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Memristor The
Memristor The
+1
resistor) which has every right to be as basic as the three
classical circuit elements already in existence, namely, the
resistor, inductor, and capacitor. Although the existence ” -
of a memristor in the form of a physical device without -3
internal power supply has not yet been discovered, its
laboratory realization in the form of active circuits will be
(cl
presented in Section II.’ Many interesting circuit-theoretic
properties possessed by the memristor, the most important
of which is perhaps the passivity property which provides +I -
the circuit-theoretic basis for its physical realizability, will ”
be derived in Section III. An electromagnetic field in- -3
terpretation of the memristor characterization will be pre-
sented in Section IV with the help of a quasi-static expansion
Cd)
of Maxwell’s equations. Finally, some novel applications
of memristors will be presented in Section V. Fig. 1. Proposed symbol for memristor and its three basic realizations.
(a) Memristor and its q-q curve. (b) Memristor basic realization 1:
II. MEMRISTOR-THE FOURTH BASIC M-R mutator terminated by nonlinear resistor &t. (c) Memristor
CIRCUIT ELEMENT basic realization 2: M-L mutator terminated by nonlinear inductor
C. (d) Memristor basic realization 3: M-C mutator terminated by
From the circuit-theoretic point of view, the three basic nonlinear capacitor e.
two-terminal circuit elements are defined in terms of a
relationship between two of the four fundamental circuit and theflux-linkage cp.Out of the six possible combinations
variables, namely;the current i, the voltage v, the charge q, of these four variables, five have led to well-known rela-
tionships [l]. Two of these relationships are already given
Manuscriptreceived November 25, 1970; revised February 12,197l. by q(t)=JL w i(T) d7 and cp(t)=sf. m D(T)d7. Three other rela-
This research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation tionships are given, respectively,. by the axiomatic definition
under Grant GK 2988.
The author was with the School of Electrical Engineering, Purdue of the three classical circuit elements, namely, the resistor
University, Lafayette, Ind. He is now with the Department of Electrical (defined by a relationship between v and i), the inductor
Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berke- (defined by a relationship between cpand i), and the capacitor
ley, Calif. 94720.
r In a private communication shortly before this paper went into (defined by a relationship between q and v). Only one rela-
press, the author learned from Professor P. Penfield, Jr., that he and tionship remains undefined, the relationship between 9
his colleagues at M.I.T. have also been using the memristor for model- and q. From the logical as well as axiomatic points of view,
ing certain characteristics of the varactor diode and the partial super-
conductor. However, a physical device which corresponds exactly to a it is necessary for the sake of completeness to postulate the
memristor has yet to be discovered. existence of a fourth basic two-terminal circuit element which
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508 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, SEPTEMBER 1971
TABLE I
CHARACTERIZATION AND REALIZATION OF M-R, M-L, AND M-C MUTATORS
=
RANSMISSION MATRIX
SYMBOL BASH: REALIZATIONS
‘PE AND
::I = [T(P’][J USING CONTROLLED SOURCES
CHARACTERIZATION
I
REALIZATION 2
w+gf REALIZATION I
‘2
[ 1F--a-D---a
il il
+ (2) + i2+
R +(!%) -i2+
“2 P 0
+ +
I ~R,b) = “2 I c “2
0 P Uqdt) - (li,dt)
dVp
“I= dt
dip
iI = -7
Y-R -
MUTATOR (q.Vl -RvR,iR) REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2
2
di2
VI’ -7
I
REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2
gq-:
I
REALIZATION 3 REALIZATtON 4
Identical to TcR,(p)
“I = “2
f c Type I C-R MUTATOR 1
’ : I +(!!k) i2+
M-L
iI=-
di2
v +
!TDq-y(VI)-
MUTATOR
i
“!
