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07 - Chapter 2 Landslide
07 - Chapter 2 Landslide
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
Colombia killing 25,000 people and the 30,000 that were killed or are missing
as result of the 1999 landslides and floods in northern Venezuela. The
mismatch between these data and the ones from table 2.1 is due to the manner
in which events were recorded, and the minimum threshold for deaths and
economic impact, which is used to include an event in the official EM-DAT
database.
Total Damage
Continents Events Killed Injured Homeless Affected
affected US (000'S)
Africa 23 745 56 7,936 13,748 21,740 No data
Average
32 2 345 598 945 No data
per event
Americas 145 20,684 4,809 186,752 4,485,037 4,676,598 1,226,927
Average
143 33 1,288 30,931 32,252 8,462
per event
Asia 255 18,299 3,776 3,825,311 1,647,683 5,476,770 1,534,893
Average
72 15 15,001 6,462 21,478 6,019
per event
Europe 72 16,758 523 8,625 39,376 48,524 2,487,389
Average
23 7 120 547 674 34,547
per event
Oceania 16 542 52 18,000 2,963 21,015 2,466
Average
34 3 1,125 185 1,313 154
Per event
Total 511 57,028 9,216 4,046,624 6,188,807 10,244,647 5,251,675
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Crown Cracks
Crown
Minor scarp
Transverse Cracks
Transverse ridges
Radial
Cracks
Surface of
Toe rupture
Main Body
Toe of surface of
Foot
rupture
Surface of
separation
incorporate additional variables, such as the rate of movement and the water,
air, or ice content of the landslide material.
Type of materials
Engineering soils
Type of movement
Bedrock Predominantly Predominantly
coarse Fine
Falls Rock Fall Debris fall Earth fall
Topples Rock Topple Debris topple Earth topple
Rotational
Rock slide Debris slide Earth slide
Slides Translational
Lateral spreads Rock spread Debris spread Earth spread
Flows Rock flows Debris flows Earth flow
(deep creep) (soil creep)
Complex Combination of two or more principal types of movement
A B C Surface
rupture
Surface of
rupture
D E F
G H I
Source area
Curved tree trunks
Main track Tilted Pole
Depositional area
Soil ripples
J Firm clay
2.2.1 Slides
The two major types of slides are rotational slides and translational
slides.
2.2.2 Falls
2.2.3 Topples
2.2.4 Flows
There are five basic categories of flows that differ from one another
in fundamental ways.
Landsliding and flooding are closely allied because both are related
to precipitation, runoff, and the saturation of ground by water. In addition,
debris flows and mudflows usually occur in small, steep stream channels and
often are mistaken for floods; in fact, these two events often occur
simultaneously in the same area.
• The use of GIS and the production of less accurate hazard maps
by users that are not experts in earth sciences;
In the field of landslide run out modeling also GIS has been used
extensively (Hungr 1995). Dymond et al (1999) developed a GIS-based
computer simulation model of shallow landslides and associated sediment
delivery to the stream network, for different rainstorm events and landuse
scenarios. A high resolution DEM is one of the major components in the
model. Cellular automata have also been used extensively in modeling the
flow velocity and extend of landslides (Aviolo et al 2000).
Dikau et al (1996) have discussed the use of database and GIS for
temporal occurrences and forecasting of landslides. They state the temporal
landslide database information is correlated with recent ad historical
triggering factors to calculate temporal probabilities for landslide forecasting
using landslide frequency analysis. Their discussions have evolved that at the
medium and broad scales different combinations of landslide data with factor
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can be used for approximate results; it can be used, which estimates Newmark
displacements as a function of landslide critical acceleration and earthquake
shaking intensity.
Since those early days, the officers of the survey have carried out
detailed evaluation of mechanism of failure of specific slides in different
geoenvironments and have evolved treatment measures for communications
routes, natural and curt slopes, engineering projects as well as urban
settlements. These studies, though essential for designing safe slope cuts and
for evolving treatment measures for failing slopes. Even though they do not
answer the queries of environment conscious communities and for planners of
developmental activities to arrive where, when and how much is the hazard in
a particular domain. Though in regional hazard evaluation, all these questions
may not be possible to be replied to. But the most central one is “how much
hazardous” a particular domain for failure. This question has to be addressed
objectively in any zonation exercise.
well as, the utility of such maps is dependent on the scale at which these maps
are prepared, because of this choice and treatment of the stability influencing
parameters would be scale dependent.
For example, the first generation, small scale maps (1:1 million)
could take into consideration the parameters like the general physical
characteristics of the slope forming materials (lithology), the general relief
and annual rainfall precipitation. The regional small scale zonation, maps are
the simple thematic representation of terrain evaluation and they serve the
purpose of synoptic representation of areas where this natural phenomenon is
prevalent. Contrary to this, the medium scale second generation maps on
1:50,000 scale would take into consideration the shear characteristics of the
slope forming materials, the slope morphometry, the landuse, geomechanical
behavior of the discontinuity surfaces etc., as the inputs. Local networks of
rainfall measurements as well as, the groundwater conditions are now
available and these could be used for hazard evaluation as well as mapping.
(Narula et al 1996) was made by GSI. The next major attempt on regional
zonation was made in 1982 for the Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu.
contain low strength sheared material, the critical angles of failure of different
materials, identification of type of failure in a particular material and given
natural conditions as derived from landslide incidences (Gupta 1988, Sharan
1992). These inputs give normalized conditions for identifying areas of
different landslide potentials.
Sanjeevi Kumar et al (2004) have developed the web based GIS for
landslide inventory for the Nilgiris district. It includes spatio-temporal
landslide database, different landslide inducing factors and landslide hazard
zonation. This application was developed in ArcIMS to view the landslide
information together with other data layers.
The BMPTC (2003) has taken the effort to produce the Landslide
Hazard Zonation Atlas of India on 1: 6 million scale. This small landslide
hazard maps only provide a mega view of landslide hazard distribution across
our country.
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There are vast tracks of the Nilgiris, Which are landslide prone and
needs quick survey for zonation would take lot of resources, for the large
scale. From the small scale maps, high susceptibility areas should be
identified as a first priority, and then highest hazard areas should be selected
for large scale analysis. This will help to choose favorable locations for sitting
development schemes such as townships, dams, roads and other development.
2.7 SUMMARY