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1. De7898:8;98 8 Te<e=;m>98=8m8t
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o /rjetat
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)rej forma(e me te (jetra 'eri tek keto me mo'ern te transmetimit.
• 2ormat e (jetra jane flamuj, 'ritat e semafora(e, ko'et .orse etj 'he
• 2ormat e reja, telefoni, tele(isioni, ra'io, kom)jutera etj.
3.1 H8At;r8a e Te<e=;m>98=a:8;98t
Disa nga 'atat me te ren'esishme gjate e(oluimit te telekomunikacionit jane:
• 3456: 0amuel .orse z+ulon telegrafin
• 3474: 0htrirja e ka+lit telegrafik nen-oqeanik
• 3468: Bell z+ulon telefonin
o Bell se+ashku me Thomas 9atson z+ulon telefonin i cili con(ertonte
sinjalet e zerit ne ato elektrike )er t:u transmetuar )ermes tela(e
• 3444: ;ertz z+ulon (alet elektromagnetike
o /a'ioja e )are )er transmetimin e zerit ne 'istanca te larta u n'ertu me
3%$8 )as z+ulimit te (ale(e elektromagnetike
• 34%7: .arconi fillon e<)erimentin me ra'io telegrafin =ireless telegra)h!
• 3%5%: Kom)juteri i )are elektronik
• 3%>3: Li'hja e )are e kom)jutere(e ne rrjete
• 3%83: ?+ulimi i qarqe(e te integruara
• 3%8%: 2illimi i zh(illimit te @nternet-it, T*-A@- nga D1/-1
• 3%63: .ikro)rocesori i )are i +ere nga @ntel
• 3%6#: Kom)juteri i )are )ersonal
• 3%4#: 2illimi i )er'orimit te @nternet-it
• 3%%$: 999 +ehet )jese e @nternet-it
3.2 Njer?8t Be me Ae AC>mt8 8 =a9e =;9tr8b>ar ?C@8<<8m8t te
te<e=;m>98=a:8;98t
• &raCam Be<<
o ?+ulimi i telefonit
• M;rAe
o Telegrafin
• Mar:;98
o /a'iotelegrafia
.arconi nuk z+uloi asgje, )asi qe i'ete )er kete s&stem
ekzistonin e'he me )are, )or (etem i m+lo'hi 'etalet 'he faktet
'he e )ermisoi tere sistemin te +azuar ne ko'in .orse
• ";C9 L;D8e Ba8rE
o ?+uluesi i )are i tele(izionit 3%#7 ne Lon'er
• "ameA C<er= MaFGe<<
o @ )ari qe zh(illoi teorine elektromagnetike me 348>
o 1i konklu'oi i )ari se elektriciteti, magnetizmi 'he 'rita jane
manifestime te 'isa fenomene(et te cilat njihen se B2ushe
elektromagnetike:.
o .a<=ell konklu'oi se fusha elektrike 'he magnetike kalojne ne)er
ha)sire ne forme te (ale(e 'he me sh)ejtesi konstante te 'rites
• He89r8:C Hert?
@ )ari qe (ertetoi ekzistencen e (ale(e elektromagnetike 'he qe n'ertoi nje )ajisje
)er te (erejtur C;2 'he D;2
%. 89ja<et ECe D8Dj8ta<8?8m8
-er te m+uluar )lotsisht rrjetat telekomunikuese e tere kjo 'uhet n'are ne tri
gru)e te
me'ha te cilat jane te n'erli'hura ngusht me njera me tjetren:
• Komunikimet 'igjitale a)o te njohura si komunikimet e te 'hena(e
• /rjetat kom)juteristike 'he
• 0istemet e ha)ura
"e kua'er te ket&re ligjerata(e )oashtu 'o te n'alem ne rrjetat
e gjenerates se
ar'hshme si +ie fjala Telefonia )ermes @nternetit.
"e )ergjithsi te gjitha rrjetat ekzistues te te 'hena(e a)o te
ashtuqujtura E)acket-
s=itche'F L1"s, X.#7, 2rame /ela&, 1T.! kane ma'hsi te n'r&shme te )akete(e qe
si rezultat kane sh)ejtesi te n'r&shme te transmetimit 'he )oashtu koha e
m+erritjes se
)akete(e 'allon 'he me kete e'he kualiteti n'r&shon.