L 1
-
(q,# -WL, iL) REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2
2
m
di,
v, = - dt
TML2fP”
(Identical
[ 10
)
to TLR2(p)
P
o
:
Y
, :f-pq*
I
k,(P)
(I&tical
[ 1 P
o
10 TLRltp)
0
(
REALlZATlON 3
l
REALIZATlON 4
I ;
REALIZATION I REALIZATION 2
r. ,-
3pq +
1p o -D---a
il i2
+ (ipI
blcp= + x
2 “I ; “2
t/ildt)- I
v, =-i (Idtmticdl t0 TCR2 ( p)
2
d”2 ,f a Type 2 C-R WTATOF f)
il =r(t
-
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CHUA: MEMRISTOR-MISSING CIRCUIT ELEMENT 509
+Ecc
l?&l50) RJ9lO)
014 R4( IOOK)
(2~4236) L
-k +
1
“2
- -
I f I 1 1 h-b--&
4-
Port 2
1 AR, 1 SO-IOA JRLq-
I I I
’ *-kc
Fig. 2. Practical active circuit realization of type-l M-R mutator based on realization 1 of Table I.
is characterized by a cp-q curve.2 This element will hence- would be necessary to design a p-q curL;e tracer. The com-
forth be called the memristor because, as will be shown later, plete schematic diagram of a practical p-q curve tracer is
it behaves somewhat like a nonlinear resistor with memory. shown in Fig. 3.4 Using this tracer, the p-q curves of three
The proposed symbol of a memristor and a hypothetical memristors realized by the type-l M-R mutator circuit of
cp-q curve are shown in Fig. l(a). Using a ,mutator [3], a Fig. 2 are shown in Fig. 4(b), (d), and (f) corresponding to
memristor with any prescribed p-q curve can be realized the nonlinear resistor V-Z curve shown in Fig. 4(c), (e), and
by connecting an appropriate nonlinear resistor, inductor, or (g), respectively. To demonstrate the rather “peculiar”
capacitor across port 2 of an M-R mutator, an M-L voltage and current waveforms generated by the simple
mutator, and an M-C mutator, as shown in Fig. l(b), (c), memristor circuit shown in Fig. 5(a), three representative
and (d), respectively. These mutators, of which there are memristors were synthesized with q--q curves as shown in Fig.
two types of each, are defined and characterized in Table I.3 5(b), (d), and (f), respectively. The oscilloscope tracings of
Hence, a type-l M-R mutator would transform the uR-if< the voltage u(t) and current i(t) of each memristor are shown
curve of the nonlinear resistor f(u,+ iR)=O into the corre- in Fig. 5(c), (e), and (g), respectively. The waveforms in
sponding p-q curvef(cp, q)=O of a memristor. In contrast Fig. 5(c) and (e) are measured with a 63-Hz sinusoidal input
to this, a type-2 M-R mutator would transform the iR-vR signal, while the waveforms shown in Fig. 5(g) are measured
curve of the nonlinear resistor f(iR, uR)=O into the corre- with a 63-Hz triangular input signal. It is interesting to ob-
sponding p-q curvef(9, q) = 0 of a memristor. An analogous serve that these waveforms are rather peculiar in spite of the
transformation is realized with an M-L mutator (M-C fact that the cp-q curve of the three memristors are relatively
mutator) with respect to the ((PL, iL) or (iL, cp~) [(UC,qc) or smooth. It should not be surprising, therefore, for us to
(qc, UC)]curve of a nonlinear inductor (capacitor). find that the memristor possesses certain unique signal-
Each of the mutators shown in Table I can be realized processing properties not shared by any of the three existing
by a two-port active network containing either one or two classical elements. In fact, it is precisely these properties that
controlled sources, as shown by the various realizations in have led us to believe that memristors will play an important
Table 1. Since it is easier to synthesize a nonlinear resistor role in circuit theory, especially in the area of device model-
with a prescribed u-i curve [l], only operational models of ing and unconventional signal-processing applications. Some
k-R mutators have been built. A typical active circuit of these applications will be presented in Section V.
realizatian based on realization 1 (Table I) of a type-l
M-R mutator is given in Fig. 2. In order to verify that a
III. CIRCUIT-THEORETIC PROPERTIES OF MEMRISTORS
memristor is indeed realized across port 1 of an M-R muta-
tor when a nonlinear resistor is connected across port 2, it By definition a memristor is characterized by a relufiorz
of the type g(;p, q)=O. It is said to be charge-controlled
2 The postulation of new elements for the purpose of completeness (flux-controlled) if this relation can be expressed as a single-
of a physical system is not without scientific precedent. Indeed, the valued function of the charge rZ(flux-linkage a). The voltage
celebrated discovery of the periodic table for chemical elements by
Mendeleeff in 1869 is a case in point [2].
