Thermal Physics – I

Thermometry
𝐂 𝐅−𝟑𝟐 𝐑
1. For clinical thermometer, 𝟓 = 𝟗
= 𝟒
𝐑𝐭 −𝐑𝐎 𝐭 𝐭
2. For Platinum Resistance Thermometer𝐭 𝐩 = 𝐑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 and 𝐭 − 𝐭 𝐩 = 𝟏. 𝟓{(𝟏𝟎𝟎)𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎}
𝟏𝟎𝟎 −𝐑𝐎
3. If X denote the thermometric physical quantity and X0, X100 and Xt be its values at 𝟎℃, 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ and
𝐗 −𝐗
𝐭℃ respectively then 𝐭 = (𝐗 𝐭 −𝐗𝟎 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎
4. For Constant volume gas thermometer the pressure of a gas at constant volume is the
𝐏 −𝐏
thermometric property. Therefore unknown temperature is𝐭 = (𝐏 𝐭 −𝐏𝟎 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎
5. Mercury thermometer: In this thermometer the length of a mercury column from some fixed point
𝐈 −𝐈
is taken as thermometric property. Thus, 𝐭 = (𝐈 𝐭 −𝐈𝟎 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎

Thermal Expansion of Solid

(𝐥𝟐 −𝐥𝟏 ) ∆𝐥
1. For thermal expansion of solid, linear expansion coefficient is 𝛂 = = 𝐥∆𝐭 and for small
𝐥𝟏 ×(𝐭 𝟐 −𝐭𝟏 )
𝟏 𝐝𝐥
expansion 𝛂 = (𝐝𝐭)
𝐥
(𝐒𝟐 −𝐒𝟏 ) ∆𝐒
2. For thermal expansion of solid, surface expansion coefficient is 𝛃 = = 𝐒∆𝐭 and for
𝐒𝟏 ×(𝐭 𝟐 −𝐭 𝟏 )
𝟏 𝐝𝐒
small expansion 𝛃 = 𝐒 ( 𝐝𝐭 )
(𝐕𝟐 −𝐕𝟏 ) ∆𝐕
3. For thermal expansion of solid, volume expansion coefficient is 𝛄 = = and for
𝐕𝟏 ×(𝐭 𝟐 −𝐭 𝟏 ) 𝐕∆𝐭
𝟏 𝐝𝐕
small expansion 𝛄 = 𝐕 ( 𝐝𝐭 )
4. Length elongation for thermal expansion ∆𝐥 = 𝐥𝛂∆𝐭
5. Surface expansion for thermal expansion ∆𝐒 = 𝐒𝛄∆𝐭
6. Volume expansion for thermal expansion ∆𝐕 = 𝐕𝛄∆𝐭
𝟏
7. Density of solid at any temperature t is 𝛒𝐭 = 𝛒𝟎 (𝟏+𝛄𝐭)
𝟏
8. Density of solid at any temperature t2𝛒𝟐 = 𝛒𝟏 (𝟏+𝛄∆𝐭)where ∆𝐭 = (𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 )
9. Relation between fractional volume and density change for thermal expansion of a solid body is
∆𝐕 ∆𝛒
= − = 𝛄∆𝐭 = 𝟑𝛂∆𝐭
𝐕 𝛒
𝛃 𝛄
10. Relation among expansion coefficients 𝛂 = =
𝟐 𝟑
𝐅
11. Thermal Stress 𝐀 = 𝐘. 𝛂. ∆𝐭 where thermal force developed is 𝐅 = 𝐘. 𝐀. 𝛂. ∆𝐭
𝐥
12. Time period of pendulum clock is 𝐓 = 𝟐𝛑√𝐠 where correct time period is 𝐓 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 with
effective length 𝐥 ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦
13. If pendulum clock runs n sec slow or fast per day for temperature variation due to thermal
(𝐓 ~𝐓 )
expansivity of its effective rod then 𝐧 = 𝟐𝐓 𝟏 × 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 sec/day
𝟏
 (𝐓𝟐 −𝐓𝟏 ) ∆𝐓 𝟏
14. Previous equation can be expressed as 𝐧 = × 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 = × 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 = . 𝛂. ∆𝐭 ×
𝐓𝟏 𝐓 𝟐
𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎
15. For principle of Compensated Pendulum made by two different rods
(∆𝐥)𝟏 = (∆𝐥)𝟐 ⟹ 𝐥𝟏 𝛂𝟏 ∆𝐭 = 𝐥𝟐 𝛂𝟐 ∆𝐭 ⟹ 𝐥𝟏 𝛂𝟏 = 𝐥𝟐 𝛂𝟐