%.1 L<;jet e A89ja<e@e
.e qellim qe nje informate te transmetohet )rej nje )ike ne nje )ike
tjeter, 'uhet
se)ari te kon(ertohet ne nje sinjal te )ershtatshem )er nje me'ium s)ecific )er
t:u
transmetuar )ermes rrjeta(e.
Keto sinjale mun' te jene:
• 1naloge
• Digjitale
%.1.1 89ja<et A9a<;De
0injali analog eshte nje sinjal intensiteti i te cilit n'erron ne men&re te
(azh'ueshme
me kohen.
F8D>ra 1. 89ja< 8 tCjeACte a9a<;D
.atematikisht, nje sinjal st! eshte i )an'er)rere nese lim st!Gsa! )er Hfar'o
(lere te
a ku t-Ia tenton kah a!.
"je sinjal kontinual mun' te jete te folurit e njeriut qe n'erron me kohen )er
shkak te
n'errimit te (azh'ueshem te )resionit te ajrit. Brezi frekuencor
i )ranueshem )er
(eshin e njeriut ne te cilin +rez mun' te n'egjoj eshte ne mes #$ ;z to #$ k;z.
%.1.1.1 89ja<et A9a<;De Per8;E8=e
0injalet me te thjeshta jane sinjalet )erio'ike, ato )ra qe )erseriten ne inter(ale
te
caktuara.
"je sinjal analog )erio'ik ka formen e nje sinusoi'e (alore )er'erisa ai 'igjital
ka
formen katrore (alore.
stJT! G st! ku -KLtLK an' T eshte )erio'a e sinjalit
2igura #. 0injal )erio'ik analog
"je sinjal sinusoi'al ka kater )arametra kr&esor: am)litu'a 1!, frekuenca 2!,
gjatsia
(alore M! 'he faza -!.
AmH<8t>Ea eshte ma'hsia e sinjalit qe n'erron me kohen 'he matet ne (olt. -ra,
eshte
lartesia e sinjalit ne 'rejtimin (ertikal ne nje kohe te caktuar.
FreB>e9:a )araqet numrin e cikle(e )er sekon' ose qe njihet si ;ertz! gjate nje
kohe
te caktuar. Koha gjate se ciles mun' te kr&het nje cikel i sinjalit (alor quhet )
erio'e
'he zakonisht shenohet me T. TG3Af.
3 ;z eshte nje frekuence shume e ulet. -er te ku)tuar nje sinjal te te folurit,
kerkohet
frekuenca )rej 5$$ ;z 'eri 55$$ ;z, a)o nganjeher )erafrohet si >k;z. -ra, $.5 k;z-
> k;z.
&jatA8a Va<;re e nje sinjali eshte 'istance ne mes te '& )ozita(e me te larta te
nje
sinjali (alor.
M G (AfN
M O gjatsia (alore
(- sh)ejtesia fazore e (ales
f- frekuenca e sinjalit (alor
"e rastin e (ale(e elektromagnetike, (- eshte sh)ejtesia e 'rites 5<3$
4
mAs!, kurse ne
rastin e (ales se zerit (- eshte sh)ejtesia e zerit 5>7 mAs!
Fa?a eshte )ozita relati(e e sinjalit ne nje kohe te caktuar gjate nje )erio'e.
"ese st!
eshte nje sinjal )erio'ik, ateher faza e ketij sinjali eshte (etem nje )jese tAT! e
kesaj
)erio'e T.
st!G1sin#PftJQ!
2igura 7. e sqaron kete.
2igura 5. -ershkrimi i faza(e te nje sinjali analog
%.1.2 89ja<et D8Dj8ta<e
0injali 'igjital eshte nje sinjal intensiteti i te cilit m+etet i )an'r&shuar )er
nje kohe te
caktuar 'he man'ej n'erron tek nje (lere tjeter konstante.
F8D>ra %. Nje A89ja< E8Dj8ta<
2orma 'iskrete e ketij sinjali mun' te )araqitet ne forme +inare si 3 'he $. -ra,
c'o
)uls ne sinjalin 'igjital mun' te )araqitet si 3 ose $.
2igura 7. 0injal 'igjital )erio'ik
%.1.3 Da<<8met 9e meA te 89ja<e@e A9a<;De ECe D8Dj8ta<e
0injalet 'igjitale jane me lire 'he me )ak te n'ieshme n'aj
zhurmes )or sinjalet
'igjitale mun' te 'o+sohenA'eformohen me shume 'he k& 'eformim reflektohet me
shume ne te folur a)o (i'eo sinjal.