3 Observe that a type-l (type-2)‘M-L mutator is identical to a type-l 4 For additional details concerning the design and operational char-
(type-2) C-R mutator (L- R’mutator). Similarly, a type-l (type-2) M-C acteristics of the circuits shown in Figs. 2 and 3, as well as that for a
mutaror is identical to a type-l (type-2) L-R mutator (C-R mutator). type-2 M-R mutator, see [4].
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, SEPTEMBER 1971
to l hwlZOontol
twmiml Of
t
ouilloscop*
+ t
v,( I= k, jvbldr
--(D
I to ground
terminal d
oscilbscom
-. +
to
‘sine
v,(t) *IO”8
VoltogI
gonratot
IAMETER SPECIFICAT0NS
to+ vwtlcd
r terminal of
oscillo*copr
(current sensing ruustor. i;p~cal
value: I, I), loo, or ooon ).
L t
vi{ t )*k, ]ilr)dr
--o
qgbca* factor for mtegmtof,
should be ot b+t 5K).
R12. R,s (I K wtenttomelsr for
I= k
X
ze!?-s
Fig. 3. Complete schematic diagram of memristor tracer for tracing the pq curve of a memristor.
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.
CHUA: MEMRISTOR-MISSING CIRCUIT ELEMENT 511
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512 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, SEPTEMBER 1971
t
q.(t) =ii(r)dr
-m
1, msec.
Q, milli-
weber
t , msec.
( b 1Horuontal Scole:2.66 milli-weber per division, ( c hlorizontol Scale: 2 msec. per division.
Vertical Stole: 5 p coul per division. Vertical Scale:5 mo per division (upper trace).
lOvolts per division (lower trace).
t , msec.
p. milli-
weber
t, msec.
(d Mlorizontol Scala:2.66 milli-weber per division. (e LHorizontol Scale: 5 msec. per divisioo.
Vertical Scale: 5 p coul per division. Vertical Scale:2 mo per division (upper tmce).
5 volte per division (lower trace).
p, milli-
weber
( f Mlorizontol Scale:2.66 milli-weber per division, (g ).Horizontol Scale:5 msec. per division.
Vertical Scale: 5 p coul per division. Vertical Scale:5 mo per division (upper trace).
5 wits per division (lower trace).
Fig. 5. Voltage and current waveforms associated with simple memristor circuit corresponding to a sinusoidal input
signal [(c) and (e)] and a triangular input signal r(g)], respectively.
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CHUA: MEMRISTOR-MISSING CIRCUIT ELEMENT 513
where Qj and @j are arbitrary constants of integration. Equa- Theorem 4: Principle bf Stationary Action (Coaction)
tions (8) and (9) together constitute a system of (b+ 1) inde- A vector qJ: = Qd: (ea =$) is a solution of a network N
pendent nonlinear functional equations in (b+ 1) unknowns. containing only charge-controlled (flux-controlled) mem-
Hence, solving for cp,we obtain a relation f(q, cp)= 0. ristors if, and only if, it is a stationary point of the total
Q.E.D. action a(qJ [total coaction a(&] associated with N; i.e.,
Theorem 3: Existence and Uniqueness Theorems the gradient of a(qa) (&(I&) evaluated at Q6: (@J is zero:
Any network containing only memristors with positive a@(d/aq, (Q=Q~ = 0 ab?pee, lo,=*, = 0. (12)
incremental memristances has one, and only one, solution.
Proof: Since the governing equations of a network contain- Proof: It suffices to prove the charge-controlled case since
ing only memristors are identical in form to the governing the flux-controlled case will then follow by duality. Taking
equations of a network containing only nonlinear resistors, the gradient of a(qe) afid applying the chain rule for dif-
the proof follows mututis mutandis the well-known proof ferentiating composite functions, we obtain
given in [6], [7]. Q.E.D.
