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Highway Engineering Lecture Notes
Highway Engineering Lecture Notes
Prepared by
February 2008
Course Structure
Second Year; Semester II
Core Course: Yes
Lecture Hours [L]: 45 Contact Hours [CH]: 60
Practical Hours [P]: 30 Credit Units [CU]: 4
Course Assessment
Course Work: 40% [Assignments 15%, Tests 25%]
Final Examination: 60%
Normal Progress
Grade Point [GP] 2.0 [50%]
Course Outline
• Introduction: History and Development • Urban Roads;
of roads; • Single and Double Carriageways;
• Planning and Layout of Roads; • Junctions;
• Route Surveys; • Intersections;
• Selection of Routes; • Roundabouts;
• Site Investigation; • Road Furniture;
• Soil Survey; • A Case Study of Uganda;
• Types of Roads: Low Cost Roads, • Maintenance of Roads.
Granite Sets, Flexible & Rigid roads;
• Soils Technology for Roads; Field Exercise:
• Soil Stabilisation; Planning of one Layout of Length of a
• Construction Techniques; New Road Using Available Contoured
• Drainage; Maps
• Street Lighting;
• Highways;
• Rural roads;
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA iii
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d) Traffic Composition ......................................................................................................... 32
e) Future Traffic Estimates ................................................................................................... 32
4.4.4 Design Vehicle Dimensions ......................................................................................... 33
a) Design Vehicles................................................................................................................ 33
b) Dimensions of Design Vehicles ....................................................................................... 33
c) Selection of the Design Vehicle ....................................................................................... 33
4.4.5 Design Speed ................................................................................................................ 34
a) Speed as a Design Factor ................................................................................................. 34
b) Design Speed .................................................................................................................... 34
4.4.6 Control of Access ......................................................................................................... 34
4.5 Sight Distance .............................................................................................................. 35
4.5.1 General ......................................................................................................................... 35
4.5.2 Stopping Sight distance, SSD....................................................................................... 35
4.5.3 Full Overtaking Sight Distance, FOSD ........................................................................ 37
4.5.4 Sight Distance for Multi-Lane Roads........................................................................... 39
4.5.5 Set-back Distance at Obstructions of Horizontal Curves ............................................. 39
4.6 Horizontal Alignment ................................................................................................... 42
4.6.1 Basic Formula for Movement of Vehicles on Curves .................................................. 42
4.6.2 Value of the Coefficient of Lateral Friction, µ ............................................................ 44
4.6.3 Maximum super-elevation Value, emax ........................................................................ 44
4.6.4 Super-elevation Rates ................................................................................................... 44
4.6.5 Radii of curves for which no super-elevation is required ............................................ 45
4.6.6 Method of Attainment of Super-elevation ................................................................... 45
4.6.7 Transition Curves ......................................................................................................... 47
4.6.8 Curve Widening ........................................................................................................... 49
4.6.9 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment................................................................. 51
4.7 Vertical Alignment ....................................................................................................... 52
4.7.1 Major Requirements of Vertical Curves ...................................................................... 52
4.7.2 Gradients ...................................................................................................................... 53
4.7.3 Climbing Lanes ............................................................................................................ 53
4.7.4 Cross falls ..................................................................................................................... 54
4.7.5 Vertical Curves ............................................................................................................. 54
4.7.6 Vertical Crest Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements .................................. 57
4.7.7 Vertical Sag Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements .................................... 58
4.7.8 General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment .......................................................... 60
4.8 Cross-Sectional Elements ............................................................................................. 64
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA vii
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Cross Section of Early Roads .................................................................................. 4
Figure 2.1: Outline Stages of the Project Cycle ....................................................................... 10
Figure 2.2: Typical Road Project Appraisal in Uganda ........................................................... 14
Figure 4.1: Stopping and Passing Sight Distances on a crest curve ......................................... 38
Figure 4.2: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S ≤ L ............................ 39
Figure 4.3: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S > L ............................ 40
Figure 4.4: Forces acting on a vehicle on a horizontal curve ................................................... 42
