Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical

Engineers:http://pad.sagepub.com/
Automobile Division

Aero-Engine Exhaust Valve Development

J. E. Morgan
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers: Automobile Division 1955 9: 138
DOI: 10.1243/PIME_AUTO_1955_000_020_02

The online version of this article can be found at:

http://pad.sagepub.com/content/9/1/138

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

Institution of Mechanical Engineers

Additional services and information for Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers: Automobile Division can be found at:

Email Alerts: http://pad.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

Subscriptions: http://pad.sagepub.com/subscriptions

Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

>> Version of Record - Jan 1, 1955

What is This?

Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014

138

AERO-ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE DEVELOPMENT

By J. E. Morgan, B.Sc. (Eng.)*
The chief problem affecting the exhaust valve is cooling, and most causes of failure emerge
from it. For best results, therefore, development must extend to associated components
such as guide, insert, etc., and all are surveyed in this paper. Development can be divided
into three main channels : (1) heat transfer, (2) maintenance of gas seal, and (3) corrosion
resistance.
Improvements in heat transfer were obtained by the introduction of sodium cooling,
firstly in the stem only and secondly in the stem and head. Further advantage was derived
from improving the cooling of the seat insert of the exhaust port.
'
The gas seal was improved by modifications to the insert. This was changed from
Silcrome steel to Silcrome faced with SteUite, and finally to Nimonic 80. The latter
material has good corrosion resistance qualities and yet is sufficiently ductile to be reformed
by the valve when temperature gradients in the cylinder head have forced the insert shape
out of round.
The search for corrosion resistance led to the testing of a variety of hard-coating alloys
and valves forged in Nimonic alloys. The latter were unsatisfactory when made up as solid-
head valves but, more recently, a similar alloy has given good results with the hollow head
and stem design. In this instance, however, a hard-coating alloy was used on the seat and
combustion chamber face.
Cylinder block life between overhaul is largely controlled by the performance of the
exhaust valves, and whereas in 1947 block life at 400 hours was half that of the engine
carcase, service testing has now shown that a block life of 1,250 hours is possible.

INTRODUCTION consequent high brake mean effective pressure means high

THEPOPPET VALVE has never been high in the esteem of the
designer or engineer, in fact it has been said that, were it
not for the tremendously disproportionate amount of time
and money spent on its development, it could not possibly
have held its position of supremacy in face of the challenge
of other more scientific methods of porting. On the other
hand, despite the twenty-five years of development and
research devoted by the author's company on alternative
systems, the author remains convinced that from con-
siderations of combustion chamber performance and
mechanical reliability the poppet valve justifies its position
of supremacy.
The aero-engine and, in particular, the military aero-
engine, demands the highest possible powerlweight ratio,
combined with minimum frontal area. This specification is
best filled by the liquid-cooled in-line engine, but such
engines probably present exhaust valves with more severe
operating conditions than are met in any other engine type.
This is because the use of a high boost pressure with
The M S . of this paper was received at the Institutibn on 2ndJanuary
1956. The report of the meeting at which this paper was presented
is on 6 . 169.
* Repa& and Development Engineer, Rolls-Rqyce, Ltd., Hillington,
Glasgow S.W.2.
exhaust gas temperature and velocity, together with high
peak cylinder pressure. All these features tend to undermine
the sealing ability of the valve. In addition, it is generally
accepted that distortion of the exhaust port insert is more
severe in the mono-block cylinder, or cylinder head, than in
the individual cylinder head. Figs. 31 and 32 show sections
through a single combustion chamber.
In this paper, therefore, is summarized a continuing
struggle to maintain and improve exhaust valve reliability
in spite of progressive increases in power output which have
been obtained from the engine.
The dif€~cultyof obtaining satisfactory cooling is the root
of nearly all exhaust valve problems, and results in various
immediate causes of failure such as lack of hot strength,
gas leakage, corrosion, and thermal shock. Based on these
considerations, the subject-matter of this paper is divided
into the following subsections: (1) heat transfer (2) main-
tenance of gas seal (3) corrosion resistance, and (4)other
detail improvements.
H E A T TRANSFER
Originally, valves were produced from self-hardening steels
of the Silcrome type. Increasing valve temperatures

Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014

 AERO-ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE DEVELOPMENT
rendered these liable to embrittlement fractures and they
were, therefore, replaced by austenitic steel, D.T.D. 49b
now B.S.S. 111. The next stage was introduced with the
‘Merlin’ engine which brought the sodium-fdled hollow-
stem exhaust valve on to production. Increased heat transfer
from the valve head to the valve guide and cylinder head
was the object of the modification, this being obtained by
the turbulent, end-to-end displacement of the 60 per cent by
volume of molten sodium in the cavity. Valves of this basic
Fig. 31. Transverse Section of Combustion Chamber
Through Exhaust and Inlet Valves
i n n l
Fig. 32. Cross-section of Combustion Chamber Through
Exhaust Valves Showing Intermediate Coolant Passage
Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014
139
design continue in use to the present day, but now a further
stage in the evolution of this cooling method is also in use.
This is the hollow-head and hollow-stem exhaust valve
which has a greater sodium capacity and a somewhat greater
heat transfer to the guide.
Development of the solid-head, hollow-stem valve has
continued, however, and modified head shapes, based on
photo-elastic examination, have been tested in an effort to
improve its adaptability to insert distortion. One design
made use of a demonstrated theory that the existing valve,
with its developed tulip-shaped head, tended to distort
away from the seat insert when locally overheated by gas
leakage, and an alternative mushroom-head valve was
offered which, in theory, tended to close the gas leakage
path under similar conditions. By virtue of its design, this
valve also incorporated a 40 per cent increase in sodium
capacity, and was tested with high hopes, but running on
the single-cylinder unit showed its life to be less than that
of the standard valve. Finally, the reliability of the solid-
head valve was very much improved by adding a strengthen-
ing rim to the circumference of the valve head to prevent
distortion under the influence of insert shape and heat. In
this it was necessary to compromise, because excessive rim
stiffening rendered the valve liable to fracture at the throat
or to burn out due to impact with a distorted insert. Fig. 33
shows the valve head designs referred to above.
The hollow-head valve when first subjected to test-bed
endurance failed to show any superiority over the solid-head
valve. This was owing it was thought to lack of flexibility,
attributed to the small dimensions of the valve, which also
makes it difficult to fabricate, when compared with those of
contemporary air-cooled engines. Rig tests showed that the
solid-head valve was stiffer in the throat but more flexible in
the plane of the seat, a condition which appeared to offer
better accommodation to distortion of the port insert. The
qualities of the hollow-head valve were, however, further
investigated when, on adoption for civil airline usage,
development emphasis was placed on increasing cylinder
block life between overhauls.
The results of the initial fight trial appeared to confirm
that they offered no advantage, but more extensive and
prolonged service testing has demonstrated their undoubted
superiority. The change in results is mainly due to improved
fabrication an! inspection technique. This evidence suggests
that the best performance is obtained from a valve which
can force the insert to conform to its requirements, rather
than from one which attempts to follow insert shape.
The development effort on exhaust valves included an
investigation into the operating temperature patterns of the
various valve designs. Optical pyrometry was tried but
proved inaccurate, because combustion smoke clouded the
colour radiation from the valve head. Thermocouples which
contacted the top and bottom of the valve stem through the
guide gave heat-transfer data, but no information about the
valve head. Finally, the temperature profile of the head was
obtained by the Brine11 survey of valves manufactured in
Silcrome steel. They were specially heat-treated prior to
an engine run being undertaken, the duration of which was
140 J. E. MORGAN

a Current hollow-stem, solid-head exhaust valve with stiffening b Original Brightray-coated exhaust valve with hollow stem and
rim and two layers of C.26. solid head.

c Experimental mushroom type solid-head valve with two layers d Current standard hollow-head and hollow-stem exhaust valve
of C.26 and an increased sodium capacity. with two layers of C.26.

Fig. 33. Valve Head Designs

HEAD HEAD
1

a Hollow-stem type. b Hollow-head and hollow-stem valve.