Keto 'eformime mun' te shihen ne figurat e me)oshtme.
2igura 8. 0injal ne forme (alore katrore
2igura 6. 0injal 'igjital i 'eformuar
"je 'allim tjeter i ren'esishem eshte:
0injalet 'igjitale jane me te )ershtatshme )er transmetimin e te 'hena(e ne men&re
me +esnike, )ra ruhet integriteti i te 'hena(e 'he keto te 'hena mun' te +arten )
ermes
sinjale(e 'igjitale ne 'istanca me te me'ha ne)er mes linja(e me te lira.
Kjo arrihet 'uke )er'ore )erforcues re)eaters! )er te rritur 'istancen e
transmetimit
)er 'allim )rej at&re analog qe )er'orin )erforcues tjere am)lifiers!
kur 'ihet se
)erforcuesit am)lifiers! +ashk me sinjalin, )erforcojne 'he grum+ullojne zhurme.
Dallimet tjera:
• 0hfr&tzim me i mire i ka)acitete(e
• 0iguri 'he )ri(atizem )ri(ac&! me te mire
• @ntegrim me te mire te zerit, (i'eos 'he fotografise gjate transmetimit 'igjital.
). F;rmat Tra9Amet>eAe
).1 8mH<eF +9je,=aC;r-
Transmetim njekahor, )ra transmeto a)o )rano, ).sh. TC 'he ra'io
).2 Ha<7,D>H<eF +DjIAme,=aC;r-
Transmetim '&kahor, )or jo ne te njejten kohe. -ra, transmeto 'he )rano )or n'aras,
).sh. komunikimi )olicor =alki-talki!.
).3 F><<,D>H<eF +EI,=aC;r-
Transmeto 'he )rano ne te njejten kohe ).sh. telefoni
/. Pr;b<emet Djate tra9Amet8m8t te A89ja<e@e
/.1 D;bA8m8 8 A89ja<8t
2ortesia e sinjalit )a(arsisht nga me'iumet ne)er te cilat kalon +jen me
'istance, )ra
sa me e ma'he qe te jete 'istanca ne)er te cilen kalon sinjali aq me i 'o+et 'o te
jete
sinjali.
-er me'iumet fizike, siq jane fijet o)tike 'he fijet e +akrit, 'o+simi i sinjalit
eshte ne
funksion te 'istances 'he rritet ne men&re eks)onenciale, kurse ne me'iumet jo
fizike,
si +ie fjala, ajr, uje, 'o+simi i sinjalit eshte me kom)leks )er shkak te faktore(e
te
n'r&shem atmosferik.
Do+simi i sinjalit matet me 'B.
"ese fuqia e sinjalit ne fillim te transmetimit, )ra nga )ika transmetuese, eshte -
st
'he
nese -sr eshte fuqia e sinjalit ne )iken marrese, ateher -stI-sr 'he 'o+simi i
fuqise se
sinjalit qe eshte ne 'B mun' te llogaritet me formulen si me )oshte.
1
)
G 3$ log
3$
-
st
A-
sr
! 'B
/.2 De7;rm8m8 Her AC=a= te @;9eAa@e
0h)ejtesia )ro)aguese e sinjalit ne nje me'ium transmetues fizik gui'e' me'ium!
n'erron me frekuence te sinjalit. 0i rezultat i kesaj, mun' te shkaktohen n'r&shime
ne
sh)ejtesine )ro)aguese te sinjalit 'he me kete e'he 'eformime te n'r&shme te
sinjalit
)er shkak te (onesa(e. Keto n'errime ne sh)ejtesi njihen e'he si n<itim (elocit&!.
"<itimi eshte me i ma'h afer frekuences qen'rore 'he me i (ogel kah skajet e
+rezit.
0i rezultat i kesaj, 'isa kom)onente frekuencore arrijne me heret se te tjerat,
'uke
shkaktuar keshtu H(en'osje fazore ne mes te frekuenca(e te n'r&shme.
2rekuenca qen'rore e nje kanali eshte frekuence ne mes te '& frekuenca(e te
skajshme, te )oshtme 'he te e)erme, ne te cilat )ritet forma e nje forme (alore )er
te
eliminuar skajet e )aren'esishme, siq shihet me )oshte.
