ( f ¢ ) × g ¢ (BP.8)

Rearranging Eq. (BP.8),

1 d æ f ¢¢ ö 1 g ¢ (BP.9)
× ç ÷= ×
f dh è f ¢ ø n g 3

Þ function of h = function of x = constant = - K

Therefore,
1 g¢ dg
× 3 = - K or 3
= - Kn dx
n g g
1
- 2 = - Kn x + C1 (BP.10)
2g
▷ B.Cs. u ® U¥ as y ® ¥ (BP.11a)
u ® U¥ @ x= y=0 Þ h ®¥ (BP.11b)
u =u = 0 @ y=0 Þ h =0 (BP.11c)

\ g(0) must be infinite !!!

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 53 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions
1
From Eq. (BP.10), C1 = 0 -
2g 2
= - Kn x + C1

1
\ g ( x) = (BP.12)
2 Kn x
Therefore,
y
h = y × g ( x) = (BP.13)
2 × K ×n × x

æ y ö
Since u = f (h), u has the form of u = f ç ÷
è xø
y
\ : Similarity parameter
x
From Eq. (BP.9),
1 d æ f ¢¢ ö æ f ¢¢ ö
× ç ÷ = -K ® dç ÷ = - K × f × dh
f dh è f ¢ ø è f ¢ ø
f ¢¢ (BP.14)
= - K × ò f dh + C2
f ¢
&
h =0, u =0, u =0, f =0 @ y=0

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 54 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions
¶u ¶u ¶ 2u
From Eq. (2.73), u
¶x
+u
¶y
=n 2
¶y

¶ 2u
0 = 2 = f ¢¢
¶y
( if u y =0
= 0) @ y=0 (BP.15)

C2 = 0

Therefore, Eq.(BP.14) becomes

f ¢¢
= - K × ò f dh (BP.16)
f ¢
For the purpose of eliminating the integral, define
u f
x ¢ (h ) º = (BP.17)
U¥ U¥
Then,
f = U ¥x ¢ , f ¢ = U ¥x ¢¢ , f ¢¢ = U ¥x ¢¢¢ (BP.18a)
&
f ¢¢ x ¢¢¢ (BP.18b)
=
f ¢ x ¢¢

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 55 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

Substituting Eq. (BP.18) into Eq. (BP.16),

x ¢¢¢ h dx
= -K ò U¥ × × dh = - KU ¥x (h ) (BP.19)
x ¢¢ 0
dh
or
x ¢¢¢ + KU ¥xx ¢¢ = 0 (BP.20)

Since K is arbitrary, KU¥ must be non-dimensional.

Setting KU ¥ = 1 :
2
1
x ¢¢¢ + xx ¢¢ = 0 “Blasius Equation” (BP.21)
2
▷ B.Cs. u=0 @ y = 0 Þ x ¢ ( 0) = 0 (BP.22a)

u =0 @ y=0
u ® U¥ @ y®¥ Þ x ¢(¥) = 1 (BP.22b)

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 56 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

Since f ¢¢ ( 0 ) = 0 if u y =0 , then x ¢¢¢ ( 0 ) = 0 .

From Eq. (BP. 21)

x ( 0 ) × x ¢¢ ( 0 ) = 0
Considering the shear stress at the wall,
¶u
tw = m = m × [ f ¢ × g ]h =0 = m × f ¢ ( 0 ) × g ( x ) = 0 , if x ¢¢ ( 0 ) = 0
¶y @ y =0

x ¢¢ ( 0 ) = 0 Þ Zero shear stress at the wall ⇒ “Impossible”

Since
u u¢
x¢ = f = Þ x ¢¢ =
U¥ U¥
Therefore,
x ¢¢ ( 0 ) Þ u¢ ( 0 ) = 0 ⇒ “Impossible”

&
\ x ( 0) = 0 (BP.22c)

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 57 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

Flow Solution
The boundary layer thickness equal to the value of y corresponding to 99% of U¥ :

d
= 4.92 × Re -x1/2 (2.85)
x
by the numerical shooting method.

※ Local skin friction coefficient for a flat plate

æ ¶u ö
÷ mç
t è ¶y øo
C f ,x º =
1 2 1 ¶u ¶u ¶h
rU ¥ rU ¥2 = × = U ¥ × f ¢¢ (h ) ×
U¥
2 2 ¶y ¶h ¶y nx
m U¥
= × U ¥ × f ¢¢ (h ) h =0 ×
1 nx (2.91)
rU ¥2
2
n
= 2× × f ¢¢ ( 0 )
U¥ x
= 2 × f ¢¢ ( 0 ) × Re -x 1/2

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 58 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

Numerically, it is found that f ¢¢ ( 0 ) = 0.332 ;

C f , x = 0.664 × Re -x1/2 (2.92)

The average skin friction coefficient corresponding to the local result Eq. (2.92),

C f ,0- x = 1.328 × Re -x1/2 (2.92¢)

valid for Re x £ 5 ´ 105

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 59 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

Heat Transfer Solution

Introducing the dimensionless temperature profile
T - To
q (h ) = (2.93)
T¥ - To

The boundary layer energy equation , Eq.(2.27), assumes the form

Pr
q ¢¢ + fq¢ = 0 (2.94)
2

▷ B.Cs. q =0 @ h =0 (2.95)

q ®1 as h ® ¥ (2.96)

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 60 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

¶f u
u = U¥ × ← by the definition of f ¢ º
¶h U¥
1 nU ¥ æ df ö
u= × × çh × -f÷
2 x è dh ø
¶q ¶q ¶h h ¶q ¶h ¶ y × U ¥ / (n x ) h
= ×
¶x ¶h ¶x
=- ×
2 x ¶h
Q =
¶x ¶x
( )
y × U ¥ / n × x -1/2 = -
2x
=-
2x

¶q ¶q ¶h U ¥ ¶q ¶h U¥
= × = × Q =
¶y ¶h ¶y n x ¶h ¶y nx
2
¶ 2q ¶ æ ¶q ö ¶ ¶h ¶q ¶h æ ¶h ö ¶ 2q U ¥ ¶ 2q
2
= ç ÷= × × × =ç ÷ × 2
= ×
¶y ¶y è ¶y ø ¶h ¶y ¶h ¶y è ¶y ø ¶h n x ¶h 2

The boundary layer equation for energy:

¶T ¶T ¶ 2T
u +u =a 2 (2.27)
¶x ¶y ¶y

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 61 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

The boundary layer equation for energy can be rewritten,

¶f æ h ö ¶q 1 n U ¥ æ df ö U ¥ ¶q U ¥ ¶ 2q
U¥ × ×ç - ÷× + ç h× - f ÷× × =a × ×
¶h è 2 x ø ¶h 2 x è dh ø n x ¶h n x ¶h 2

