Unit IV

Chapter 04

Cellular Function

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Fig. 4.2
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(a)
G C

T A

G C

A T

(b) C G

T
A

C
G

T
A

C
G

Hydrogen
bond
Sugar–phosphate Sugar–phosphate
backbone backbone
(c)
Fig. 4.3
Fig. 4.1 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Adenine
NH2

N C
C N
HC
C CH
N N

HO P O CH2 O

OH
H H H H

OH H

Phosphate Deoxyribose
(a)

Purines

O N
NH2 N CH
C C
CH
C C HN C NH
N C NH
C N
C N
H NH2

Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

Pyrimidines

NH2 CH3 O O
H
C C C C
C
HC N HC NH HN CH

N C N C C CH
H H N
O O O H

Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U)

(b)
Fig. 4.4 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2 nm 1 DNA double
helix

Chromatin
Core particle

Linker DNA 11 nm 2 DNA winds

Nucleolus
around core
particles to form
nucleosomes
Nucleosome 11 nm in diameter

30 nm 3 Nucleosomes
fold accordion-
like into zigzag
fiber 30 nm in
diameter

300 nm 4 30 nm fiber is
(a) thrown into
50 nm
irregular loops
to form a fiber
300 nm thick
In dividing cells only

700 nm 5 In dividing
cells, looped
chromatin coils
further into a
700 nm fiber to
Chromatids Centromere form each
chromatid

700 nm 6 Chromosome at
the midpoint
(metaphase) of
cell division
(b)
a: © P. Motta & T. Naguro/SPL/Science Source
Fig. 4.5

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Kinetochore

Centromere

Sister
chromatids

(a) (b)
700 nm
b: © Biophoto Associates/Science Source
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Transcription Video
Fig. 4.6

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Gene (DNA)

1 Transcription

Pre-mRNA Intron Exon

A B C D E F

2 Splicing

mRNA 1 mRNA 2 mRNA 3

A C D B D E A E F

3 Translation

Protein 1 Protein 2 Protein 3

Fig. 4.7

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Amino acid–
accepting end A
C
C

U U A
Anticodon
 Fig. 03.29

Transcription: Initiation Video

 Fig. 03.30
Transcription: Elongation
and Termination
Fig. 4.6
Fig. 4.8 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 2

tRNA binds an
Pool of free amino acid
Ribosomal
amino acids ATP
subunits ADP + Pi
mRNA
cap Ribosome
tRNA

mRNA Protein tRNA delivers

amino acid
tRNA to ribosome
released
mRNA Polyribosome

Met
Ala
Thr

Large
E P A ribosomal
subunit
mRNA CGA UGC Anticodon
AUG GCU ACG
CGA
ACC
Nucleus
GGG Direction of Small
Nuclear ribosome Codon ribosomal
pore movement subunit

3 4
Free
protein
Folding
proteins

mRNA
Ribosome
assembly Ribosome

Direction of
translation
Protein

Transport
Rough vesicle
Growing endoplasmic
protein reticulum
Fig. 4.9

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Protein mRNA Ribosomes

50 nm
© Dr. Elena Kiseleva/Science Source
Fig. 4.10

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1 DNA double helix

TA C CGC CCT TGC G TA CTC ACT 2 Seven base triplets on the

template strand of DNA

AUG GCG GGA ACG CAU GAG UGA 3 The corresponding codons of
mRNA transcribed from the
“Start” “Stop” DNA triplets

UAC CGC CCU UGC GUA CUC

4 The anticodons of tRNA that
bind to the mRNA codons

Met Ala Gly Thr His Glu

5 The amino acids carried by
those six tRNA molecules

Met Ala Gly Thr His Glu

6 The amino acids linked into a
peptide chain
Fig. 4.10
Fig. 4.11
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1 Protein formed by
ribosomes on rough ER.

2 Protein packaged into transport

vesicle, which buds from ER.

Nucleus 3 Transport vesicles fuse into clusters that

unload protein into Golgi complex.

4 Golgi complex modifies

protein structure.

5 Golgi vesicle containing

finished protein is formed.

6 Secretory vesicles
release protein by
exocytosis.
Ribosomes

Golgi
Clathrin-coated
complex
transport vesicle
Rough ER

Lysosome
Table 4.3
Fig. 4.12
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Prolactin 1 Casein
7
Prolactin
receptor Exocytosis

ATP
Secretory
ADP vesicles

+ 6
Pi
2 Golgi
complex

Regulatory
Rough
Protein
endoplasmic
(transcription
reticulum
activator)

4
mRNA
for casein

Casein RNA
gene polymerase
Fig. 4.13
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Interstitial cell of testis

DNA

1
DNA codes
for mRNA
(transcription).

From pituitary 3 When testosterone is

needed, luteinizing
hormone stimulates
production of a second mRNA
messenger within the cell.
2 In the cytoplasm,
Translation mRNA codes for
the synthesis of
an enzyme
Second
(translation).
messenger
Luteinizing Enzyme
hormone