16. For Harrison’s Grid Iron Compensated Pendulum, with (2n+1) no of steel rods and 2n no of
brass rods, we similarly have the condition (𝐧 + 𝟏)𝐥𝟏 𝛂𝟏 = 𝐧𝐥𝟐 𝛂𝟐
𝐝[𝟐+(𝛂𝟏 +𝛂𝟐 )∆𝐭]
17. Radius of Curvature of a Bimetallic Strip is 𝐫 = (𝛂 −𝛂 where d is the width of each
)∆𝐭
𝟏 𝟐
metallic strip.
18. For Conjugation of Pressure applied and Temperature increase of a Solid body we have ∆𝐭 =
∆𝐏
(𝐁−∆𝐏)𝛄

Thermal Expansion of Liquid

1.Relation between real and apparent volume expansion of liquid (∆𝐕)𝐫 = (∆𝐕)𝐚 + (∆𝐕)𝐠
(∆𝐕)𝐫
2. Real expansion coefficient of liquid is 𝛄𝐫 = 𝐕.∆𝐭
(∆𝐕)
3. Apparent expansion coefficient of liquid is 𝛄𝐚 = 𝐕.∆𝐭𝐚
4. Volume of finite amount of liquid at temperature t is 𝐕𝐭 = 𝐕𝐨 (𝟏 + 𝛄𝐫 ∆𝐭) = 𝐕𝐨 (𝟏 + 𝛄𝐫 𝐭)
5. Relation between real and apparent expansion coefficients is𝛄𝐫 = 𝛄𝐚 + 𝛄𝐠
6. For thermal expansion of liquid 𝛄𝐫 > 𝛄𝐚 for 𝛄𝐠 = +𝐯𝐞 ≠ 𝟎 . Otherwise 𝛄𝐫 ≈ 𝛄𝐚 for 𝛄𝐠 →
𝟎 and 𝛄𝐫 < 𝛄𝐚 for 𝛄𝐠 = −𝐯𝐞 due to anomalous expansion of container within a certain
temperature range.
𝟏
7. Density – Temperature relation for thermal expansion of liquid is 𝛒𝟐 = 𝛒𝟏 ((𝟏+𝛄 ∆𝐭))
𝐫
8. Expression of apparent expansion coefficient of liquid as measured by Weight thermometer is
𝐦 −𝐦
given by 𝛄𝐚 = 𝐦𝟏 ∆𝐭 𝟐 where 𝐦𝟏 > 𝐦𝟐 and ∆𝐭 = (𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 )
𝟐
9. Expression of real expansion coefficient of liquid as measured by Dulong – Petit process is given
𝐡 −𝐡
by 𝛄𝐫 = 𝐡𝟐 ∆𝐭𝟏
𝟏
10. For anomalous expansion of water, 𝛄𝐫 ]𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = −𝐯𝐞 (𝟎 ≤ 𝐭 ≤ 𝟒𝐨 𝐂 , = +𝐯𝐞 (𝐭 > 𝟒𝐨 𝐂 )
11. For thermal expansion of solid and liquid, the corrected reading of barometer is
𝐇 = 𝐡{𝟏 − (𝛄 − 𝛂)∆𝐭} where h is observed reading of barometer.
12. The apparent weight of a solid body when immersed fully within the liquid at temperature t is
given by 𝐖 = 𝐖𝐨 − 𝐁 = 𝐖𝐨 − 𝐕𝛒𝐠 where 𝐖𝐨 is the actual weight of the body, 𝛒 is the density
of the liquid and 𝐕 is the volume of that immersed body.
13. The apparent weight of a solid body when immersed fully within the liquid at respective
temperatures t1 and t2 are given by 𝐖𝟏 = 𝐖𝐨 − 𝐕𝟏 𝛒𝟏 𝐠 and 𝐖𝟐 = 𝐖𝐨 − 𝐕𝟐 𝛒𝟐 𝐠 where 𝐕𝟐 =
𝛒
𝐕𝟏 (𝟏 + 𝛄𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝 ∆𝐭) and 𝛒𝟐 = (𝟏+𝛄 𝟏 ∆𝐭) respectively.
𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝
 Thermal Expansion of Gas
𝟏 𝐝𝐕 𝐕𝐭 −𝐕𝐨
1. Volume Coefficient of gas is 𝛄𝐏 = ( ) =
𝐕 𝐝𝐓 𝐏=𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭 𝐕𝐨 .𝐭
𝟏 𝐝𝐏 𝐏𝐭 −𝐏𝐨
2. Pressure Coefficient of gas is 𝛄𝐕 = 𝐏 (𝐝𝐓)𝐕=𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭 = 𝐏𝐨 .𝐭
𝐦 𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐
3. For ideal gas, the equation of state is given by 𝐏𝐕 = 𝐧𝐑𝐓 ⟹ 𝐏𝐕 = 𝐌 𝐑𝐓 i.e. =
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐
𝐑
4. Specific Gas constant for ideal gas is 𝐫 = 𝐌