It is sometimes easier and more instructive to analyze a = BaA(q)/dq IGB’s, = By? o (BW. (13)
single-element-type nonlinear network by finding the @a-
tionary points of an associated scalar poteiltial function [8], But the expression BP o (Btq,)=O since this is simply the
[9]. We will now present an analogous development of this set of KVL equations written in terms of C. Consequently,
concept for a pure memristor network.9 any vector 9, is a solution of N if, arid only if, it is a sta-
tionary point of Ct(qJ. Q.E.D.
Dejnition 1
Since the action and coaction of a memristor is a: poten-
We define the action (coaction) associated with a charge- tial function, they can be used to derive frequency power
controlled (flux-controlled) memristor to be the integral formulas for memristors operating. ris frequency converters.
We assume the memristor is operating in the steady state so
that we can write the following variables in multiply-periodic
Consider now a pure memristor network N containing n Fourier series:
nodes and b branches. Let 3 be a tree of N and d: its associ-
ated cotree. Let us label the branches consecutively starting v(t) = Re c [V&at] i(t) = Re c [I,eQal]
with the tree elements and define v=(cpl, cpZ,. . . ¶+a¶)”
4 =(ql, q2, . . . , q#, qa=(‘pl, CPZ,+ a,. ,, ‘P~-#, and g, = (qn, v(t) = Re 5 [&ej@] q(t) = Re 5 [Qaej@]
LI -2
qn+1, . . . , q#. It is well known that either ea or qe coristi-
tutes a complete set of variables in the sense that (e=O& and
and q = Btq,, where D and B are the fundamental cut-set A(t)=Rez [A,ehJ]
matrix and the fundamental loop matrix, respectively [IO]. OL
where V,>_jw,@, and ‘lol>_joUQo. Following identical pro-
Dejnition 2
cedure and notation as given in [ll, ch. 31, we let wa denote
We define the ,total actitin a(qJ [total coaction &(&I the set of independent frequencies and make a small change
associated with a network N containing charge-controlled in This perturbation induces a change in the
6~$,=Li(~,t).
j=l j=lJ 0
.[Re
c 5(ao,/aw,)ej~‘h
11
LI al
(15) ’
and where o denotes the “composition” operation. Equating (14) and (15) and taking their time averages, we
obtain the following Manley-Rowe-like formula relating the
reactive powers P,=+ Im (V,Z,*):
*To simplify the hypothesis, we assume that all memristors are
characterized by differentiable onto functiotls.
9 Several useful potential functions have been defined for the three
classical circuit elements. They are the content and cocontent of a re- ~[ac&/awa] [P&a = 0 . (16)
P
sistor [8], the magnetic energy and magnetic coenergy of an inductor
[9], and the electric energy and electric coenergy of a capacitor 191.
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514 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, SEPTEMBER 1971
It is possible to derive a Page-Pantell-like inequality re- state variables occurs whenever an independent loop con-
lating the realpowers of a passive memristor by making use sisting of elements corresponding to those specified in the
of the passivity criterion (&)(64)>0 (Theorem 1); namely, definition of IZ.&~ and nLw is present in the network. [We as-
sume the algebraic sum of charges around any loop (flux-
linkages in any cut set) is zero.] Similarly, a constraint
among the state variables occms whenever an independent
cut set consisting of elements corresponding to those speci-
L I
fied in the definition of fiM and &CMis present in the network.
Since each constraint removes one degree of freedom each
where Pa=3 Re ( VaZz) is the real power at frequency w,.
time this situation occurs, the maximum order of complexity
Since the procedure for deriving (17) follows again mutatis
(bL+bc+bM) must be reduced by one. Q.E.D.