CH3 4 The second

messenger
CH3 activates the OH
dormant enzyme.
CH3 Activated
enzyme
Secreted
HO 5 The enzyme
6 Testosterone is
Cholesterol converts
cholesterol O secreted from the
Testosterone cell and exerts
to testosterone.
various anatomical,
physiological, and
behavioral effects.
Fig. 4.15
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Anaphase
Met
aph
ase
G2 G1
Second gap phase First gap phase
Growth and preparation Growth and normal
for mitosis metabolic roles

S
Synthesis phase
DNA replication
Fig. 4.11a
Fig. 4.11b
Fig. 4.14

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Old strand
Incoming
nucleotides Daughter DNA
New strand

(e)

Parental DNA
(b)
DNA polymerase
Replication
fork

(a)

DNA helicase
Key

A T (c) Gap in (d)

C G replication DNA ligase
Fig. 4.16
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1 Prophase
Chromosomes condense
and nuclear envelope
breaks down. Spindle
fibers grow from centrioles. 1
Centrioles migrate to
opposite poles of cell.

Aster

2 Metaphase
Chromosomes lie along midline
of cell. Some spindle fibers
attach to kinetochores.
Fibers of aster attach
to plasma membrane.
3

Spindle fibers

Centriole

3 Anaphase
Centromeres divide in two. 4
Spindle fibers pull sister
chromatids to opposite
poles
of cell. Each pole (future 4 Telophase
daughter cell) now has an
identical set of genes. Chromosomes gather
at each pole of cell.
Chromatin decondenses.
New nuclear envelope
appears at each pole.
New nucleoli appear
Chromatids in each nucleus.
Mitotic spindle
Kinetochore vanishes.

Nuclear envelope
re-forming

Daughter
cells in
interphase

Cleavage furrow

Chromatin

Nucleolus

(1-4): © Ed Reschke
 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 27.13

Meiosis I (first division) Meiosis II (second division)

Early prophase I Chromosome Prophase II

Chromatin condenses to Nucleus Nuclear envelopes
form visible chromosomes; disintegrate again;
Centromere
each chromosome has 2 chromosomes still
chromatids joined by a consist of 2 chromatids.
centromere. New spindle forms.
Centrioles

Metaphase II
Mid- to late prophase I Chromosomes align on
Homologous chromosomes Tetrad equatorial plane.
form pairs called tetrads.
Chromatids often break
and exchange segments Crossing-over
(crossing-over). Centrioles
produce spindle fibers. Spindle
Nuclear envelope fibers Anaphase II
disintegrates.
Centromeres divide;
sister chromatids
migrate to opposite
poles of cell. Each
chromatid now constitutes
Metaphase I Centromere a single-stranded
Tetrads align on Chromatid chromosome.
equatorial plane of
cell with centromeres
attached to spindle Equatorial
fibers. plane

Telophase II
New nuclear envelopes
form around chromosomes;
chromosomes uncoil and
Anaphase I become less visible;
Homologous cytoplasm divides.
chromosomes
separate and
migrate to opposite
poles of the cell.

Telophase I
New nuclear
envelopes
form around Final product is 4
chromosomes; haploid cells with
cell undergoes single-stranded
cytoplasmic chromosomes.
division
(cytokinesis).
Each cell is
now haploid. Cleavage furrow
Fig. 28.01b
Fig. 27.14
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Cross section of
seminiferous tubules
Lumen of
seminiferous tubule

Sperm

5
Spermiogenesis

Spermatid n n
n
n
4
Meiosis II

Secondary spermatocyte
n n
3
Meiosis I
Blood–testis barrier

Primary
2n
spermatocyte

Nurse cell
2

Type B spermatogonium 2n

Tight junction

1
Type A spermatogonium
2n
Basement membrane
of seminiferous tubule
Fig. 4.17
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1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 XX female XY male

© Science Source
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Fig. 4.18

Cleft chin Uncleft chin

CC, Cc cc
(a)

C c
CC Cc
15 Homozygous,
cleft chin
16 Heterozygous,
cleft chin
17
C

Cc cc
Heterozygous, Homozygous,
cleft chin uncleft chin
c
21 22 XX female

(b)
a (left): © Brad Barket/Getty Images; a (right): © Kurt Krieger/Corbis; b (top left, top right, bottom left): © Brad Barket/Getty Images;
b (bottom-right): © Kurt Krieger/Corbis
Fig. 4.19

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Gene 1

Phenotype
Gene 2
(eye color)

13 3
Gene

(top): © Getty Images RF; (middle): © Anthony Saint James/Getty Images RF; (bottom): © JupiterImages/Comstock/Getty Images RF