Figure 4.5: Stages involved in attainment of super-elevation .................................................. 45
Figure 4.6: Attaining Super-elevation by revolving about the centre line ............................... 46
Figure 4.7: Main Elements of a Circular Curve Provided with Transitions ............................ 47
Figure 4.8: Widening on Curves .............................................................................................. 49
Figure 4.9: Climbing Lane outside the ordinary lane............................................................... 53
Figure 4.10: Highway Cross falls ............................................................................................. 54
Figure 4.11: Typical Vertical Curves ....................................................................................... 54
Figure 4.12: A Simple Symmetrical Parabolic curve ............................................................... 55
Figure 4.13: Sight distance over crest curves when a) S ≤ L and b) when S > L .................... 56
Figure 4.14: Single Carriageway Cross-section Elements ....................................................... 64
Figure 4.15: Dual Carriageway Cross-section Elements ......................................................... 64
Figure 4.16: Basic Intersection Forms ..................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.17: Typical Access Layout showing Visibility Requirements................................... 69
Figure 4.18: Typical T-Intersections ........................................................................................ 70
Figure 4.19: Typical Designs for Control Intersections ........................................................... 71
Figure 4.20: Selection of Intersection Category based on Safety ............................................ 72
Figure 4.21: Selection of Intersection Category based on Capacity ........................................ 73
Figure 4.22: Selection of Priority Intersection type based on Safety ....................................... 74
Figure 4.23: Selection of Control Intersection Type ................................................................ 75
Figure 4.24: Selection of Control Intersection Type ................................................................ 76
Figure 5.1: Definition of Pavement layers ............................................................................... 86
Figure 5.2: Summary of the Pavement Design Process ........................................................... 89
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Symbols and Abbreviations
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials
ADT Number of average daily traffic
ALD Average Least Dimension
CBR California Bearing Ratio
E.S.A Equivalent Standard Axle
GB3 Granular Base-material type 3
GIS Graphical Information Systems
HW Allowable Headwater depth
KUTIP Kampala Urban Transportation plan
LL Liquid Limit
LS Linear Shrinkage
M.S.A Millions of equivalent standard axle
MC Moisture Content
MDD Maximum Dry Density
OMC Optimum Moisture Content
ORN Overseas Road Note
PI Plasticity Index
PL Plastic Limit
TRRL Transport Road Research Laboratory
1.0 Introduction
Everybody travels, whether it is to work, play, shop, do business, or simply visit people. All
foodstuffs and raw materials must be carried from their place of origin to their place consumption
[O’Flaherty, 2002].
Historically, people have travelled and goods have been moved by:
a) Road i.e. using cars, wagons, cycles and motor vehicles;
b) Water i.e. using ships and boats;
c) Rail i.e. initially using animals and then the steam oil or electric powered locomotives to
pull passenger carriages and goods wagons;
d) Air i.e. using airships and aeroplanes (20th Century)
A ‘highway’ is an arterial road facility designed for high speed and high volume traffic in non-
urban areas. For example, the national road network of a country is called the National Highway
Network.
A ‘road’ is a lower order facility, designed for relatively lower speed and lower volume traffic in
the non-urban areas. For example, they can be district roads or village roads.
An ‘Expressway’ or ‘Express Highway’ is a superior type of highway facility with full or partial
control of access. It is generally consists of divided carriageway that caters for very high speeds.
As civilization developed and people’s desire for communication increased, the early trails
became pathways and the pathways evolved into recognized travelways. Many of these early
travel ways-termed ‘ridge ways’- were located high on hillsides where the underbrush was less
dense and walking was easier; they were also above soft ground in wet valleys and avoided unsafe
wooded areas.
As civilization advanced, the growth of agriculture took place and human settlements began to be
formed. The invention of the wheel in 5000BC and the domestication of animals saw the advent
of chariots and carts. These carts enabled heavy loads to be carried more easily and gave rise to
wider travelways with firmer surfacings capable of carrying concentrated loads, but with less
steep connecting routes down to/up from valleys and fordable streams. Thus trackways evolved
along the contours of lower slopes e.g. they were sufficiently above the bottoms of valleys to
ensure good drainage but low enough to obviate unnecessary climbing.
The trackways eventually become well established trade routes along which settlements developed
and these gave rise to hamlets and villages - Some of which, eventually, became towns and cities.
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 1
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Early manufactured roads were stone-paved streets of Ur in the Middle East (4000BC), the
corduroy – log paths near Glastonbury, England (3300BC), and brick pavings in India (3000BC):
The oldest existing wooden pathway in Europe, the 2km long Sweet Track, was built across (and
parts subsequently preserved in) marshy ground near Glastonbury. The oldest existing stone road
in Europe was built in Crete in 2000BC.
At its peak the Roman road system, which was based on 29 major roads radiating from Rome to
the outermost fringed of the empire, totalled 52,964 Roman miles (approx. 78,000km) in length.
Started in 312BC, the roads were built with conscripted or forced labour; their purpose was to
hold together the 113 provinces of the empire by aiding imperial administration, extension of the
territorial limits of the empire and quelling rebellions after a region was conquered.