2igura 4. 2rekuenca qen'rore
/.3 ZC>rma
R'o sinjal gjate transmetimit shoqerohet me 'isa 'eformime 'he sinjale te
)a'eshiruara. Keto sinjale te )a 'eshiruara njihen si zhurma.
?hurma eshte nje )ro+lem i ma'h ne sistemet komunikuese 'he in(estohet shume qe
te z(oglohet efekti i zhurmes.
Ka 'isa lloje te zhurma(e:
o ?hurma termike
o ?hurma intermo'ulare
o ?hurma interferuese crosstalk!
o ?hurma im)ulsi(e
/.3.1 ZC>rma term8=e
Kjo zhurme njihet e'he si zhurme e +ar'he a)o zhurme e "&quist-it me karakter
Sausian.
0hkaktohet nga le(izja e elektrone(e 'he eshte )rezent ku'o. *'o s&stem qe o)eron
ne tem)eraturat me zeron a+solute manifeston efekte te zhurmes.
Tuhet e +ar'he )asi qe 'en'sia s)ektrale eshte konstante ne tere s)ektrin
frekuencor.
?hurma termike eshte ne funksion te 'rejt )er 'rejte me frekuencen 'he
tem)eraturen.
"
$
GkTB9A;z!
"
$
-'ensiteti i fuqise se zhurmes ne 9att )er 3 ;z
k-Boltzmann:s constant G 3.54<3$
-#5
UAK
T-tem)eratura ne Kel(in, ku K )araqet 3 kel(in
Kel(in eshte njesia )er tem)erature a+solute termo'inamike, zero Kel(in eshte zero
a+solute qe 'o thot se eshte teme)eratura me e ftohet qe ekziston 'he qe nuk
kurrfar
akti(iteti termik )er te (ene ne le(izje elektronet, $KG-#65.37
$
* ose ->7%.86
$
2.!
?hurma )er B ;ertz mun' te )araqitet me "GkTBV'B9WG 3$logkJ3$logTJ3$logB
/.3.2 ZC>rma I9term;E><are
Kjo zhurme shkaktohet nga efektet jo-lineare ne marres 'he transmetues si 'he nga
interferencat a me'iume(e transmetuese.
"ese kemi '& sinjale me frekuenca f
3
'he f
#
ateher )er shkak te zhurmes
intermo'uluese ne 'alje fitohet nje sinjal ne frekuencat f
3
J f
#
a)o f
3
- f
#
i cili 'o te
shkaktonte interference me keto frekuenca, )ra f
3
J f
#
a)o f
3
- f
#
/.3.3 ZC>rma I9ter7er>eAe +Cr;AAta<=-
0hkaktohet )er shkak te kr&qezimit cou)ling! te '& shtigje(e te sinjalit e cila
n'o'he
si rezultat i kr&qezimit elektrik te '& fije(e te aferta.
Kjo zhurme mun' te shkaktohet e'he nga antenat micro(alore qe )ranojne sinjale te
)a 'eshiruara.
Ka '& lloje te zhurma(e interferuese:
- ?hurma interferuese e qarteAku)tueshme, ku se)aku jane kater
fjale qe
ku)tohen gjate nje +ise'e ne nje )erio' )rej 6 sekon'a(e.
- ?hurma interferuese jo e qarteAku)tueshme, qe shkaktohet nga efektet tjera te
nje shtegu transmetues ne nje tjeter.
/.3.% ZC>rma ImH><A8@e
Kjo zhurme eshte me kohezgjatje te shkurte rreth 3$ ms! e shkaktuar nga faktor te
n'r&shem, si +ie fjala nga z+razje elektromagnetike, rrufeja a)o n'onje
)ro+lem
teknik ne sistemet komunikuese.
Efektet e kesaj zhurme mun' e'he te mos (erehen tek sinjalet analoge )er shkak te
kohezgjatjes se shkurte, )or mun' te jene shume 'emtuese tek ato 'igjitale.
Kjo zhurme mun' te shkaktoje hum+jen e 3$ $$$ +ita(e gjate nje transmetimi me
sh)ejtesi )rej 3.+)s.
/.% NjeA8a Her matje9 e C>mbjeA aH; Her7;r:8m8t te A89ja<8t0 De:8be<
Deci+el 'B! eshte njesi )er te krahasuar fortesine lau'ness! a)o intensitetin ne
mes
'& sinjale(e 'he nuk eshte njesi )er matje a+solute.