mutandis that given by Penfield [ 111, it will not be given here
to conserve space. An examination of (17) shows that gain
IV. AN ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERPRETATION
proportional to the frequency squared is likely in a mem-
OF MEMRISTOR CHARACTERIZATION
ristor upconverter, but that severe loss is to be expected in
a memristor mixer. It is also easy to show that converting It is well known that circuit theory is a limiting special
efficiencies approaching 100 percent may be possible in a casg of electromagnetic field theory. In particular, the char-
memristor harmonic generator. acterization of the three classical circuit elements can be
So far we have considered only pure memristor networks. given an elegant electromagnetic interpretation in terms of
Let us now consider the general case of a network containing the quasi-static expansion of Maxwell’s equations [12]. Our
resistors, inductors, capacitors, and memristors. The equa- objective in this section is to give an analogous interpreta-
tions of motion for this class of networks now take the form tion for the characterization of memristors. While this
of a system of m first-order nonlinear differential equations interpretation does not prove the physical realizability of a
in the normal form $=f(x, t) [l], where x is an mX 1 vector “memristor device” without internal power supply, it does
whose components are the state variables. The number m is suggest the strong plausiblity that such a device might some-
called the “order of complexity” of the network and is equal day be discovqred. Let us begin by writing down Maxwell’s
to the maximum number of independent initial conditions equations in differential form:
that can be arbitrarily specified [I]. The following theorem
shows how the order of complexity can be determined by 09)
inspection.
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CHUA: MEMRISTOR-MISSING CIRCUIT ELEMENT 515
Zero-Order Maxwell’s Equations where 3( .), (R( .), and a)( .) are one-to-one continuous func-
tions from R3 onto R3. Under these assumptions, (26) and
curl EIJ = 0
(23) (27) can be combined to give
curl Ho = Jo. (24)
curl HI = d(E1). (30)
First-Order Maxwell’s Equations
Observe that (30) does not contain any time derivative.
aBo (25) hence, under any specified boundary con,dition appropriate
cur1 E1 = - a, for the device, the first-order electric field E1 is related to
the first-order magnetic field HI dy a functional relation ;
aoo
curl HI = J1 -I- -. cw namely
a7
EI = f(H,). (31)
The total quasi-static vector quantities are obtained by keep-
ing oniy the first two terms of the formal pdwer series atid by If we substitute (31) for E1 in (29) and then substitute the in-
setting CY=1; namely, E-Eo+E1, H=H”+Hl, D=&+D1, verse function of CR(.) from (28) into the resulting expres-
B= Bo+ B1, J-Jo+ JI. The three classical circuit elements sion, we obtain
have been identified as electromagnetic systems whose solu-
tions correspond to certain combinations of the zero-order D1 = a, o f o [W(B1)] = g(B1). (32)
and first-order solutions of (23)<26). For example, a re-
sistor has been identified to be an electromagnetic system Equation (32) specified the instantaneous (memoryless)
whose first-order fields are negligible compared to its zero- relationship between DI and BI; it can be interpreted as the
order fields, so that its characterization can be interpreted quasi-static representation of the electromagnetic field quan-
as an instantaneous (memoryless) relationship between the tities of the memristor.
two zero-order fields Eo and HO. In contrast to this, an in- To summarize, we offer the interpretation that the physi-
ductor has been identified to be an electromagnetic system cal mechanism characterizing a memristor device must come
where only the first-order magnetii: field is nedigible. In from the instantineous (memoryless) interaction between
this case, the electromagnetic system can be interpreted as the first-order electric field and the first-order magnetic field
an inductor in series with a resistor. Similarly, a capacitor of some appropriately fabricated device so that it possesses
has been identified to be an electromagnetic system where the two properties prescribed above. This interpretation
only the first-order electric field is negligible. In this case, implies that a physical memristor device is essentially an ac
the electromagnetic system can be interpreted as a capacitor device, for otherwise, its associated dc electromagnetic fields
in parallel with a resistor. The remaining case where both will give rise to nonnegligible zero-order fields. This require-
first-order fields are not negligible has been dismissed as ment is consistent with the circuit-theoretic properties of the
having no c&responding situation in circuit theory [ 121. We memristor, for a dc current source would give rise to an in-
will now offer the suggestion that this missing combination finite charge [q(t) --+oo as t+w ] and a dc voltage source
is precisely that which gives rise to the characterization of a would give rise to an infinite flux-linkage [cp(t)+w as t-w ].
memristor. This requirement is, of course, intuitively reasonable. After
In order to add more weight to the above interpretation, all, we do not connect a dc voltage source across an inductor.