Fig. 34. Temperature Projile of Sodium-filled Valves at Maximum Combustion Temperature

Figures denote degrees C.

Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014

 AERO-ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE DEVELOPMENT
chosen to suit the Brinell recovery character of the material.
Accurate timing and control of engine settings were essential
features of the tests. Conditions were representative of
maximum continuous power on the civil Merlin engine,
speed 2,850 r.p.m., boost 14 lb. per sq. in., coolant outlet
105 deg. C. (221 deg. F.), and air/fuel ratio 15 to 1. At these
settings combustion chamber and valve temperatures are
known to be a maximum.
Fig. 34 shows temperature surveys on solid-head and
hollow-head valves obtained in this manner. In general, the
temperature patterns confirm the expected differences in
character between the two valves. Outstanding differences
are indicated below :
(1) The maximum temperature on the hollow-head
valve is around 725 deg. C. (1,337 deg. F.) whereas that
of the solid-head valve is 50 deg. C. (90 deg. F.) higher.
(2) Peak temperature on the hollow-head valve occurs
at the periphery, whereas on the solid-head valve the
high-temperature zone is farther away from the rim and
nearer to the position of xninimum cross-section thickness
of the valve tulip.
(3) On the solid-head valve, where the stem runs into
the throat radius, the temperature ranges between 550
deg. C. (1,022 deg. F.) and 580 deg. C. (1,076 deg. F.),
at the same position on the hollow-head valve the tem-
perature range is 620 deg. C. (1,148 deg. F.) to 650 deg. C.
(1,202 deg. F.).
(4) Seat temperature of the solid-head valve is 700
deg. C. (1,292 deg. F.) while that of the hollow-head
valve is 680 deg. C. (1,256 deg. F.).
It would seem from this evidence that in the engine in
question the hollow-head valve design derives most of its
temperature advantage over the solid-head type from its
ability to even out the temperature over the valve head,
rather than from any major increase in heat-transfer rate to
the guide. It is probable that the increased heat-transfer
area of the valve head cavity results in a higher sodium
temperature, but there is little evidence of increased valve-
stem temperature in the region influenced by the guide.
Development of the hollow-head valve included an
investigation into the effect of varying the percentage
sodium filling in order to establish the filling ratio which
would give the optimum valve temperature pattern. As
indicated by Fig. 35, it was found that although maximum
* placed a restriction on port area and the resultant power
STEM THROAT
3 (L
HEAD TO CENTRE
t
Fig. 35. Effect of Sodium Filling Ratio on Temperature
Projile of Hollow-head Valve
Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014
141
head temperature remained unchanged, an increase in
throat area temperature of 50 deg. C. (90 deg. F.) followed
a reduction from 50 to 35 per cent filling, while with
75 per cent filling the increase at the throat area was
100 deg. C. (180 deg. F.). A volumetric filling of 50 per cent
was then decided upon, and it is interesting to observe that
other manufacturers agree with this.
It was necessary, in order to improve heat transfer, to
develop not only the valve itself but also associated items.
The cast-iron exhaust valve guide was replaced at an early
stage by a guide made in phosphor bronze, because the
high gas temperature and velocity caused drying of the
guide bore and consequent scuffing of the cast iron. Cold
bromide attack also caused bad rusting of cast iron when
the engine was idle for any long period. The improved
heat-transfer qualities of the bronze was an additional
advantage. A big improvement in valve reliability was
obtained when the diametral clearance of the valve guide
bore was reduced from 0.0044-006 inch to 0.0024004
inch. Again, improved heat transfer was one of the features
which justified the modification. A single-cylinder tem-
perature test on solid-head valves demonstrated that a
reduction of clearance from guide bore to valve stem of
0.006 to 0.002 inch reduced the maximum valve tempera-
ture by 40 deg. C. (72 deg. F.).
The close clearance guide was associated with an increase
in guide length from 1.800 to 2.150 inches so that the modi-
fication also gave improved axial control of the valve, thereby
maintaining the best possible alignment between valve seat
and port insert. It is probable that a considerablepropomon
of the temperature decrease referred to above derives from
the maintenance of a higher standard of gas seal by the
latter arrangement.
A disadvantage of phosphor bronze is its wear rate, which
is greater than that of cast iron. For this reason the guide is