Deci+el )araqet hersin e '& (lera(e elektrike si =at, (olt 'he am)er
qe mun'eson
krahasimin e '& (lera(e ne h&rje 'he 'alje te nje )aisje.
Caresisht nga k& ra)ortAheres i ket&re ni(ele(e, mun' te shohim
nese kemi
hum+jeA'o+sim a)o fitimA)erforcim te sinjalit.
"ese ni(eli i fituar ne 'alje eshte me i ma'h se ai ne h&rje thuhet se kemi fituar
)erforcim te sinjalit 'he e kun'erta, nese ni(eli i fituar ne 'alje eshte me i
'o+et se ai
ne h&rje sinjali ka )esuar hum+jeA'o+sim.
-ra, ne Telekomunikacion, njesia 'eci+el )er'oret )er te )araqitur (leren numerike
to
hum+je(e a)o fitime(e ne rrjeta telekomunikuese.
'BG 3$log -
#
A-
3
'eci+els 'B!, ku -
#
eshte fuqia e sinjalit ne 'alje.
2ormula )er 'eci+el mun' te sh)rehet e'he ne funksion te tensionit, a)o energjise
si
ne (ijim.
'B G 3$log -
3
A-
#
! G 3$ log D
3
@
3
AD
#
@
#
! G 3$log /
3
@
3
@
3
A/
#
@
#
@
#
!G3$ log @
3
#
/
3
!A@
#
#
/
#
! G
#$ log @
3
A@
#
! G 3$ log/3A/#!.
Kur fuqia 'alese, a)o ne 'alje te nje )aisje eshte '& here me e ma'he se ajo ne
h&rje,
thuhet se kemi )erforcim te sinjalit )rej 5 'B.
Kur fuqia 'alese, a)o ne 'alje te nje )aisje eshte kater here me e ma'he se ajo ne
h&rje, thuhet se kemi )erforcim te sinjalit )rej 8 'B.
Kur fuqia 'alese, a)o ne 'alje te nje )aisje eshte tete here me e ma'he se ajo ne
h&rje,
thuhet se kemi )erforcim te sinjalit )rej % 'B.
/.%.1 EBm ECe EB1
"jejte si 'eci+el-i me larte, 'Bm )araqet )oashtu nje (lere 'eci+el qe eshte e
li'hur
me (leren e 3m9.
'Bm G 3$log -
3
A3m9!
E'he 'B9, )araqet nje (lere 'eci+el, )or qe tani eshte i li'hur me (leren e 39at
'B9 G 3$log -
3
A39!
3m9G3$
o
m9G $ 'Bm
3$m9G3$
3
m9G 3$ 'Bm
3$$m9G3$
#
m9G #$ 'Bm
3$$$m9G3$
5
m9G 5$ 'BmG$ 'B9
3$9G3$
>
m9G >$ 'BmG3$'B9
$.3m9G3$
-3
m9G -3$ 'Bm
$.$3m9G3$
-#
m9G -#$ 'Bm
$.$$3m9G3$
-5
m9G -5$ 'Bm
$.$$$3m9G3$
->
m9G ->$ 'Bm
7. Te=98=at M;E><>eAe
.o'ulimi eshte )roces i n'r&shimitA)ershtatjes te nje forme (alore te nje sinjali
ne nje
forme tjeter (alore te nje sinjali tjeter )er t:u transmetuar me lehte. -ra, kemi
te +ejme
me )ershtatjen e formes (alore te sinjalit h&res, )ra sinjalit te informates 'ata
signal!
ne sinjalin +artes carrier signal! me frekuence f
c
)er t:u transmetuar me lehte.
2rekuenca a)o am)litu'a e sinjalit +artes mo'ulohet nga mo'ulatori frekuencor a)o
am)litu'or )er te +artur sinjalin analog a)o 'igjital te cilet )erm+ajne informata.
2igura %. 0injalet mo'uluese
"ga figura me larte, nje au'io sinjal, i si)ermi mun' te +artet nga (ala 1. a)o 2..
-rocesi i kun'ert i mo'ulimit eshte 'emo'ulimi, qe +ehet ne anen marrese 'he qe +en
n'arjen e sinjalit +artes )rej atij te informata(e 'he (etem informata )ercillet ne
'alje.