we will now show that under appropriate conditions the Nor do we connect a dc current source across a capacitor!
instantaneous value of the first-order electric flux density D1
V. SOME NOVEL APPLICATIONS OF MEMRISTORS
[whose surface integral is proportional to the charge q(t)]
is related to the instantaneous value of the first-order mag- The voltage and current waveforms of the simple mem-
netic flux density B1 [whose surface integral is proportional ristor circuit shown in Fig. 5 are rather peculiar and are
to the flux-linkage p(t)]. This would be the case if we postu- certainly not typical of those normally observed in RLC
late the existence of a two-terminal device with the following circuits. This observation suggests that memristors might
two properties. 1) Both zero-order fields are negligible com- give rise to some novel applications outside those for RLC
pared to the first-order fields; namely, E= E1, H=H1, circuits. Our objective in this section is to present a number
D-D], B= BI, and J- JI. 2) The material from which the of interesting examples which might indicate the potential
device is made is nonlinear. To be completely general, we usefulness of memristors.
will denote the nonlinear relationships bylo
A. Applications of Memristors to Device Modeling”
JI = dE1) (27) Although many unconventional devices have been in-
Bl = 63(Hd (28) vented in the last few years, the physical operating principles
Dl = LD(&) (29) of most of these devices have not yet been fully understood.
In order to analyze circuits containing these devices, a
lo In the caseof isotropic material. (27)-(29) reduceto J, = u(&)&,
B1=~(NI)HI, and DI=@~)E,, where the coefficientsu(.), p(.), and *I The author is grateful to one of the reviewerswho pointed out
4’ ) are the nonlinear conductivity, nonlinear magnetic permeability, and that a charge-controlledmemristor has been usedin the modeling of
nor&new dielectric permittioity of the material. varactar diodes [13], [14].
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516 1EEETRANSACTIONSON CIRCUITTHEORY,SEPTEMBER 1971
RI by
i +
+ dq/dt = u&V[RI + Rz + M(q)].
” T
v*( t 1 i “0
Since the variables are separable, the solution is readily found
Rz to be
i l-
IO).
v*(t ) v,(t)
I I----'1 E,I ---_T------_______
-l
where
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CHUA: MEMRISTOR-MISSING CIRCUIT ELEMENT
517
R,‘IK i
A V,(l)
E . . - _- - - - -
ä l
0 : to (cl
I
4 vow 1 Td *
E* _- _ ..- _ _ - . __- - _ _ _ - _ _ _ -- - - -
Fig. 7. Output waveform u,(f) for basic timing circuit in (a) demon-
strates that the memristor with (0-4 curve shown in (b) provides an plated is specified by the manufacturer and from this in-
excellent circuit model for an E-Cell. formation the circuit is designed so that the correct amount
of current will pass through the E-Cell, thereby providing
Example 2: Modeling an Electrolytic E-Cell the desired timing interval. The effect of closing the switch
S in Fig. 7(a) at t= to is equivalent to applying a step input
An E-Cell (also known as a Coul Cell) is an electrochem- voltage of E volts at to, as shown in Fig. 7(c).
ical two-terminal device [20] capable of producing time Since the circuit in Fig. 7(a) can be obtained from the
delays ranging from seconds to months. An E-Cell can be circuit in Fig. 6(a) upon setting Rz to zero, we immediately
considered as a subminiature electrolytic plating tank con- obtain the output voltage vO(t), as shown in Fig. 7(d). This
sisting of three basic components, namely, an anode, a output voltage waveform is almost identical to the cor-
cathode, and an electrolyte. The anode, usually made of responding waveform’measured from an E-Cell timing cir-
gold, is immersed in the electrolyte solution which in turn cuit. The timing interval in this model is equal to the time
is housed within a silver can that also serves as the cathode. delay Td. The only discrepancy between this waveform and
The time delay is controlled by the initial quantity of silver that actually measured with an E-Cell timing circuit is that,
that has been previously plated from the cathode onto the in practice, the rise time is not zero. It always takes a finite
anode and the operating current. During the specified timing but small time interval for an E-Cell to switch completely
interval silver ions will be transferred from the anode to the from a low to a high resistance. The abrupt jump in Fig.
cathode, and the E-Cell behaves like a linear resistor with a 7(d) is, of course, due to the piecewise-linear nature of the
low resistance. The end of the timing interval corresponds assumed cp--qcurve. Hence, even the finite switching time
to the time in which all of the silver has been plated off the can be accurately modeled by replacing the cp-q curve with
anode; thereupon the E-Cell behaves like a linear resistor a curve having a continuous derivative that essentially ap-
with a high resistance. Hence, any reasonable model of an proximates the piecewise-linear curve.