now made in a leaded bronze of the lirm’s make, which is
harder and has an increased life.
Other channels explored were oil cooling of the valve
stem by jets in the rocker box, complete water-jacketing of
the exhaust valve guide and a wet guide. The first was
abandoned wipout serious testing on the main engine,
because the quantity of oil required to show a worth-while
advantage would have presented an insoluble problem of
rocker box drainage, within the limitations of existing
design. I n the same way, the My-jacketed guide was
abandoned after initial main engine testing because it
penalty was unacceptable. The wet guide was also
abandoned at the single-cylinder stage, because of the
coolant seal problems involved.
Heat transfer to the cylinder head by way of the port
insert was facilitated by reducing the working temperature
of the latter component. This improved cooling was obtained
by reducing the casting thickness of the combustion chamber
roof in the transverse bridge of aluminium between the
exhaust port inserts from 0.650 to 0.350 inch and thus
reducing the temperature gradient between the insert and
coolant.
142
Maximum temperature in the cylinder head still occurs
in the metal bridge between the exhaust port inserts, a
feature which encourages distortion of cylinder head and
insert and thereby reduces heat transfer from the exhaust
valve. Improved cooling in this zone for all combustion
chambers has, therefore, been developed by the introduction
of a direct supply of coolant by means of a jet pipe in the
centre-coolant passage of the cylinder head. Previously the
coolant fed first into the cylinder skirt and then flowed up
round the barrel to the cylinder head; now the six outlets
on the jet pipe feed direct from the pump and play coolant
on to the metal bridges which are the floor of the transverse
channels between the exhaust ports. An additional tem-
perature reduction of approximately 60 deg. C . (108 deg. F.)
at the valve seat is obtained in this way.
MAINTENANCE OF GAS SEAL
Insert distortion can seriously reduce valve life because,
unless reasonable conformity is obtained between valve and
insert seating faces, local gas blowby causes serious over-
heating with thermal-shock fractures and torching of the
valve seat. The character of insert distortion was very
thoroughly investigated, but, since it resulted from dif-
ferential temperature expansion under operating conditions,
it could not be eliminated by attention to grinding or by any
other simple change. In an attempt to reduce distortion, an
insert with a thicker seat section was designed and tested.
Unfortunately, rig tests showed that the improvement was
insufficient to justify the design complications. The floating
insert, as used in other manufacturer’s engines, was also con-
sidered but the benefits obtained were insufficient to justify
f d e r research. It was found that the best method by
which the distortion could be overcome was to use materials
for both insert and valve seat facing which, at their respec-
tive operating temperatures, made the valve only slightly
harder than the insert.
The operating temperature of the exhaust port insert at
maximum power is approximately 400 deg. C. (752 deg. F.)
and at cruising this reduces to approximately 300 deg. C.
(572 deg. F.).
Originally, and during most of the early military develop-
ment of the Merlin engine, Silcrome steel proved a satis-
factory insert material. Later with increasing power and life
of the engine, it became severely eroded in a swirl pattern
on the combustion chamber face, the pattern apparently
following the path of the outgoing gases. This contracting
spiral cut deeply into the seating face of the insert thus
restricting its life and damaging the valve.
The combustion chamber face and seating face of the
insert were, therefore, armoured with Stellite. The material
gave a poor valve performance, as the seat ridged badly but
did not move sigdicantly to offset distortion. In fact, it was
found that when used with Brightray-coated valves, tappet
clearance was rapidly lost owing to the rate of wear of the
Brightray under the lapping influence of combustion
products.
Exhaust port inserts were, therefore, made in Nimonic 80
material. This has excellent resistance, both to corrosion
Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014
J. E. MORGAN
and erosion, whilst its hardness at exhaust-port temperature
is approximately 280 diamond pyramid number (D.P.N.).
This material has proved a very satisfactory parmer for all
valve facings, and tappet settings are not checked during the
650-hour life of the cylinder blocks.
Because of the high temperature gradient between valve