¶f æ h ö ¶q 1 U ¥ df ¶q 1 U ¥ ¶q U ¥ ¶ 2q
U¥ × ×ç - ÷× + × ×h × × - × f× =a × ×
¶h è 2 x ø ¶h 2 x dh ¶h 2 x ¶h n x ¶h 2

Rearranging the equation above,

¶ 2q 1 ¶q
+ × Pr × f × =0
¶h 2 2 ¶h
or
1 1
q ¢¢ + × Pr× f × q ¢ = 0 \ f ¢¢¢ (h ) +
2
× f × f ¢¢ = 0 (2.94)
2
&
1
if Pr = 1, then q ¢¢ + × f ×q ¢ = 0 Þ \ q = f ¢¢¢ (Similarity)
2

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 62 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions
※ Homogeneous Linear ODE,
y¢ + p ( x ) × y = 0
By separating of variables & integrating,
dy
= - p ( x ) dx
y
Thus,
ln y = - ò p ( x ) dx + C *
Taking exponents on both sides
\ y ( x ) = C ** × exp é - ò p ( x ) dx ù
ë û
Pr
Via separating of variables, we integrate Eq. (2.94), q ¢¢ +
2
fq¢ = 0

é Pr h ù
\ q ¢ (h ) = q ¢ ( 0 ) × exp ê - × ò f ( b ) d b ú (2.97)
ë 2 0 û
Integrating once again from 0 to h and using the wall condition (2.95),
h é Pr g ù
\ q (h ) = q ¢ ( 0 ) × ò exp ê - × ò f ( b ) d b ú d g (2.98)
0
ë 2 0 û
Applying the free-stream boundary condition (2.96),
-1
ì ¥ é Pr g ù ü (2.99)
\ q ¢ ( 0 ) = í ò exp ê - × ò f ( b ) d b ú d g ý
î 0 ë 2 0 û þ
Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 63 Mechanical Engineering
 2.5 Similarity Solutions
From Eq. (2.6) æ ¶T ö
kf ç ÷
è ¶y ø@ y =0
h = -
T0 - T¥
¶ æ To - T ö
= kf ç ÷
¶y è To - T¥ ø y =0

¶q U ¥ ¶q
= kf = kf × ×
¶y y =0
n x ¶h h =0
¶h
kf U ¥ x ¶q =
¶y
= × ×
x n ¶h h =0
kf
\ h = × Re1/2
x
×q ¢ ( 0 )
x
Hence,
h× x (2.101)
Nu = = q ¢ ( 0 ) × Re1/2
x
kf
As seen by Eq. (2.99)
q ¢ ( 0 ) = f ( Pr )
By Polhausen,
q ¢ ( 0 ) = 0.332 × Pr1/3 for Pr > 0.5 (2.102)

Therefore, Nu = 0.332 × Re1/2 × Pr1/3 for Pr > 0.5 (2.103)

x

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 64 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

For a flow, Pr < 0.5 and in the limit Pr → 0, u @ U¥

Highly conductive flow
u
We set f ¢ = = 1 in the region occupied by the thermal boundary layer q (h ) .
U¥

Differentiating Eq. (2.94) once,

1 (2.94)
q ¢¢ + × Pr× f × q ¢ = 0
2
q ¢¢ 1
= - × Pr× f
q¢ 2
From Eqs. (2.98) and (2.99), and by the definition of Error Function :
h é Pr g ù
q (h ) = q ¢ ( 0 ) × ò0 exp ê - × ò0 f ( b ) d b ú d g (2.98)
ë 2 û
-1
ì ¥ é Pr g ù ü
q ¢ ( 0 ) = í ò0 exp ê - × ò0 f ( b ) d b ú d g ý (2.99)
î ë 2 û þ

2 z 2 ¥ 2 p
erf ( z ) = ò e - t dt & ò e - x dx =
p 0 0
2

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 65 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions
u
Then, using f ¢ = = 1 (∵ u = U¥ due to Pr → 0)
U¥
g g g2
ò f (b ) db = ò
0 0
b db =
2
Thus, -1
ì ¥ é Pr ù ü
q ¢ ( 0 ) = í ò0 exp ê - × g 2 ú d g ý
î ë 4 û þ
Here,
¥
é Pr ù 2 ¥ p
ò exp ê - × g 2 ú d g = ò exp éë-t 2 ùû dt =
0
ë 4 û Pr 0
Pr
Pr
\ q ¢ ( 0) =
p
Therefore, h é Pr g ù h é Pr ù
q (h ) = q ¢ ( 0 ) × ò0 exp ê - × ò0 f ( b ) d b ú d g = q ¢ ( 0 ) × ò0 exp ê - × g 2 ú d g
ë 2 û ë 2 û
Pr
p
2 2
h
= q ¢ ( 0) × × × × ò exp éë-t 2 ùû dt
2

2 p Pr 0
Pr p 2 æ Pr ö
= × × × erf ç h÷
p 2 Pr è 2 ø
Finally,
æ Pr ö
\ q (h ) = erf ç ×h ÷ (2.105)
è 2 ø
Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 66 Mechanical Engineering
 2.5 Similarity Solutions

From Eq. (2.101), h× x

Nu = = q ¢ ( 0 ) × Re1/2
x
kf
1
Nu = × Re1/2
x
× Pr1/2
p
Nu = 0.564 × Re1/2
x
× Pr1/2 for Pr ® 0 (2.107)
vs.
Nu : Re1/2
x
× Pr1/2 for Pr = 1 (2.40)

The total heat transfer rate between the x-long wall & adjacent flow,
x

ò q& ¢¢dx = x × q&0¢¢- x (2.108)

0

the x-averaged wall heat flux

The overall Nusselt number:
q&0¢¢- x x h ×x
Nu0- x = × = 0- x
To - T¥ k f kf
where, 1 x
h0- x = ò hx dx
x 0

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 67 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

h ×x 1 x
Nu0- x = 0- x = ò hx dx
kf kf 0

x 1 hx x
=ò × dx
0
x kf
x 1
=ò × Nu x dx
0
x
For example, from Eq. (2.103)
Nu = 0.332 × Re1/2
x
× Pr1/3 for Pr > 0.5

x 1 U ¥1/2 x1/2
1/3
Nu0- x = ò 0.332 × Pr × × 1/2
dx
0
x n
1/2
1/3 U ¥
x 1
= 0.332 × Pr × 1/2 ò 1/2 dx
n 0
x
Nu0- x = 0.664 × Pr1/3 × Re1/2
x
for Pr > 0.5 (2.110)
Coefficient doubled vs.
Nu0- x = 1.128 × Pr1/2 × Re1/2
x
for Pr < 0.5 (2.111)