5. According to Boyel’s Law at constant temperature, 𝐏𝐕 = 𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐 = 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝐭
6. According to Charles’s Law at constant pressure 𝐕𝐭 = 𝐕𝐨 (𝟏 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑)
𝐭
7. According to Regnault’s Law of pressure at constant volume 𝐏𝐭 = 𝐏𝐨 (𝟏 + )
𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝟏 𝐝𝐏 𝐧𝐑 𝐧𝐑 𝟏 𝟏
8. From ideal gas equation state 𝛄𝐕 = ( ) = = = = 𝐨
/ 𝐂 and similarly
𝐏 𝐝𝐓 𝐕=𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭 𝐏𝐕 𝐧𝐑𝐓 𝐓 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝟏 𝐝𝐕 𝐧𝐑 𝐧𝐑 𝟏 𝟏
𝛄𝐏 = ( ) = = = = /𝐨 𝐂 .
𝐕 𝐝𝐓 𝐏=𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭 𝐏𝐕 𝐧𝐑𝐓 𝐓 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝟏
9. For ideal gas 𝛄𝐕 = 𝛄𝐏 = 𝐨
/ 𝐂
𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐
10. Density – temperature relation for ideal gas is 𝐓 =𝐓
𝟏 𝛒𝟏 𝟐 𝛒𝟐
𝐚
11. The equation of state for one mole of real gas is (𝐏 + 𝐯𝟐 ) (𝐕 − 𝐛) = 𝐑𝐓
𝐧𝟐 𝐚
12. The equation of state for n mole of real gas is (𝐏 + ) (𝐕 − 𝐧𝐛) = 𝐧𝐑𝐓
𝐕𝟐
𝐚
13. Expression of Boyel’s temperature for real gas is 𝐓𝐁 = 𝐛𝐑
𝟖𝐚
14. Expression of Critical temperature for real gas is 𝐓𝐜 =
𝟐𝟕𝐛𝐑
𝟐𝐚
15. Expression of Inversion temperature for real gas is 𝐓𝐢 = 𝐛𝐑
16. Expression of Critical volume and Critical pressure for real gas are respectively𝐕𝐜 = 𝟑𝐛 and
𝐚
𝐏𝐜 = 𝟐𝟕𝐛𝟐
𝟖
17. Relation between Critical temperature and Boyel’s temperature is 𝐓𝐜 = 𝟐𝟕 𝐓𝐁
18. Virial expansion for real gas is given by 𝐏𝐕 = 𝐀 + 𝐁 𝐩 + 𝐂𝐩𝟐 + 𝐃𝐩𝟑 +…………….. where A,
B, C, ….. are respectively Virial coefficient when for real gas 𝐀 > 𝐵 > 𝐶 > ⋯.
19. Value of Van dar Waal’s 2nd constant is 𝐛 = 𝟒𝐍𝐯𝐦 where 𝐍 is the number of real gas molecules
present in the close container and 𝐯𝐦 is the volume of a single real gas molecule.
20. Value of Van dar Waal’s 1st constant is a= 𝟒𝐓𝐁 𝐍𝐑𝐯𝐦
𝐑𝐓 𝟖
21. Critical constant for Van dar Waal’s gas is 𝐜 =
𝐏𝐜 𝐕𝐜 𝟑
𝟑 𝟏 𝟖 𝐏
22. Reduced equation of state for Van dar Waal’s gas is (𝐩𝐫 + 𝐕 𝟐 ) (𝐕𝐫 − 𝟑) = 𝐓𝐫 where 𝐩𝐫 = ,
𝐫 𝟑 𝐏𝐜
𝐕 𝐓
𝐕𝐫 = and 𝐓𝐫 =
𝐕𝐜 𝐓𝐜
𝐚′
23. Clausius’ equation of state for real gas: {𝐩 + 𝐓(𝐕+𝐜)𝟐 } (𝐕 − 𝐛) = 𝐑𝐓
𝐑𝐓
24. Dieterici’s equation of state for real gas: 𝐩 = 𝐕−𝐛 𝐞−𝐚/𝐑𝐓𝐕
𝐑𝐓 𝐕−𝟐𝐛
25. Saha and Bose’s equation of state for real gas: 𝐩 = − 𝟐𝐛 𝐞−𝐚/𝐑𝐓𝐕 𝐈𝐧 𝐕
𝐑𝐓 𝐀
26. Beattie and Bridgeman’s equation of state for real gas: 𝐩 = (𝟏 − 𝛂)(𝐕 + 𝐁) −
𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐
 𝐚(𝐓)
27. Reinganum’s equation of state for real gas: {𝐩 + } (𝐕 − 𝐛𝐞−𝐜/𝐑𝐓 ) = 𝐑𝐓
𝐕𝟐
𝐚
28. Berthelot’s equation of state for real gas: (𝐩 + 𝐓𝐕 𝟐 ) (𝐕 − 𝐛) = 𝐑𝐓
𝛛
29. At Boyel’s temperature (𝐓𝐁 ), 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐩𝐯 = 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭 = 𝐀, 𝛛𝐏 (𝐏𝐕) = 𝟎