seat and port insert faces (750 deg. C. (1,382 deg. F.) and
350 deg. C . (662 deg. F.) respectively), contact area here
has a considerable influence on cooling of the exhaust valve
head. The width of the seating face, therefore, has to be
established so as to take maximum advantage of this while
maintaining sufficiently high surface contact pressure to
ensure a satisfactory gas seal. For these reasons, the optimum
width of the face of the exhaust valve seat has proved to be
1-4times greater than that of the corresponding inlet valve.
A 30-deg. seat angle in place of the standard 45 deg. was
proposed on the basis that a flatter angle would be less
severely affected by lateral distortion of the insert. This pre-
supposed that axial alignment of the insert was unchanged
by the distorting influence. These two variants were
evaluated by testing them together on development in the
same engines. Although the 30-deg. seat showed some
promise on earlier testing, no real advantage could be
claimed finally, and it was abandoned.
Valve rotation has been generally acceptedas an important
factor in maintaining the best standard of seat condition and
gas sealing. Its value is thought to lie in the fact that, should
the valve be locally held off the insert face by ovality or by
trapped combustion products, the location of maximum gas
escape not being static to the valve will result only in a
general small rise in valve temperature with a chance of
recovery, whereas concentrated gas escape over a fixed arc
will produce a much higher local temperature and may
result in complete failure. The findings of the company on
the significance of exhaust valve rotation are, however,
discussed in a subsequent section of this paper, since the
work seems to justify rather more than a brief mention.
CORROSION RESISTANCE REQUIREMENTS
The 1939-45war period was responsible on the Rolls-Royce
engine for the most rapid increase in operational boost
pressure using standard aero-engine fuels, from 3!$ Ib. per
sq. in. to 25 lb. per sq. in. Fuel rating increased from 87
octane to 115-145 grade and, in the main, the improved
knock resistance was obtained by increases in tetraethyl lead
to 5.5 cu. cm. per gal. Both the lead oxide from the latter
and the bromide compounds from the ethylene dibromide
scavenger are individually capable of corrosive attack on
combustion chamber components, and corrosion was there-
fore inevitable because combustion could not be guaranteed
completely to combine and discharge these two elements as
volatile lead brlomide in accordance with ideal theory. In
fact, a lead-oxy-bromide sulphate mixture is deposited on
the valve.
Stellite was the first material to be welded on to the face
of the exhaust valve seat to improve corrosion resistance.
This, however, rapidly reached its limit of corrosion and
hot strength. A nickel-chromium alloy, referred to here as
 AERO-ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE DEVELOPMENT
Brightray, therefore took its place, and this provided a big
step forward in reliability. Progressive power and valve-
temperature increases caused corrosion attack of the com-
bustion face of the valve head and the Brightray coating
was extended over the entire combustion surface.
The corrosion resistance of Brightray was not its limiting
factor, but ultimately the seat began to suffer because the
creep strength of the material was insuacient to withstand
the increases in valve operating temperature; Brightray
weakens 30-40 per cent at 750 deg. C. (1,382 deg. F.).
At this stage, a search began for alternative protective
coatings, and likely British and American alloys were
investigated. Hard-coating materials are generally applied
by manual gas welding, and as the new alloys were
developed to be progressively harder at operating tempera-
ture, so the required flow temperature of the rod alloy
increased. The difference widened in required welding tem-
peratures between the valve body and the welding rod and
made it difficult to avoid melting more of the surface of the
valve steel. As a result the anti-corrosion coating was liable
to be appreciably contaminated by iron and when this
occurred corrosion resistance was drastically reduced. The
track of the corrosion attack followed the run of the
welder’s torch, iron concentration being greatest at the
interlayer between the spiral of alloy applied.
Several lines of development were examined; machine
welding was discounted because, from external reports, it
seemed that this method would be subject to similar troubles
necessitating much more process development. Therefore,
concentrating on the manual welding, iron contamination
was controlled by isolating the final hard-coating alloy from
the iron, by means of an intermediate layer of Brightray.