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 68 Mechanical Engineering

 2.5 Similarity Solutions

▣ An overall Nusselt number expression covering the entire Pr # range by Churchill & Ozoe:

0.928 × Pr1/3 × Re1/2 U¥ x

Nu0- x = 1/4 for Pe = > 100
2/3
é1 + ( 0.0207 / Pr ) ù a
ë û

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Thermal Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate with Unheated Starting Length

Pr > 1 Þ d > d T
U ¥ , T¥ , P¥ VBL

d TBL

y dT
T¥ (T
¥
< To ) To
x=0 xo

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Defining the non-dimensionless temperature,

T - To
q= , (To > T¥ )
T¥ - To
Considering the energy equation for the B.L.,
¶T ¶T ¶ 2T (2.27)/(UH.1)
u +u =a 2
¶x ¶y ¶y
From the definition of q,
T ( x, y ) = q (T¥ - To ) + To
¶T ¶q ¶T ¶q
= (T¥ - To ) , = (T¥ - To )
¶x ¶x ¶y ¶y
¶ 2T ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ é ¶q ù ¶ 2q
= ç ÷= (T¥ - To ) ú = (T¥ - To ) 2
¶y 2 ¶y è ¶y ø ¶y ëê ¶y û ¶y
Eq. (UH.1) can be rewritten as
¶q ¶q ¶ 2q
u (T¥ - To ) + u (T¥ - To ) = a (T¥ - To ) 2
¶x ¶y ¶y
or ¶q ¶q ¶ 2q
u +u =a 2 (UH.2)
¶x ¶y ¶y

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Integrating the energy equation across the B.L. from 0 to H, where H > d > d T ,
H ¶q H ¶q 2
H ¶ q é ¶q ¶q ù ¶q
ò u dy + ò u dy = a ò dy = a ê - ú = -a (UH.3)
¶x ¶y 0 ¶y 2
ë ¶y ¶y 0 û ¶y
0 0
H 0

(integration by parts)

H ¶q H H ¶u H ¶u
ò u dy = uq 0
-ò q dy = u y = H - ò q dy (UH.4)
0 ¶y 0 ¶y 0 ¶y
(Q u y =0 = 0 & q y = H = 1)
From the continuity equation,
¶u ¶u
=- (UH.5)
¶y ¶x
¶u H H ¶u H ¶u
ò0 ¶y dy = - ò0 ¶x dy Þ u y=H - u y =0 = - ò0 ¶x dy
H ¶u
\ u y=H = - ò dy (UH.6)
0 ¶x

Substituting Eqs. (UH.5) and (UH.6) into Eq. (UH.4),

H ¶q H ¶u H ¶u
ò u dy = - ò dy + ò q dy (UH.7)
0 ¶y 0 ¶x 0 ¶x

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Plugging Eq. (UH.7) into Eq. (UH.3)

H æ ¶q ¶u ¶u ö ¶q
ò ç u + q - ÷ dy = -a (UH.8)
0
è ¶x ¶x ¶x ø ¶y y =0
or
H æ ¶ ( uq ) ¶u ö ¶q
ò ç - ÷ dy = -a
è ¶x ¶x ø ¶y
0
y =0
By Leibnitz’s rule
d é H =dT
u (1 - q ) dy ù = a ¶q
dx êë ò0 úû (UH.9)
¶y y =0

“Integral Boundary Layer Equation for Energy”

Next, choose a suitable profile for q and for u.

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

※ Velocity Boundary Layer Thickness

y=0 : u=0
y = d : u = U¥
※ Curvature: ¶u and u = c1 + c2 y + c3 y 2 + c4 y 3
y =d : =0
¶y
y¢
k= ¶ 2u Du ¶p æ ¶ 2u ¶ 2u ö
2 3/2 y=0 : 2 =0 from r = Fx - +mç 2 + 2 ÷
{1 + ( y¢) } ¶y Dt ¶x è ¶x ¶y ø
3
u 3 y 1æ yö
= - ç ÷ d Y 1 dP¥ dU ¥ Y æ ¶u ö
U¥ 2 d 2 è d ø ò (U ¥ - u ) u dy = Y+ ò u dy + n ç ÷ (2.52)
dx o r dx dx o
è ¶y øo

Plugging the velocity profile into Eq. (2.52) U¥

d 2 140 n x
= × + Constant (UH.10)
2 13 U ¥
@ x = 0, δ = 0 and therefore,
\
d 4.64
= 1/2 d u( y)
x Re x

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

※ Thermal Boundary Layer Thickness

3
æ u 3 y 1æ y ö ö
Substituting the velocity profile çç = - ç ÷ ÷ and
÷
è U¥ 2 d 2 è d ø ø
3
æ T - To 3 æ y ö 1 æ y ö ö into the integral energy equation,
the temperature profile ç q ( x, y ) = = ç ÷- ç ÷ ÷
ç T¥ - To 2 è d t ø 2 è d t ø ÷ d é H =d ¶q
è ø ò u (1 - q ) dy ù = a
T

dx ëê 0 ûú ¶y y =0

3
d é 3 æ y ö 1 æ y ö üïïì 3 æ y ö 1 æ y ö ïü ù 3 a
3
dT ì
ï
êU ¥ ò í ç ÷ - ç ÷ ýí1 - ç ÷ - ç ÷ ý dy ú = ×
dx ê
ë
0
ïî 2 è d ø 2 è d ø ïþ îï 2 è d T ø 2 è d T ø þï úû 2 d T
Recall 3
¶q ¶ é3 y 1 æ y ö ù é 3 3y2 ù 3
= ê × - ×ç ÷ ú = ê - 3ú =
¶y ¶y ê 2 d T 2 è d T ø ú 2d 2d T û y =0 2d T
y =0 ë û y =0 ë T
Performing the integration,
d é 3 d T2 3 d T2 3 d T2 1 d T4 3 d T4 1 d T4 ù 3 a
× - × + × - × + × - × = ×
dx êë 4 d 4 d 20 d 8 d 3 20 d 3 28 d 3 úû 2 d T U ¥