Calorimetry
𝐐
1. Specific heat of liquid or gas is 𝐬 = 𝐦∆𝐭
2. Thermal Capacity of liquid or gas is 𝐂 = 𝐦𝐬
𝐬
3. Water equivalent for any substance 𝐰 = 𝐦 × 𝐬 where 𝐰 = water equivalent, 𝐦 = mass
𝐰
𝐬 =specific heat capacity of the body, 𝐬𝐰 = specific heat capacity of water.
4.𝐐 = 𝐦 × 𝐬 × ∆𝐭where Q = heat required, m = mass, s = specific heat capacity, ∆𝐭 = rise or fall in
temperature.
5. If the specific heat s varies with temperature over the interval, then the corresponding expression
𝐓
for Q is, 𝐐 = 𝐦 ∫𝐓 𝟐 𝐬(𝐭) ∙ 𝐝𝐓
𝟏
6. For heat exchange between two bodies, by the principle of calorimetry,
Heat gained by one body = Heat lost by the other.

Change of State or Change of Phase

1. For 1st order phase transition, P = Constant, T = Constant and g = Constant where P = Pressure, T
= Temperature and g = Specific Gibb’s Potential = u+pv-Ts
𝐝𝐏 𝐋
2. For 1st order phase transition, we have from Clausius Clapeyron 𝐝𝐓 = 𝐓(𝐯 −𝐯 ) where 𝐯𝟏 =
𝟐 𝟏
specific volume in 1st phase, 𝐯𝟐 = Specific volume in the 2nd phase, 𝐋 = Latent heat, 𝐓 =Phase
transition temperature
3. 𝐐 = 𝐦 × 𝐋where Q = heat required for ‘phase change’ at constant temperature m = mass, and L
= latent heat of the substance for the phase change being broughtabout.
𝐒𝐕𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐝𝐞𝐰𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭
4. Specific or Relative Humidity of close air is 𝐑𝐇 = 𝐒𝐕𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐦𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
5. Some useful constants are Specific heat capacity of water = 𝟒. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐉𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 𝐊 −𝟏 Latent heat
of fusion of ice at 𝟎℃ = 𝟑𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐉𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 Latent heat of vaporization of steam at𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ =
𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐉𝐤𝐠 −𝟏