Unlimited welding experience already existed with Brightray
and as its welding temperature was easier than that of the
coating alloys under development, it remained relatively
free from iron ‘bleeding’.
The Brightray interlayer was machined down to a coating
thickness of 0.010 inch and then the hard-facing alloy was
applied and machined to 0.015 inch thickness, that is, an
overall coating thickness of 0-025 inch. Iron bleeding was
still not entirely eliminated, and various section thicknesses
were tested for both coating layers, until Snally 0.025 inch
for each was established for production. Even so, a close
ENED TIP I N CHROME-VANADIUM STEEL
Fig. 36. Section of Current Production Solid Head Hollow Stem Valve
Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014
143
watch was kept on coating quality and a ferric chloride etch
inspection was instituted; this was capable of identifying
iron contamination down to approximately 4 per cent.
Eatonite, an American alloy containing nickel, chro-
mium, carbon, tungsten and cobalt, was tested in
conjunction with a Brightray interlayer but it was still
incapable of meeting the requirements of life and opera-
ting conditions demanded by the Merlin engine. It failed
in the characteristic manner by burning and cracking of
the seat face.
From Thornton Research Centre came a special nickel-
aluminium coating, which was also applied over Brightray.
This showed promise, but difficulties of application and
uniformity were never successfidly overcome, and it also
was finally abandoned in favour of a material developed by
the firm’s research department. The percentage composition
of the new alloy is approximately 77 nickel, 10 chromium,
11 aluminium and 2 molybdenum; it was designated C.26
and is available in world markets. Tests were made with a
number of variations of section thickness with Brightray,
but complete reliability could not be guaranteed.
The condition of the valve seat face after running was
excellent, demonstrating the advantage of the increased
creep strength of the new material at working temperature.
Even so the occasional burn out showed the need for yet
more research into coating, and this produced the double
coating of C.26 (Fig. 36). As the welder became more
familiar with the new material, it became possible to keep
the iron penetration quite small, even when the C.26 was
applied directly to the valve. When the technique had been
fully developed, the solid-head valve with C.26 coating was
a great improvement but remained somewhat unpredictable.
Occasionally, a valve seat failure would occur for no
apparent reason, or severe corrosion occurred of the com-
bustion face of the valve; this bled over on to the seat and
failure resulted. This latter trouble proved characteristic
of the new hard-coating material, and is explained by the
fact that its corrosion resistance (Fig. 37) is excellent up
to a temperature of from 800 deg. C . (1,472 deg. F.) to 820
deg. C. (1,508 deg. F.), but at temperatures beyond this its
corrosion rate hicreases steeply so that the advantage over
Brightray is rapidly lost.
In the search for a better valve material, Nimonic alloys
TWO LAYERS OF C2
AUSTENlTlC STEEL FORGING
144
were also investigated. Solid-head exhaust valves were
machined from forgings in Nimonic 75 and Nimonic 80. A
three-piece valve was also developed, in which the head was
Nimonic alloy, the stem B.S.S. 111 and the tip chromium-
vanadium steel, all butt-welded together. The hope from
this latter development was to cheapen the valve. Un-
fortunately, Nimonic alloys proved no cure for the valve
problems. They were subject to the typical overheating
failure, that is, distortion and radial cracking progressing
to a blowby burn-out. From the character of these failures,
the number of hours run and a knowledge of the creep
strength of the Nimonic material, it is deduced that the
hoop stress on the rim of the valve is of the order of 16tons
per sq. in. Brightray is a weaker but similar material to
Nimonic 80 and, therefore, experience with the latter
explained the characteristic Brightray seat failure, which
also develops from multiple radial cracking in areas
affected by seat distortion.
Fig. 37. Effect of Temperature on Lead Oxide Corrosion
Attack on C.26 and Brightray
It will be recalled that by temperature investigation, it was
established that the solid-head exhaust valve, when operated
normally reaches a maximum temperature of 775 deg. C.
(1,427 deg. F.) and from metallurgical examination of
failures, it is known that 880 deg. C. (1,616 deg. F.) is the
maximum safe limit for the valve, above this failure is
inevitable. As an instance of this effect of operating tem-