The roads were commonly constructed at least 4.25m wide to enable two chariots to pass with
ease and legions (large group of soldiers) to march abreast. It was common practice to reduce
gradients by cutting tunnels, and one such tunnel on the Via Appia was 0.75km long. Most of the
Roman roads well built on embankments 1m to 2m high so as to give the troops a commanding
view of the country side and make them less vulnerable to surprise attacks; this had the
engineering by-product of helping to keep the carriage way dry.
The roads mainly comprised of straight sections as they provided the most direct routes to the
administrative areas; however deviations from the straight line were tolerated in hilly regions or if
suitable established track ways were available.
The withdrawal of the legions from Britain in AD 407; foreshadowed the breakdown of the only
road system in Europe until the advent of the 17th century.
While the Roman roads in Britain continued to be the main highways of internal communications
for a very long time; they inevitably began to decay and disintegrate under the actions of weather,
traffic and human resourcefulness. Eventually, their condition became so appalling that when
sections became impassable, they were simply abandoned and new tracks created about them.
The onset of the 18th century also saw foreign trade become more important to Great Britain’s
steadily developing manufacturing industries and soon long trains of carts and wagons were
common sights as they laboriously dragged coal from mines to iron works, glassworks and
potteries and manufactured goods to harbours and ports, along very inadequate ways.
Confronted by the above pressures and the terrible state of the roads, parliament passed in 1706,
the first of many statutes that eventually created over 1,100 Turnpike Trusts. These trusts which
administered some 36,800km of road were each empowered to construct and maintain a specified
road length and levy tolls upon certain types of traffic.
The development of the toll road system, especially in the century following 1750, was important
for many reasons, not least of which were:
a) It promoted the development of road making techniques in Britain and allowed the
emergence of skilled road makers e.g. Thomas Telford, John Loudon Mc Adam and Pierre
Tresaguet.
The steam-powered railway service in 1825 marked the beginning of the end for the Turnpike
Trusts as the transfer of long distance passengers from road to rail was almost instantaneous and
towns were accessed by railway.
Pierre Tresaguet, the inspector general of roads in France was the first to recognize the importance
of drainage of roads and its methodical maintenance. He appreciated the role of moisture in soils
and pavements and how moisture affects the performance of road beds. Camber began to be
introduced in roads during his time. Thus, he can be rightly called the father of modern highway
engineering.
The name of John Metcalf is associated in Britain with the art of building good and stable roads in
the latter part of the 18th century. He used boulders to achieve strong foundations for roads and
spread gravel as a surface layer. He pioneered the construction of good roads on soft ground,
using a sub base of bundles of heather (Low spreading bush with small pink-purple flowers).
A run of names of eminent highway engineers is incomplete without John McAdams (1756-1836).
He was a Scottish road builder who has influenced road construction so profoundly that the term
‘Macadam’ is frequently used in pavement specifications even to this day. His two important
principles of good road construction were;
a) It is the native soil that supports the traffic load ultimately and when the soil is maintained
in a dry state, it can carry heavy loads without settlement.
b) Stones which are broken to small angular pieces and compacted can interlock each other
and form a hard surface.
Thus Mc Adam’s specifications were at variance with Telford’s in that smaller pieces of stones
with angular faces were favoured than larger hand packed boulders. He is reported to have given a
practical hint to engineers in selecting the size of stones; the size is good if the stone can be put
into the mouth. How valid his advice is even to this day! Other than the innovative specifications
he introduced, Mc Adam is also remembered for his foresight in urging the creation of a central
highway authority to advise and monitor all matters relating to roads in Britain. His
recommendation is valid even now in Uganda [Kadiyali, 2006].
The automobile had its slow development in the 19th century, but the First World War, 1914-18,
gave momentum to its growth. Thus the road was given a new lease of life [O’Flaherty, 2002].
NB:
All values are for 1998
India’s road length now is 3.3million km and the road is 1km/sq km.
UK started its Motorway construction rather late, in the 1950s. These form the arterial road grid of
the country linking London to major cities like Manchester, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Edinburgh
and Newcastle.
Perhaps the largest arterial system, the US interstate, was started after World War II as a national
defence system. The construction of the 41, 000 miles system was approved in 1956. It was
funded by the Federal Government to an extent of 90 per cent, the balance being state’s matching
share. It linked all the major cities of the nation. It is toll-free.
USA also pioneered the modern super highway - a limited access, high-speed facility. The Bronx
River Parkway constructed in 1925 was the forerunner to many such to come later.