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
inversely proportional
Defining another variable, d ( x)
x ( x) = T if Pr > 1 Þ x ( x ) < 1
d ( x)
Substituting then,
d é æ 3 2 3 4 öù 3 a
d × ç × x - × x ÷ú = ×
dx êë è 20 280 øû 2 d × x ×U ¥
x2 x4
If x < 1, then ? .
20 280
d é æ 3 2 öù 3 a
d × ç × x ÷ú = ×
dx êë è 20 øû 2 d × x ×U ¥
d 10a
dx
dx
( dx 2 ) =
U¥
or dx d d 10a
2d 2x 2 + x 2d =
dx dx U ¥
or 2 2 dx 3 d d 10a
d + x 2d = (UH.11)
3 dx dx U ¥

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
d 2 140 n x
Recall Eq. (UH.10) = ×
2 13 U ¥

280 n x 140 n
d2 = × Þ d dd = × dx
13 U ¥ 13 U ¥
Then, Eq. (UH.11) becomes
2 280 n x dx 3 140 n 10a
× × × +x3 × × =
3 13 U ¥ dx 13 U ¥ U ¥
or
dx 3 3 3 39 a
x + x = ×
dx 4 56 n
or
dx 3 3 3 39 a 1
+ x = × ×
dx 4 x 56 n x
dy
3 39 a 1 \ + P ( x) y = Q ( x)
3
Let y = x , P ( x ) = , Q ( x ) = × × dx
4x 56 n x Þ y=e ò
- P( x ) dx é
{ }
ò P( x ) dxQ ( x ) dx + Constant ù
êë ò e úû
3
3
- 13 a
x = Cx + 4
×
14 n

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

To find C we apply the B.C. @ x = xo

d 0
x = T = = 0 @ x = xo
d d
3
é ù
3 13 a ê æ xo ö 4 ú
\ x = × 1- ç ÷
14 n ê è x ø ú
ë û

Now take limit when xo → 0

1
d T ( x ) æ 13 ö
3 -
1
-
1
x ( x) = = ç ÷ × Pr 3 = 0.976 × Pr 3
d ( x ) è 14 ø
Show that the ratio of the thermal to velocity boundary-layer thickness for laminar flow
along a flat plate is inversely proportional to the cube root of the Prandtl number.

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
In general, when
dT
x ( x) = < 1, i.e., Pr > 1
d
3 1/3
1 é ù
- æ x ö 4 é 3
ù
d T ( x ) = d ( x ) × 0.976 × Pr 3 × ê1 - ç 0 ÷ ú 3 13 a ê æ xo ö 4 ú
x = × 1- ç ÷
14 n ê è x ø ú
ê è xø ú ë û
ë û
280 n x d 4.64 when x ¹ 0
Since d= × = 0
13 U ¥ x Re1/2x
3 1/3
é ù
x æ x ö 4
d T ( x ) = 4.53 × 1/2 1/3 × ê1 - ç 0 ÷ ú
Re x Pr ê è x ø ú
ë û
Now we can determine q ( x, y ) by plugging d T ( x ) into the equation below,
3
3 y 1æ y ö
q ( x, y ) = × - ç ÷
2 dT ( x ) 2 è dT ( x ) ø æ ¶T ö
-k f ç ÷
The local Nusselt number is è ¶y ø@ y =0
\ h=
-1/3 T0 - T¥
h× x 13 12
é æ xo ö3/4 ù
\ Nu x = = 0.332 × Pr × Re x ê1 - ç ÷ ú (2.116)
kf êë è x ø úû

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Arbitrary Wall Temperature

Considering the heat transfer from the heated spot, x1 < x < x2
d
T¥ dT
dT
1
( Pr > 1)
2
T¥ To (> T¥ ) T¥
(a)
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

0 x1 DT x2
d
T¥ dT 1

(b) T¥ To
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

0 x1 + DT d
T¥
dT 2
T¥ T¥
(c)
---------------------------

0 x2 - DT

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
d Y dT¥ Y æ ¶T ö
( T - T ) u dy = × u dy + a
dx òo dx òo
(2.53)
¥ ç ÷
è ¶y ø0
Since the integral energy equation (2.53) is linear in temperature, the thermal boundary layer
generated by the To spot can be reconstructed as the superposition of two thermal boundary
layers: (a ) = (b) + (c) æ ¶T ö
-k ç ÷
è ¶y ø@ y =0
Of interest is the heat flux q& ¢¢ from the wall to the fluid: \ h=
T0 - T¥
i ) 0 < x < x1 Þ q& ¢¢ = 0
ì ü
ii ) x1 < x < x2 Þ q& ¢¢ = hint DTint ï ï
kf ï DT ï
From the previous result for h, Þ q& = 0.331 × × Pr × Re x í
¢¢ 13 12
ý
x 3/4 1/3
ï é æ x1 ö ù ï
iii ) x > x2 ï ê1 - ç x ÷ ú ï
î êë è ø úû þ
q& ¢¢ : superposition of two effects of the above equations
ì ü In the trailing section,
ï ï the wall reabsorbs part of the heat
k ï DT DT ï released earlier in region (ii).
Þ q& ¢¢ = 0.331 × f × Pr1 3 × Re1x 2 í - ý
x 3/ 4 1/3 3/4 1/3
ï é æ x1 ö ù é æ x2 ö ù ï
ï ê1 - ç ÷ ú ê1 - ç ÷ ú ï
î ê
ë è x ø ú
û ê
ë è x ø ú
û þ

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

※ Heat Transfer with N Step Changes DTi in wall temperature

☞ The heat flux from the wall to the fluid:
ì ü
ï ï
k N ïï DT ïï
q& ¢¢ = 0.331 × f × Pr1 3 × Re1x 2 å í ý (∴ Stepwise variation)
x 3/4 1/3
i =1 ï é
æ xi ö ù ï
1 -
ïê ç x ÷ ú ï
îï êë è ø úû þï
where xi is the longitudinal position of each temperature step change DTi.