perature, it can be recorded that exhaust valve failures in
service were much more frequent on engines using a
manifold exhaust system than where exhaust stub ejectors
were used. The effect of the manifold is to heat the
exhaust valve by radiation, thus shortening its life.
The performance of the hollow-head valve in service has
generally supported this evaluation of temperature influence,
for it has been observed that by virtue of the improved
head cooling, rim fracture and burn-out failures have dis-
appeared. Unfortunately, when the B.S.S. 111exhaust valve
was made up to the hollow-head design, it became subject
to erosion at the base of the stem where it blended with the
throat radius. Erosion at this point on the solid-head valve
was insignificant by comparison, and the difference is
thought to be due to the increase in local temperature,
already reported, on the hollow-head valve. The erosion
thinned the metal section of the hollow stem and lowered
its corrosion-fatigue-endurance life, thus rendering the
Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014
J. E. MORGAN
valve liable to fracture at this point and restricting its life
to approximately 2,000 hours.
A hollow-head valve, made up in American alloy of the
Inconel type with a special hard-coating alloy on the com-
bustion chamber surface and seat face, was also tested. This
proved to have a much reduced erosion rate, approximately
0.002 inch per 1,000 hours. This superiority is under-
standable in view of the fact that alloys of this character are
known to be much tougher and more corrosion resistant
than iron-base austenitic alloys at operating temperatures.
Erosion at this low level allowed valve life to be again
controlled by seat grinding, so that a life of 5,000 hours may
be anticipated and, in view of this, the new alloy has been
adopted as the standard material for hollow-head valves on
the Merlin engine.
O T H E R DETAIL I M P R O V E M E N T S
The valve is operated by a hardened spherical-ended tappet
screw which, by virtue of its small contact area on the
valve tip, causes very heavy surface loading. Therefore, to
prevent progressive indentation and extension of tappet
clearance the valve was tipped with Stellite. This also
proved incapable of carrying the opening load which has
now reached 1,000 lb. Under these conditions the Stellite
pitted and crumbled. T o offset this, flat-ended tappets with
ball sockets in the rocker were tested, but they tended to
cut down valve rotation and, for this reason, they were not
approved. Instead, a different method of producing a
hardened valve tip was developed; Stellite was replaced by
a tip of chromium-vanadium steel flash butt-welded on to
the valve. The tip is hardened to 650 D.P.N. minimum by
immersion in a salt bath at 950 deg. C . (1,742 deg. F.) for
23 minutes, followed by quenching in oil.
Valve rotation was accepted by the company as existing
even on their earliest engines, thanks to the inevitable minor
offset of the spherical-headed tappet from the valve axis,
but originally little was done to encourage the feature. For
example, compression of a valve spring will Cause pro-
gressive rotation by a ratchet type of action, turning during
compression and sliding during expansion. Right-hand
springs produce clockwise valve rotation and left-hand
springs anti-clockwise rotation. But, as Rolls-Royce military
engines used two springs per valve, wound in opposite
directions, most of the turning effect was neutralized.
Advantage was taken of this spring characteristic when
civil engine development stimulated the quest for a longer-
life exhaust valve. Rotation was promoted by positively
locking the bottom spring-washer and by coiling both
springs right-hand. The modification was applied to
the exhaust valve only, because too much rotation of the
inlet valve causes abrasive wear of the seating face.
This territory was further explored by testing two
mechanical rotator devices. The fmt consisted of two
butting collet halves, which suspended the valve by its
shoulder without nipping the stem recess. A hardened cap
fitted over the valve tip and transmitted tappet load direct
to the collet and top washer, thus, when off the seat the
 AERO-ENGINE EXHAUST VALVE DEVELOPMENT
valve was free to rotate under the influence of gas swirl
around it, Fig. 38. Considerable main engine running was
undertaken but no improvement in valve seat-face condition
could be claimed from the free valve. In fact, when they
were compared with standard assemblies run on the same
engine, it became evident that progressive rotation was
more general on the latter. The disappointing results were,
therefore, attributed to the fact that rotation was not
positive.
I