Thermal Transmission
𝐐 𝐀(𝛉 −𝛉 )
1. The rate of heat conduction through a good conducting medium is 𝐭 = 𝐊. 𝟐𝐝 𝟏 where
symbols have their usual meanings.
𝐐 𝐝𝛉
2. The rate of heat conduction through a conducting bar is 𝐭 = −𝐊𝐀 𝐝𝐱where Q = amount of heat
flowing normally across a bar in time t A = cross sectional area, K = thermal conductivity of the
𝐝𝛉
material of the bar and 𝐝𝐱 is the temperature gradient which is itself negative.
3.The unit of thermal conductivity will be 𝐊]𝐜𝐠𝐬 = 𝐜𝐚𝐥. 𝐜𝐦−𝟏 . 𝐨−𝟏 𝐂 . 𝐬𝐞𝐜
−𝟏
, 𝐊]𝐒𝐈 =
𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭. 𝐦 . 𝐊 And the dimension of it will be
−𝟏 −𝟏 [𝐊] −𝟑
= 𝐌𝐋𝐓 . 𝐊 −𝟏
𝐝 𝟏 𝐝
4. The thermal resistance of a metallic plate of width 𝐝 and cross section 𝐀is𝐑 𝐭𝐡 = 𝛒𝐭𝐡 . 𝐀 = 𝐊 . 𝐀.
Also the thermal resistance of a uniform metallic rod of length 𝐥 and cross section 𝐀 will be
𝐥 𝟏 𝐥
𝐑 𝐭𝐡 = 𝛒𝐭𝐡 . 𝐀 = 𝐊 . 𝐀
5. The temperature at the junction of two metallic bar of equal cross sections in series with one
𝐊 𝐊
( 𝟏 𝛉𝟏 + 𝟐 𝛉𝟐 )
𝐝𝟏 𝐝𝟐
another is 𝛉 = 𝐊𝟏 𝐊𝟐
( + )
𝐝𝟏 𝐝𝟐
(𝐝𝟏 + 𝐝𝟐 )
6. Equivalent Conductivity for the Series Combination of two Metallic Foils: 𝐊 = 𝐝 𝐝
( 𝟏+ 𝟐)
𝐊𝟏 𝐊𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
7. Thermal resistance of two bars(i) in series is𝐑 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 +… (ii) in parallel is𝐑 = 𝐑 + 𝐑 +
𝟏 𝟐
……………
𝐝𝛉𝐞 𝐝𝟐 𝛉𝐞
8. Fourier’s equation for one dimensional heat conduction is given by =𝐡 − 𝛍𝛉𝐞 where in
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐱 𝟐
𝛛𝛉
three dimensions it is given by 𝐡𝛁 𝟐 𝛉 = (by neglecting radiation loss). For one dimensional heat
𝛛𝐭
𝐝𝛉 𝐝𝟐 𝛉
conduction, this equation without radiation loss is 𝐝𝐭 = 𝐡 𝐝𝐱𝟐
9. For radial conduction, the temperature at any intermediate cylindrical layer through cylindrical
𝟏
conduction is 𝛉 = [(𝛉𝟏 𝐈𝐧𝐫𝟐 − 𝛉𝟐 𝐈𝐧𝐫𝟏 ) − (𝛉𝟏 − 𝛉𝟐 )𝐈𝐧𝐫]
𝐈𝐧(𝐫𝟐 /𝐫𝟏 )
10.For radial conduction, the temperature at any intermediate spherical layer through spherical
𝟏 (𝛉 −𝛉 )𝐫 𝐫
conduction is 𝛉 = 𝐫 −𝐫 [ 𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 + (𝛉𝟐 𝐫𝟐 − 𝛉𝟏 𝐫𝟏 )]
𝟐 𝟏
𝐐𝐈𝐧(𝐫 /𝐫 )
11. Nusselt equation of thermal conductivity for cylindrical conduction is 𝐊 = 𝟐𝛑𝐥(𝛉 𝟐−𝛉𝟏 )
𝟏 𝟐
𝐐 (𝐫𝟐 −𝐫𝟏 )
12. Nusselt equation of thermal conductivity for spherical conduction is 𝐊 = 𝟒𝛑𝐥(𝛉
𝟏 −𝛉𝟐 )𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
13. By Ingen Hausa experiment, we have the comparison of thermal conductivities of several
𝐊 𝐊 𝐊
metallic rods 𝐥𝟐𝟏 = 𝐥𝟐𝟐 = 𝐥𝟐𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝐊 𝛑𝟐 𝐤 𝟐 𝐊
14. By Wiedemann Franz law, 𝛔𝐓 = ( ) 𝐢. 𝐞. 𝛔 ∝𝐓
𝟑𝐉 𝐞
15. Comparison between thermal and electrical conduction:
Heat flow through a conducting rod Current flow through a resistance
𝒅𝑸 𝒅𝒒
Heat current 𝑯 = 𝒅𝑻 = rate of heat flow 𝑯 = Electric current 𝒊 = 𝒅𝒕 = rate of charge flow 𝒊 =
∆𝑻 𝑻𝑫 𝑰 ∆𝑽 𝑷𝑫 𝑰
= 𝑹 = 𝒌𝑨 k=thermal conductivity = 𝑹 = 𝝈𝑨 𝝈 =electrical conductivity
𝑹 𝑹 𝑹 𝑹