If the wall temperature varies smoothly, (i.e., continuous variation), To ( x )

then the above equation becomes:
ì ü
ï dTo ï
k xï dx ï (∵ Temperature variation are given
q& ¢¢ = 0.331 × f × Pr1 3 × Re1x 2 ò í 1/3 ý
dx in the form of derivatives at x)
x 0
ïé æx ö ù ï
3/4

ï ê1 - ç x ÷ ú ï
î êë è ø úû þ

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 82 Mechanical Engineering

 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Uniform Wall Heat Flux

▷ Objectives: the prediction of the wall temperature variation To ( x )

▶ Design Objectives: control this temperature To ( x )

☞ The heat transfer problem is still to calculate the heat transfer coefficient, h
q& ¢¢
h= : Our final goal in convection
éëTo ( x ) - T¥ ùû

The integral method and profile shapes used in the previous calculation can be applied
to the calculation of To ( x ) - T¥ when q& ¢¢ = constant is specified.

q& ¢¢ x
\ Nu x = × = 0.453 × Pr1 3 × Re1x 2 for 0.5 < Pr < 1.0 when q& ¢¢ = Constant (2.121)
To ( x ) - T¥ k f

For the non-uniform wall heat flux q& ¢¢ ( x )

-2/3
0.623 -1 3 x é æ x ö3/4 ù
To ( x ) - T¥ = × Pr × Re -x1 2 ò ê1 - ç ÷ ú q& ¢¢ (x ) d x for Pr > 0.5 (2.122)
kf 0
ëê è x ø ûú

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

The Effect of Axial Variation of the Surface Temperature with

Hydrodynamically Fully Developed flow
T - T¥
Defining q * ( x + , r + ) = : Dimensionless
To - T¥
Solution for the temperature of the fluid at x+ resulting
from a single, finite step in wall temperature @ x+ = 0

T - T¥ = q * ( x + , r + ) × (To - T¥ )
Effect Scaling Prescribed
Function
T

T0 (x o ) - T¥
T¥

xo x+
\ T ( x + , r + ) - T¥ = q * ( x + - x o , r + ) × (To (x o ) - T¥ ) , for x + ³ xo
shifting

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
☞ Case 1 T
Real Physical Route
③ ① T0 (x o ) - T¥
②
① ② T0 (x1 ) - T¥
T¥ ③=②-①

x+
xo x1
①
\ T (x ,r + +
) -T ¥ =q ( x - x , r ) × (T (x ) - T )
* +
o
+
o o ¥
② ①
+ q ( x - x , r ) × {(T (x ) - T ) - (T (x ) - T )}
* +
1
+
o 1 ¥ o o ¥
③ = To (x1 ) - To (x o )
☞ Case 2 T
Real Physical Route
⑤

④ ③ ① T0 (x o ) - T¥
②
① ② T0 (x1 ) - T¥
T¥ ③=②-①

⑤ = (④ - ①) - (② - ①)
+
x
xo x1 x2
①
\ T (x ,r
+ +
) -T
¥ =q ( x - x , r ) × (T (x ) - T )
* +
o
+
o o ¥
③ ⑤
+ q ( x - x , r ) × (T (x ) - T (x ) ) + q ( x
* +
1
+
o 1 o o
* +
- x2 , r +
) × (T (x ) - T (x ) )
o 2 o 1

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

DTo = To (x o ) - T¥

DTo = To (x o ) - T¥ Finite Temp. for One Jump

xo x+

If xo & x1 are very close to each other, then Taylor series expansion

dTo dTo
To (x1 ) = To (x o ) + (x1 - x0 ) To (x1 ) - To (x o ) = (x1 - x0 )
dx xo
dx xo

Similarly,
dTo
To (x 2 ) - To (x1 ) = (x 2 - x1 )
dx x1

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
☞ Case 1 becomes
\ T ( x + , r + ) - T¥ = q * ( x + - x o , r + ) × (To (x o ) - T¥ )
dTo
To (x 2 ) - To (x1 ) = (x 2 - x1 )
dT dx
+ q * ( x + - x1 , r + ) × o (x1 - xo ) x1

dx xo

☞ Case 2 becomes
\ T ( x + , r + ) - T¥ = q * ( x + - x o , r + ) × (To (x o ) - T¥ )
dTo
+ q * ( x + - x1 , r + ) × (x1 - xo )
dx xo

dTo
+ q * ( x+ - x2 , r + ) × (x 2 - x1 )
dx x1

∴ In general,
\ T ( x + , r + ) - T¥ = q * ( x + - x o , r + ) × (To (x o ) - T¥ ) º DTo
k
dTo
+ åq * ( x + - x n , r + ) × (x n - x n-1 )
n =1 dx x n -1

or
Initial Jump
\ T (x ,r + +
) -T
¥ =q *
(x +
- xo , r ) × DT
+
o
for a continuous variation of temperature

( x - x , r ) × dT
+
x =x
+ò q* + +
× dx o
x =0 dx
Continuous smooth variation

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

T smooth

Finite step jump variation DT2

smooth

Finite step jump variation DT1

smooth

Finite step jump variation DTo

xo x1 x2 x+

☞ For finite number of jumps (or finite number of discontinuity points)

k
\ T (x ,r+ +
) - T = åq ( x
¥
* +
- xi , r + ) × DTi Jump Condition: Discontinuity Part
i =0
(WH.1)
x = x+ dT
+ò q ( x - x , r ) × o × dx
* + +
Smooth Variation: Continuous Part
x =0 dx

where, To (x ) is an axial variation of the surface temperature.

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Note that T - T¥ To - T
q * ( x+ , r + ) = , q ( x+ , r + ) =
To - T¥ To - T¥

T - T¥ (To - T¥ ) - (To - T ) T -T
\ q* = = = 1- o = 1-q
To - T¥ To - T¥ To - T¥ k
\ T (x +
, r + ) - T¥ = å q * ( x + - xi , r + ) × DTi
Then Eq. (WH.1) becomes i =0
x = x+ dTo
+ò q * ( x+ - x , r + ) × × dx
k x =0 dx
\ T (x ,r + +
) - T = å éë1 - q ( x
¥
+
- xi , r ) ùû × DTi
+

i =0 (WH.2)
x =x +
dT
+ò é1 - q ( x + - x , r + ) ×ù o × dx
x =0 ë û dx

The combination of the integral and the sum of the finite discontinuities in Eq. (WH.2) is called

a “Stieltjes Integral”.

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Similarity Solutions for the Laminar Incompressible Boundary Layer for U ¥ = Cx m

☞ Similar solutions to the boundary layer equations can be obtained if the free-stream velocity
varies as Why ?
U ¥ = Cx m (SS.1)

x
x
b = 0 (flat) b

x
b
= 90o
2
b (Wedge Flow)
2

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

☞ Physical problem which are approximated by a velocity variation, U ¥ = Cx m , can be found in

the cases of two-dimensional potential flows shown previously.

⇒ These flows are very easily solved by potential flow theory.