Fig. 38. Exhaust Valve Free Rotator
For this reason the mechanical rotator was next investi-
gated. A design, Fig. 39, was made up specially to suit the
Rolls-Royce engine and, being relatively heavy, it was used
in place of the bottom spring washer. As developed by the
company the rotator incorporated a continuous upper race
carrying the Bellville washer, which had previously operated
direct on the balls. This was done to eliminate pitting of the
i
Fig. 39. Exhaust Valve Mechanical Rotator
3
Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014
145
washer in the ball track zone. Positive drive from the new
upper race was also introduced where before, friction only
was relied upon. With this design a rotation rate of 18 r.p.m.
was obtained at engine cruise conditions, 2,400 e.r.p.m.
Again, after a standard main engine test of 153 hours’
duration, it was evident that exhaust valve condition had
not improved significantly, and the positive rotator was,
therefore, abandoned.
At present, exhaust valves occasionally stick open and
this can cause a serious failure due to blow back through
the induction system when it occurs on an engine using the
cross-over exhaust system. This latter arrangement directs
exhaust gas from all 12 cylinders to outlets on the outboard
side of the engine, inboard cylinders discharge into a blind
manifold which transfers the gas to the outboard manifold
through cross-over pipes. Improved silencing is obtained
with this layout. Certain conditions of atmospheric, cylinder
and induction pipe pressure can produce a reversal of flow
in the exhaust manifold system so that burning exhaust
gases from one cylinder flow into another through the stuck
exhaust valve, when the inlet valve of this cylinder is
admitting a fresh charge. The resultant blow back can
overwhelm induction flame traps and severely damage the
supercharger.
It is found that the exhaust valve sticks in the guide bore
at the top end, owing to packing of carbonaceous matter into
the clearance. The rocker box forms a settling tank for fuel
combustion products which circulate in the oil, and the
valve stem, top washer, etc., seem to be particularly good
collectors because of their higher temperature. The working
part of the valve stem accumulates little more than a stain
but, nevertheless, enough adheres at the limit of travel to
work into the clearance and jam the valve against spring
146
load. An attempt is being made to prevent this seizure by
recessing the valve stem below the collet groove, so that the
undercut just enters the guide bore at maximum lift and so
prevents jamming of carbon at the limit of travel.
CONCLUSIONS
The Current Production Exhaust Valve
In the years since the 1939-45 war, the use of air transport
for commercial purposes has expanded tremendously, and
it was at this stage that the Rolls-Royce engine came
into prominence in the Civil airline field. This meant a
complete change of emphasis from increased power output
to extended overhaul life, although to meet the requirements
of the post-war aircraft, it was necessary to retain the engine’s
power output at the level to which it had been developed as
a military unit.
Therefore, when the Merlin Mark 724 first entered
service, with an overhaul life of 800 hours, a half-life block
change had to be accepted. This was chiefly because exhaust
valve performance would not match the engine’s mechanical
staying power. This position, however, could be considered
only as an initial stage in the establishment of that engine
Downloaded from pad.sagepub.com at Purdue University on September 2, 2014
J. E. MORGAN
in airline service, for the operator expects the maximum
overhaul life with the minimum of intermediate servicing.
Much development work has, therefore, been undertaken to
this end, and has culminated in the cylinder head which is
jet-pipe cooled, and the hollow-head exhaust valve.
The measure of the success that has been obtained is
indicated by the fact that the operator with whom this
combination is now standard is at present running a trial to
prove the ability of the cylinder block to operate for the
complete engine life, that is, 1,250 hours between
removals.
A cylinder block life of 650-700 hours is accepted for
solid-head valves and standard cooling, and for this com-
bination the average failure rate is one valve per 6,700 hours
of service operation. There being 24 exhaust valves per
engine, this figure can be expressed as approximately
160,000 valve hours per failure, which, it must be admitted,
is no mean achievement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Rolls-Royce, Ltd., ‘for per-
mission to publish this paper, and Mr. J. M. Marshall,
A.F.R.Ae.S., for his help in compiling the information.