Ka 'isa lloje themelore te mo'ulime(e, )or tri jane me te njohurat:
• .o'ulimet analoge
• .o'ulimet 'igjitale
• .o'ulimet -ulsi(e
7.1 Te=98=at A9a<;De te M;E><8me@e
"e mo'ulimet analoge, mo'ulimi a)likohet ne men&re kontinuale ne )
ergjigje te
sinjalit analog te informata(e.
.o'ulimet analoge mun' te jene:
• .o'ulimi 1m)litu'or 1.-1m)litu'e .o'ulation!
• .o'ulimi 2rekuencor 2.-2requenc& .o'ulation!
• .o'ulimi 2azor -.--hase .o'ulation!
• .o'ulimi nje-+rezesh 00B.-0ingle 0i'eBan' .o'ulation!
• .o'ulimi 1m)litu'or Kua'ratik T1.-Tua'rature 1m)litu'e .o'ulation!
7.1.1 M;E><8m8 AmH<8t>E;r
.o'ulimi am)litu'or eshte nje meto'e e transmitimit te informata(e 'uke i )erzier
te
'henat ose sinjalin e informata(e me sinjalin +artes 'he 'uke e
n'erruarA)ershtatur
am)litu'en si ne figuren me )oshte.
"je )arameter me ren'esi tek 'irekcioni i antenes eshte zona efekti(e effecti(e
area!
e nje antene.
Li'hshmeria ne mes te zones efekti(e the antenes 'irekcionale eshte si me )oshte:
SG>P1
e
AM
#
G>Pf
#
1
eAc
#
S- antenna 'irekcionale
1
e
-zona efekti(e
f -frekuenca +artese carrier frequenc&!
c-sh)ejtesia e 'rites
M-gjatsia (alore MGcAf!
12. !rjetat K;mHj>ter8At8=e
3%66, DE*, B"uk ka ars& qe njerzit in'i(i'ual te kene kom)jutera )
ersonal tek
shte)ia:.
c8>$K ought to +e enough for an&+o'&.c - Bill Sates, 3%43
Kom)juteret te li'hur ne mes (eti ne kua'er te s&steme(e te
n'r&shme 'he qe
)er'oren )er te kr&er )une te n'r&shme eshte cka kerkohet 'he a)likohet tani.
D& ose me shume kom)jutere te li'hur ne mes (eti mun' te jene )jese e nje rrjete
(etem nese mun' te kem+ejne informata ne mes (eti.
13. L<;jet e !rjeta@e
13.1 LAN
2igura 7%. /rjete lokale
13.1.1 L<;jet e !rjeta@e L;=a<e, +LAN-
/rjetat L1" i kane tri karakteristika qe i +ejne te 'allojne )rej rrjeta(e tjera:
• .a'hsia
• Teknologjia transmetuese
o Ethernet
o 2ast Ethernet
o Siga+it Ethernet
o 3$ giga+it Ethernet
o Token /ing
• To)ologjite
o -araqesin men&ren e konfigurimit te rrjeta(e
o Ka 'isa lloje, ka+llo linear +us!, unaze ring!, ne forme &jesh star!
'he ne forme te rrjete mesh! etj
13.2 !rjetat Metr;H;<e +MAN,Metr;H;<8ta9 AreaA NetG;r=A-
1))lication
Trans)ort
@nternet
"et=ork @nterface
-h&sical
1))lication Sate=a&
Trans)ort Sate=a&
/outer
Bri'ge, 0=itch
/e)eater, ;u+
1))lication
Trans)ort
@nternet
"et=ork @nterface
-h&sical
1))lication
Trans)ort
@nternet
"et=ork @nterface
-h&sical
1))lication Sate=a&
Trans)ort Sate=a&
/outer
Bri'ge, 0=itch
/e)eater, ;u+
2igura 8>. Ethernet hu+s
;u+s jane )jese e shtreses fizike te sistemit te ha)ur te references. -ra, hu+
sher+en si
nje )ike koncentruese e )ajisj(e te n'r&shme si 'he sher+en )er transmetimin e
sinjalit ne rast te n'eshje(e te )akete(e )acket collision!.
;u+s sher+ejne e'he si lloje te re)etitor(e re)eater! )er Ethernet.
2igura 87: 0hem+ull i transmetimit me hu+ htt):AA===.net-
seal.netA)o)u)d=in'o=.)h)_ai'G33!