E-Cell must behave like a time-varying linear resistor which
changes from a low resistance to a high resistance after a dc B. Application of Memristors to Signal Processing
current is passed through it for a specified period of time The preceding examples demonstrated that certain types
equal to the timing interval. We will now show that this be- of memristors can be used for switching as well as for delay-
havior can be precisely modeled by a memristor with the ing signals. Memristors can also be used to process many
cp-q curve shown in Fig. 7(b). To demonstrate the validity types of signals and generate various waveforms of practical
of this model, let us analyze the simplest E-Cell timing cir- interest. Due to limitation of space, we will present only one
cuit, shown in Fig. 7(a), but with the E-Cell replaced by a typical application that uses a memristor to generate a
memristor. In practice, the exact amount of silver to be staircase waveform [21]. This type of waveform has been
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518 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUIT THEORY, SEPTEMBER 1971
(b).
0 -t
4-._____ -----__
Cd).
Fig. 9. Nine-segment memristor can be used to generate ten-step staircase periodic waveform.
used in many instruments such as the sampling oscilloscope connected in series with a square-wave generator vs(t) and
and the transistor curve tracer. a 1-O resistor as shown in Fig. 8(c). The oscilloscope tracings
To simplify discussion, let us consider the design of a four- of both the input signal us(t) and the output signal v,(t) are
step staircase waveform generator. The output voltage wave- shown in Fig. 8(e). Notice that vo(t) is indeed a staircase
form shown in Fig. 7(d) suggests that a four-step staircase waveform. The finite rise time in going from one step to
waveform can be generated by driving the circuit in Fig. another is due to the finite resistance of the Zener diode
7(a) with a symmetrical square wave, provided that a voltage-current characteristic.
memristor with the cp-q curve shown in Fig. 7(b) is available. It is easy to generalize the above design for generating a
This memristor can be synthesized by the methods presented staircase waveform with any number of steps. The nonlinear
in Section II. In fact, a simple realization is shown in Fig. resistor required for generating a ten-step staircase waveform
8(a) with a nonlinear resistor @ connected across port 2 of is shown in Fig. 9(a). This circuit consists of two Zener-
a type-2 M-.R mutator. This nonlinear resistor is, in turn, diode ladder networks connected back to front in parallel
realized by two back-to-back series Zener diodes in parallel [I]. The resulting V-I curve and the corresponding p-q
with a linear resistor and has a V-I curve as shown in Fig. curve are shown in Fig. 9(b) and (c), respectively. Corre-
8(b). To obtain the desired 9-q curve shown in Fig. 8(d), we sponding to the square-wave input voltage us(t) shown in
connect CRacross port 2 of the type-2 M--R mutator [4]. To Fig. 9(d), we obtain the ten-step staircase waveform Do(t) as
verify our design, port 1 of the terminated M-R mutator is shown in Fig. 9(e).
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CHUA: MEMRISTOR-MISSING CIRCUIT ELEMENT 519
VI. CONCLUDINGREMARKS tivities on memristors at M.I.T. over the last ten years and
for giving several suggestions which are included in the
The memristor has been introduced as the fourth basic
present revision. The author also wishes to acknowledge the
circuit element. Three new types of mutators have been intro-
contribution of T. L. Field to the experimental work and to
duced for realizing memristors in the form of active circuits.
thank S. C. Bass for his suggestion that the memristor could
An appropriate cascade connection of these mutators and
be used to model the properties of an E-Cell.
those already introduced in [3] can be used to realize higher
order elements characterized by a relationship between @j(t) REFERENCES
and i@)(t), where rW(t) (P(t)) denotes the mth (nth) time
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