⇒ The velocity along the surface varies according to Eq. (SS.1) in each case and it is found that
b /p x dU ¥
m= = × (SS.2)
2 - b / p U ¥ dx

⇒ The boundary-layer solutions corresponding to these potential flows are called Incompressible & Irrotational
“Wedge-flow solutions” or “Falkner and Skan Solutions” In fluid dynamics, potential
flow refers to the flow
⇒ b = 0 is a special case of the Falkner and Skan Solutions. → “Blasius Problem” outside the boundary layer
that obeys the laws of
potential flow like electric
and magnetic fields. This is
☞ For constant properties & 2-D flow, the momentum boundary layer equation is sometimes called the
inviscid flow region
meaning that transverse
¶u ¶u 1 dP ¶ 2u velocity gradients are
u +u =- +n 2 (SS.3) minimal and viscous effects
¶x ¶y r dx ¶y are small to none. By
contrast, the boundary layer,
where, at least in laminar flow, is
2 dominated by viscous

dP dU ¥ r¥ m × ( cx m ) r¥U ¥2 × m effects and does not follow

= - r ¥U ¥ = - r ¥ Cx m × Cmx m -1 = - =- the rules of potential flow.

dx dx x x

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

☞ In the free stream where a potential flow presumably exists, the velocity U ¥ can be related to the
pressure P by inviscid flow behavior. Accordingly, we can take advantage of the Bernoulli equation for
the inviscid flow along a streamline to relate the pressure-gradient term to the free-stream gradient:
dP æ U ¥2 ö
= -d ç ÷ U ¥ = Cx m
r¥ è 2 ø
☞ Closely related to the steady-flow energy equation is a relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation in a frictionless flow, now called “Bernoulli equation”:
dP
+ VdV + gdz = 0
r¥
¶u ¶u U ¥2 × m ¶ 2u
u +u = +n 2
¶x ¶y x ¶y

or ¶ 2u ¶u ¶u U ¥2 × m
n 2 = u +u - (SS.4)
¶y ¶x ¶y x
Substitute Eq. (SS.5) into Eq. (SS.4) and then transform to ( f , h ) ,
¶y ¶y u (SS.5)
u= , u=- , f ¢ (h ) =
¶y ¶x U¥
3 2
¶ y ¶y ¶ y ¶y ¶ y U ¥2 × m
2
(SS.6)
n 3 = × - × 2 -
¶y ¶y ¶x¶y ¶y ¶y x

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
m +1

y = (U ×n × x ) × f (h ) = n C x
¥
2
×f (QU ¥
= Cx m )
m -1
y C
h= = × y×x 2

(n x ) U ¥ n
¶ 3y U ¥2 ¶ 2y 3
f ¢¢ (h ) ¶y
= f ¢¢¢ (h ) , = U 2
¥
, = U ¥ f ¢ (h )
¶y 3 n x ¶y 2 nx ¶y
¶y m + 1 m2-1 m +1
¶f
= nC × × x × f + nC × x 2 ×
¶x 2 ¶x
¶f ¶f ¶h C m - 1 m2-3 m - 1 C m -3

= × = f ¢× × y× ×x = × × y × f ¢× x 2
¶x ¶h ¶x n 2 2 n
¶y m + 1 m2-1 m +1
m -1 C m -3

= nC × × x × f + nC × x ×
2
× × y × f ¢× x 2
¶x 2 2 n
¶ æ ¶y ö ¶ ¶U ¥ ¶f ¢ ¶h
ç ÷ = éU f ¢ (h ) ù = × f ¢ + U × ×
¶x è ¶y ø ¶x ë û
¥ ¥
¶x ¶h ¶x
¶U ¥ C m - 1 m2-3
= × f ¢ + U ¥ × f ¢¢ × × y× ×x
¶x n 2
m -1 m -1 C m2-3
= C ×m× x × f ¢+ ×U ¥ × y × × x × f ¢¢
2 n
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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
Then Eq. (SS.4) becomes

U ¥2 é m -1 m -1 C m2-3 ù
n× × f ¢¢¢ = U ¥ f ¢ × êC × m × x × f ¢ + ×U ¥ × y × × x × f ¢¢ú
nx ë 2 n û
é m + 1 m2-1 m +1
m -1 C m -3 ù 3
f ¢¢ m × C 2 × x2m
- ê nC × × x × f + nC × x × 2
× × y × f ¢ × x ú ×U ¥ ×
2 2
-
ë 2 2 n û nx x
or
U ¥2 2 m -1 2 C m2-3
× f ¢¢¢ = C × m × x × U ¥ × ( f ¢ ) +
m -1
×U ¥ × y × × x × f ¢ × f ¢¢
x 2 n
m + 1 m2-1 3
1 m +1
m -1 C m -3 3
f ¢ × f ¢¢ m × U ¥2
- nC × × x ×U ¥ ×
2
× f × f ¢¢ - n C × x ×
2
× × y × x ×U ¥ ×
2 2
-
2 nx 2 n nx x
or

U ¥2 m × U ¥2 2 m -1 2 C m2-3
× f ¢¢¢ = × ( f ¢) + ×U ¥ × y × × x × f ¢ × f ¢¢
x x 2 n
m + 1 m2-2 3
C 2 2 m2-3 m - 1 3
m × U ¥2
- C× × x × U ¥ × f × f ¢¢ -
2
×x × × y × U ¥ × f ¢ × f ¢¢ -
2

2 n 2 x
U ¥2 é 2 m -1 C m2-1 m +1 m - 1 C m2-1 ù
= ê ( )
m × f ¢ + × y × × x × f ¢ × f ¢¢ - × f × f ¢¢ - × × x × y × f ¢ × f ¢¢ - m ú
x ë 2 n 2 2 n û

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

m +1 2
or f ¢¢¢ + × f × f ¢¢ + m éë1 - ( f ¢ ) ùû = 0 (SS.7)
2
“Falkner-Skan Wedge Flow” U ¥ = Cx m

B.Cs.
f ( 0) = 0 , f ¢ ( 0) = 0 , f ¢(¥) = 1

☞ For flat plate case, i.e., Blasius problem,

x
U ¥ = C , i.e., m=0 (Q b = 0) b = 0 (flat)

Then Eq. (SS.7) reduces to

1
f ¢¢¢ + × f × f ¢¢ = 0 “Blasius Equation”
2
Eq. (SS.7) can be solved numerically.

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Similarity Solutions for the Laminar Incompressible Boundary Layer for uo ¹ 0

☞ Applications for uo ¹ 0
The velocity normal to the surface at the surface is NOT zero.
e.g., Mass Transfer at the surface

Evaporation from or Condensation onto a surface

e.g., Porous surface through which a fluid (possibly the same fluid as the main
stream) is being forced in order to protect the surface from an extremely high-
temperature main stream.

e.g., Porous surface through which part of the main stream is being sucked,
possibly to prevent boundary-layer separation because of an adverse pressure
gradient.