1%.2 Per7;r:>eA8t +!eHeaterA-
Uane )ajisje )er )erforcimin e sinjalit 'he )er rritjen e 'istanca(e
transmetuese )a
)asur 'egra'ime te sinjale(e.
E'he re)etitoret sikurse e'he ;u+s jane ne shtresen fizike.
2igura 88. Ethernet /e)eaters
1%.3 Paj8Ajet K;m>t>eAe +G8t:CeA-
Eshte nje )ajisje shume e ren'esishme e rrjeta(e qe mun'eson komunikim te 'rejte
)er 'rejte ne mes te kom)jutere(e ne rrjeta.
-ajisjet komutuese s=itches! o)erojne ne shtresen e '&te te Z0@,
shtresen e te
'hena(e Data Link La&er!
0=itches jane te ngjashem me ;u+s )or me te a(ancuar 'he me
me shume
inteligjence.
0=itches jane te ngjashem me ;u+s ne as)ektin e te )asurit nje 'omen te (etem )er
sh)ern'arje +roa'cast!, )or 'allojne nga njeri tjetri ne as)ektin
e )orta(e 'he
kontrollit te )akete(e.
0=itches )ra ins)ektojne )aketet, )ercaktojne )ajisjet )rej nga eshte nisur )aketi
'he
ate ne te cilen shkon )aketi 'he )ercjellja e atij )aketi.
-ra, s=itches managjojne me ka)acitetin e rrjeta(e ne men&re me efikase.
0=itches me te njohur jane:
"e L1" Ethernet s=itches!
"e 91" 1T. s=itches!
2igura 86. 0=itches
A p $ i k a c i o n e t
! r e s e n t i i
R r # e t a t
N d e r $ i d h # a e t ed h e n a v e
T r a n s p o r t
S h t r e s a F i z i k e
S e s i o n e t
S h t r e s a &
S h t r e s a '
S h t r e s a (
S h t r e s a )
S h t r e s a *
S h t r e s a +
S h t r e s a , A p $ i k a c i o n e t
! r e s e n t i i
R r # e t a t
N d e r $ i d h # a e t ed h e n a v e
T r a n s p o r t
S h t r e s a F i z i k e
S e s i o n e t
S h t r e s a &
S h t r e s a '
S h t r e s a (
S h t r e s a )
S h t r e s a *
S h t r e s a +
S h t r e s a ,
2igura 4>. 0istemi i ha)ur i references
1$.2 CtreAa F8?8=e
"e kete shtrese kr&esisht realizohen funksionet e kerkuara nga shtresa e mesi)erme,
shtresa e te 'hena(e Data Link La&er!. Keto funksione jane si me )oshte:
a! krijimi 'he terminimi shke)utja! e li'hje(e te li'hura )er
nje me'ium
komunikues, )ra fije o)tike, fije koaksiale etj
+! )artici)imi ne )rocess )er te mun'esuar shfr&tezim racional te
+urime(e
komunikuese, si +ie fjala kontrolli i rrje'hjes, man'ej zgje'hja
e )ro+leme(e kur
konkurohet )er te njejtin kanal a)o +urim etj
c! kon(ertimi i sinjale(e analoge a)o 'igjitale ne ato te )ranueshme )er )ajisjen
qe
)er'oret.
.+i te gjitha, kjo shtrese +en transmetimin e +ita(e ashtu siq jane te )a
n'r&shuar, )ra
te )a )rocesuar, 'he )a )erfillur se cka )erm+ajne ata +ita ne)er kanalet
transmetuese.
1$.3 CtreAa e te ECe9a@e +Data <89= <aIer-
Kjo shtrese )ergjigjet ne kerkesat qe (ine nga shtresa e mesi)erme, shtresa e
rrjeta(e
"et=ork La&er! 'he ato kerkesa ia )ercjelle shtreses )erfun'i, )ra shtreses fizike.
-er'erisa shtresa fizike mirrej me transmetimin e +ita(e te thjeshte, kjo
shtrese ka
funksion me te a(ancuar )er te garantuar nje li'hje te sigurt si 'he +ene
mirem+ajtjen,
akti(izimin 'he c:akti(izimin e li'hje(e ne mes te entitete(e te rrjeta(e.
"e )arim, )una kr&esore qe kjo shtrese +ene eshte 'etektimi 'he
kontrollimi i
ga+ime(e ne men&re qe t:i mun'esohet shtreses se mesi)erme transmetim )a ga+ime.