𝐝𝐱 𝐊𝛉
16. Rate of ice accumulation at the upper surface of water tank in a cold country is =
𝐝𝐭 𝟖𝟎𝛒𝐱
17. In time 𝒕 , if the layer of ice with width 𝒚 be accumulated on the water surface of a water tank in
𝟏
𝟐𝐊𝛉
cold country then 𝐲 = [ 𝟖𝟎𝛒 . 𝐭 + 𝐱 𝟐 ]𝟐 − 𝐱where is the width of already accumulated ice layer on
that water surface.
18. If 𝐈𝐫 , 𝐈𝐭 and 𝐈𝐚 be the respective intensities of reflected, transmitted and the absorbed part of
𝐈 𝐈 𝐈
radiation then by energy conservation, we have,𝐈𝐫 + 𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈𝐭 = 𝐈𝐨 𝐨𝐫, 𝐈 𝐫 + 𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈 𝐭 = 𝟏 ⟹
𝐨 𝐨 𝐨
 𝐈𝐫 𝐈 𝐈𝐭
𝐑 + 𝐀 + 𝐓 = 𝟏 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐑 = =Reflectivity, 𝐀 = 𝐈𝐚 = Absorptivity and 𝐓 = = Transmitivity.
𝐈𝐨 𝐨 𝐈𝐨
Now if we consider that 𝐑 = 𝐓 = 𝟎 then A =1. This kind of body is called black body. i.e. the body
of 100% absorptivity is called black body or ideal black body.
𝐐
19. Emissive Power of a Hot Body is 𝐞 ≡ 𝐀𝐭where that hot body emits Q amount of radiation from
surface area A of that hot body in time t
20. The effective emissive power of that hot body will be 𝐞 = 𝛜 𝛔 (𝐓 𝟒 − 𝐓𝐨𝟒 ) where 𝛜 is
proportionality constant, called emissivity of that hot body.
∞
21. Spectral absorptive power ‘𝒂𝝀 ’ 𝒂 = ∫𝟎 𝒂𝝀 𝒅𝝀
∞
22. Spectral emissive power ‘𝒆𝝀 ’ 𝒆 = ∫𝟎 𝒆𝝀 𝒅𝝀
𝐞 𝐞𝟐 𝐞𝟑 𝐞𝐁
23. By Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation, 𝐚𝟏 = = =⋯= = 𝐞𝐁 = emissive power of
𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝐚𝟑 𝐚𝐁
a black body.
𝛅𝐐
24. The general cooling law − 𝛅𝐭 = 𝐊𝐟(𝛉)𝛅𝐐 = quantity of heat lost by a body in time, K =
constant dependent on the nature and area of the exposed surface of the body and 𝛉 = excess
temperature of the body over the surroundings.
25. For Forced Convection (Newton’s law of cooling) rate of cooling∝ (𝛉 − 𝛉𝟎 )
26. The integral form of Newton’s law of cooling is 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 (𝛉𝛉𝟏−−𝛉𝛉𝒐 ) = 𝐤𝐭 where the temperature of that
𝟐 𝒐
hot body decreases from temperature𝛉𝟏 to temperature𝛉𝟐 in time𝐭and the temperature of the
surrounding is 𝛉𝟎 .
27. For natural convection rate of cooling∝ (𝛉 − 𝛉𝟎 )𝟓/𝟒 . This is known as the five fourths power
law or Langmuir-Lorentz law.
28. 𝐄 = 𝛔𝐓 𝟒 ;E = rate of loss of heat per unit area of the surface of a black body 𝛔 = Stefan’s
constant, T = absolute temperature
29. 𝐄𝐑 = 𝛔(𝐓 𝟒 − 𝐓𝟎𝟒 )where 𝐄𝐑 =net rate of loss of heat per unit area of the surface of a black
body at absolute temperature T,𝐓𝟎 =absolute temperature of the surroundingsFor small difference
of temperature(𝐓 = 𝐓𝟎 )we have𝐄𝐑 ∝ (𝐓 − 𝐓𝟎 )
30. By Plank’s law of black body radiation, the emissive power of a black body in respect of the
𝟖𝛑𝐡𝐜 𝟏
radiant heat of wavelength 𝝀 is 𝐞𝛌 = 𝛌𝟒 . 𝐡𝐜
(𝐞𝛌𝐤𝐓 −𝟏)

31. By Wien’s displacement law, 𝛌𝐦 𝐓 =constant =𝟐. 𝟗𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐦𝐊where𝛌𝐦 = wavelength for
which the emissive power (𝐄𝐒 ) is maximum, T = absolute temperature of the black body.