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

☞ Let us examine the conditions under which similarity solutions exist by examining the possible
boundary conditions for Eq. (SS.4) to see if a change of boundary conditions allows uo to be nonzero,
2 2
and, if so, how uo must vary along the surface. n ¶¶yu = u ¶¶ux + u ¶¶uy - U x× m
2
¥

m +1
¶y m
u=- , U ¥ = Cx , y = n xU ¥ f (h ) = n C × x 2 × f (h )
¶x
¶y m + 1 m2-1 m +1
C m - 1 m2-3
= nC × × x × f + nC × x × f ¢×
2
× y× ×x
¶x 2 n 2
m -1
¶y m +1 2 m -1
\ u=- =- f × × x × Cn - C × y × × f ¢ × x m -1
¶x 2 2
B.Cs. h = 0 & u = uo @ y = 0
m + 1 m2-1
\ uo = - f ( 0 ) × × x × Cn (SS.8)
2
U¥
Let C =
xm
m + 1 m2-1 m +1 U¥
uo = - f ( 0 ) × × x × U ¥ × x - m /2 × n = - × f ( 0) × (SS.9)
or 2 2 (U ¥ x ) / n
2 uo U¥ x 2 uo
\ f ( 0) = - × × =- × × Re1/2
x (SS.10)
m +1 U¥ n m +1 U¥

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

\ f ( 0 ) = constant , as a boundary condition to Eq. (SS.7) gives us a family of similarity solutions for
uo ¹ 0 . However, for f ( 0 ) to be constant, uo must vary along the surface in the particular manner
prescribed by Eq. (SS.8); that is,
m -1
\ uo µ x 2 (SS.11)

uo = constant only for the stagnation point m = 1.

U ¥ = Cx m
1
For U ¥ = constant , m = 0 and uo must vary as as seen from Eq. (SS.9) in order for similar
x
velocity profiles to obtain.
1
uo 2
\ Re x : Blowing/suction parameter
U¥

2 uo U¥ x 2 uo
\ f ( 0) = - × × =- × × Re1/2
x (SS.10)
m +1 U¥ n m +1 U¥

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Entropy Generation Minimization in Laminar Boundary Layer Flows

☞ Thermal Design Questions:
1) How much useful work (exergy) is being destroyed by convection?
2) How much geometry should be modified to minimize this destruction?
U ¥ , T¥

To
FD
q& ¢¢

U ¥ , T¥
Convection heat transfer in external flows

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

A body of arbitrary shape and surface area, A, is suspended in a uniform stream with velocity U ¥ and
absolute temperature T¥ .

q& ¢¢ : local heat transfer rate between body and stream éë W/m 2 ùû

To : local wall temperature [K]

FD : drag force experienced by the body

Fluid friction manifests itself in the form of the drag force, FD,
which is the sum of all forces distributed around A and projected
on the direction of flow.

☞ Irreversibilities (due to Resistances):

1) due to heat transfer across the non-zero finite temperature difference, To - T¥
2) due to frictional drag

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

▷ Obtain the rate of entropy generation associated with the above external flow
Consider a stream tube (C.V.) surrounding the solid surface A.

U ¥ , T¥

Atube
q& ¢¢
m& FD m&

in U ¥ , T¥ out

A stream tube for 2nd law analysis of heat transfer in external flow

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

▷ Three thermodynamic statements for the stream tube as an open system in steady flow:

i) mass
m& = m& in = m& out (EG.1)
ii) energy
& ˆin + òò q& ¢¢ dA = mh
mh & ˆout (EG.2)
A
iii) entropy
q& ¢¢
& in + òò
mS dA + S&gen = mS
& out (EG.3)
AT
o
1
From dhˆ = TdS + dP
r
1
hˆout - hˆin = T¥ ( Sout - Sin ) + ( Pout - Pin ) (EG.4)
r¥

Assume that temperature and density do not vary appreciably between inlet and outlet and combining
Eq. (EG.1) through Eq. (EG.4):
q& ¢¢
S&gen = m& ( Sout - Sin ) - òò dA
AT
o

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

From Eq. (EG.4)

Sout - Sin =
( hˆout - hˆin )- 1
( Pout - Pin ) (EG.4¢)
T¥ r¥T¥
From Eq. (EG.2)

( )
m& hˆout - hˆin = òò q& ¢¢ dA
A
(EG.2¢)

Substituting Eq. (EG.2¢) into Eq. (EG.4¢)

1 1
Sout - Sin = òò q& ¢¢ dA - ( Pout - Pin ) (EG.5)
& ¥
mT A r¥T¥
q& ¢¢
Plugging Eq. (EG.5) into Eq. (EG.3) & in + òò
mS dA + S&gen = mS
& out
AT
o
1 m& q& ¢¢
S&gen = òò q& ¢¢ dA - ( out in ) òòA dA
P - P -
T¥ A r¥T¥ To
or
æ 1 1ö m&
S&gen = òò q& ¢¢ ç - ÷ dA - ( Pout - Pin ) (EG.6)
A T
è ¥ To ø r T
¥ ¥

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

Since m& = r ¥U ¥ Atube and FD = Atube ( Pin - Pout ) from a force balance on the control volume
m& Pressure induced flow
\ FD = ×(P - P )
r¥U ¥ out in
or
m&
× ( Pout - Pin ) = - FDU ¥ (EG.7)
r¥
Substituting Eq. (EG.7) into Eq. (EG.6)
æ 1 1ö 1
S&gen = òò q& ¢¢ ç - ÷ dA + FDU ¥
è T¥ To ø T¥
A

æ T -T ö 1
= òò q& ¢¢ ç o ¥ ÷ dA + FDU ¥ (EG.8)
è T¥To ø T¥
A

Assume that T¥ - To = To or T¥ » To Þ i.e., T¥To @ T¥2

Then, Eq. (EG.8) becomes
1 FDU ¥
S&gen = 2 òò q& ¢¢ (To - T¥ ) dA + Irreversibility of fluid flow
(EG.9)
T¥ A T¥
Irreversibility of heat transfer

The total rate of entropy generation due to convective heat transfer between a body and a flow that surrounds the body

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
▷ Extreme cases
i) If the body temperature is uniform (i.e., independent of position around A), then (T - T¥ ) is constant
and Eq. (EG.9) becomes:
2
& 1 FDU ¥ æ T - T ö FU
S gen = 2 òò q& ¢¢ (To - T¥ ) dA +
T¥ A T¥ S&gen = ç o ¥ ÷ h A + D ¥ (EG.10)
è T¥ ø T¥

where we used ò q& ¢¢ dA = Q& = h A (To - T¥ )

A

h : the average heat transfer coefficient based on A

When the body-ambient-temperature difference is fixed, the only approach to minimizing the heat
transfer contribution to S is by insulating the body, i.e., by decreasing the thermal conductance h A .
0
ii) When the local heat flux q& ¢¢ is uniform around A, then Eq. (EG.9) becomes:
2
æ q& ¢¢ ö ds FDU ¥
S&gen = ç ÷ òò +
T
è ¥ø A h T¥
q& ¢¢
where we used To - T¥ = & hs : local heat transfer coefficient
hs
In order to reduce the heat transfer entropy generation we must strive to increase hs ; in other words,
we must enhance or augment the heat transfer from body to ambient. hs ­ Þ (To - T¥ ) ¯ : Thermal Equilibrium

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
▷ Consider laminar boundary layer flow over a plate with uniform heat flux on both sides.

U ¥ , T¥

q& ¢¢ t

To ( x ) W

x=0 L x=L
1 FDU ¥
S&gen = 2 òò q& ¢¢ (To - T¥ ) dA + (EG.9)
T¥ A T¥
We can readily evaluate the two terms of Eq. (EG.9) by using the heat transfer and skin friction results.

ò q&¢¢ (T
A o ( )
- T¥ ) dA = q& ¢¢ (To - T¥ ) × ( 2 LW ) = q& ¢¢ To - T¥ × ( 2 LW )

where To - T¥ is the wall-fluid temperature difference averaged from x = 0 to x = L .

To - T¥ can be obtained by using the local temperature difference To ( x ) - T¥ by Eq. (2.121).
q& ¢¢ x
Nu = × = 0.453 × Re1/2
x Pr
1/3
(2.121)
To ( x ) - T¥ k f

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

q& ¢¢ x
To ( x ) - T¥ = 1/2 1/3
×
0.453 × Re x Pr kf
-1/2
q& ¢¢ æU ö
1
= ×ç ¥ ÷ ×x 2
0.453 × Pr1/3 × k f è n ø

L
ò éëTo ( x ) - T¥ ùû dx
0
T o - T¥ = L
ò dx
0
-1/2
1 L ìï q& ¢¢ æU ö
1 üï
= ×ò í ×ç ¥ ÷ 2
× x ý dx
L 0 ïî 0.453 × Pr1/3 × k f è n ø ïþ
-1/2
1 q& ¢¢ æU ö 2
= × ×ç ¥ ÷ × × L3/2
L 0.453 × Pr1/3 × k f è n ø 3
2 q& ¢¢ × L -1/2
= × 1/3
× ( Re L )
3 0.453 × Pr × k f

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

\ ò éë q& ¢¢ (To ( x ) - T¥ ) ùû dA
A

( )
= q& ¢¢ × T o - T¥ × 2 LW
2 q& ¢¢ × L
= q& ¢¢ × × × 2 LW
3 0.453 × Pr1/3 × k f × Re1/2
L
(EG.11)
2
2 2 × L2 × ( q& ¢¢ ) × W
= ×
3 0.453 × Pr1/3 × k f × Re1/2
L
2

= 0.736 ×
( q& ¢ )
×W
k f × Re1/2
L × Pr
1/3

Where q& ¢ ( = 2 × L × q& ¢¢ ) is the total heat transfer rate between the plate and the fluid, per unit transversal length.

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions
FDU ¥
> =? Þ FD = 2 × L × W ×t 0- L
T¥
t 0- L (average wall shear stress) can be found from equation below:
t 0- L : Average skin friction coefficient
C f ,0- L =
1
rU ¥2
2
C f ,0- L = 1.328 × Re -L1/2 for Re £ 5 ´ 105 (2.92¢)
1
t 0- L = × r ×U ¥2 ×1.328 × Re -L1/2 = 0.664 × r ×U ¥2 × Re -L1/2
2
\ FD = 2 × L × W × ( 0.664 × r × U ¥2 × Re -L1/2 )
-1/2
æ r ×U ¥ × L ö
2
= 1.328 × L × W × r × U × ç ¥ ÷
è m ø
= 1.328 × W × m × U ¥ × Re1/2
L

FD × U ¥ m
\ T¥
= 1.328 × × W × U ¥2 × Re1/2
T¥
L
(EG.12)
1 FDU ¥
Plugging Eqs. (EG.11) & (EG.12) into Eq. (EG.9) S&gen = T 2 òòA q& ¢¢ (To - T¥ ) dA + T¥
heat transfer ¥

S&gen
2
0.736 × ( q& ¢ ) m
= 2 1/2 1/3
+ 1.328 × × U ¥2 × Re1/2
L
(EG.13)
W T¥ × k f × Re L × Pr T¥ fluid flow

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

As L ↑, the irreversibility due to heat transfer ↓, and the fluid flow irreversibility ↑.

∴ Sgen is minimum when L has a certain value. ⇒ Optimal Point

¶S gen
That optimal length is obtained by solving =0 Þ \ Re L ,opt = 0.554 B 2 (EG.14)
¶ Re L
U ¥ Lopt q& ¢ / U ¥
where Re L ,opt = , B= (EG.15)
n 1/3 1/2
(k f mT¥ Pr )
B : the dimensionless version of the ratio of the heat transfer rate divided by the flow speed and
governs the entropy generation characteristics of forced convection by laminar boundary layer flow.

If Re L = B 2 ⇒ then, the entropy generation rate is due mainly to heat transfer.

If Re L ? B 2 ⇒ then, the plate is so long that most of its work destruction is due to fluid friction.

If a plate (e.g., fin) is to transfer heat at a give rate ( q& ¢ ) to a stream with specified velocity U ¥ ,
then its optimal swept length for minimum irreversibility is
2

Lopt = 0.554 ×
( q&¢ ) (EG.16)
3 1/3
k f × T¥ × r × U × Pr ¥

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 2.6 Other Wall Heating Conditions

▷ When the external flow is fixed (U ¥ , T¥ ) , the optimum plate length is proportional to the total
2
heat transfer rate squared ( q& ¢ ) . ( q&¢)
2

Lopt = 0.554 × (EG.16)

k f × T¥ × r × U ¥3 × Pr1/3
Substituting Eq. (EG.16) into Eq. (EG.13)
S&gen ,min q& ¢ × U ¥
= 1.98 × 1/2
W ( k f / m ) × T¥3/2 × Pr1/6
or
q& ¢ × W × U ¥
S&gen ,min = 1.98 × 1/2
(k f / m ) × T¥3/2 × Pr1/6

∴ The corresponding minimum rate of exergy destruction = T¥ × S&gen ,min

S&gen
2
0.736 × ( q& ¢ ) m
= 2 1/2 1/3
+ 1.328 × × U ¥2 × Re1/2
L
(EG.13)
W T¥ × k f × Re L × Pr T¥

Multi Energy Transport (MET) Lab. 111 Mechanical Engineering