Autobahns of Germany
Germany began constructing its express ways, which were known as Autobahns in the late 1920s.
Before the start of the Second World War, Germany had about 4,000 km of express ways. The
country has now 11,238km of express ways most of which are non-toll.
Vehicle Ownership
Since road transport gives mobility to persons, the vehicle ownership rate has been increasing at a
fast rate round the world. Table 1.2 gives a comparison of the car-ownership rate (cars per 1000
persons) in some selected countries. The rate is very high in USA. (One car per two persons), and
is currently low in India (one car per 250 persons). This rapid growth calls for modernization of
the road system.
2.1 Introduction
Transport is an important infrastructure for development. It occupies a pivotal position in the
growth of developing countries. Planning for economic development is now an accepted tool
widely followed in most of the countries. So far there is very little evidence of a scientific
approach in planning at the national level in the transport sector. However, the outlays and targets
are normally adopted after a careful study of the existing facilities, their deficiencies and
immediate needs. Very often it has been experienced that investment decisions are taken after a
bottleneck situation develops. The transport plan should be integrated in the countries overall
economic plan since transport in its own sake has no meaning. It assumes importance only in as
far as its serves the ultimate goal of development i.e. transport plans must translate overall
development objectives and potentials into transport requirements [Kadiyali, 2006].
The first three steps (1-3) make up the planning phases of the project cycle, though evaluation
(step 8) may also be considered integral to the planning process by providing feedback on the
wisdom and processes of past decisions. Figure 2.1 provides an outline of the stages of the project
cycle. The planning phases of the cycle involve a gradual process of screening and refining
alternative options (for resolving an earlier identified problem). In this process there are clear
decision points (at the end of each stage) when potential projects are either rejected or taken
forward for further and more detailed analysis. Dubious projects should be rejected at an early
planning stage (and before feasibility) as they gain a ‘momentum of their own’, and hence become
increasingly difficult to stop at the later stages in the cycle when minor changes of detail are often
all that are possible. Within each of the planning phases (project identification, pre-feasibility and
feasibility), the same basic process of analysis is adopted. Differences occur largely in the level of
detail applied. Sometimes phases are merged, with pre-feasibility becoming an extension of the
project identification, or a first step in the feasibility stage [TRL, 2005].
2.3.3 Pre-feasibility
At the start of the pre-feasibility stage there is a clearly defined transport problem (identified in
general planning), but no strong evidence that this problem could be solved by road improvement,
or any other transport solution (e.g. improvements to transport services) in an environmentally or
economically acceptable manner. By the end of the pre-feasibility stage, there will be clear
evidence whether or not a road improvement project is worthwhile. If it is, the pre-feasibility will
normally identify what type of project would be suitable, checks that the project is not premature
and provides the information needed to commission a feasibility study. Typically, this phase
might identify ‘corridors’ that require a new road.
An affirmative pre-feasibility study will also trigger the inclusion of a ‘line-item’ in the long-term
road preparation budget (of the ministry or its highway agency). It gives advance warning that
monies will need to be budgeted for the future implementation of this particular project. The pre-
feasibility study may indicate that the proposed road improvement project would not be effective
in solving the problem, or should be reconsidered later, perhaps when there is more traffic). In that
2.3.4 Feasibility
The feasibility study finds the most suitable road improvement project for solving or helping to
solve an identified transport problem. At the start of the study there is a clearly defined problem
with an expectation that the problem can be solved by some form of road improvement, in a
manner that is environmentally, socially and economically acceptable. This expectation is backed
up by the evidence needed to justify the considerable cost of carrying out a feasibility study
(identified in a pre-feasibility study). The level of detail of this study will depend on the
complexity of the project and how much is already known about the proposal.
By the end of the study there should be a clear recommendation for a specific road improvement
project. The study will provide evidence that this particular project should be carried out and that
this project provides the most suitable solution to the problem, taking into account its operational
benefits and its environmental and economic implications. It will also provide a detailed
description and a preliminary engineering design (PED) and associated drawings of the proposed
project to enable costs to be determined at a level of detail to enable funding decisions to be made.
The feasibility study will also provide an input to the road preparation budget process, giving
greater detail (than earlier phases) of costs that will be incurred and project timings.
2.3.5 Design
The final engineering design (FED) is often very costly (up to 15 per cent of project costs) and
usually follows provisional commitment to the project. Numerous decisions which will affect
economic performance are taken throughout design; and economic appraisal often results in
redesign. In this stage, working drawings and bills of quantities are normally prepared.
2.3.7 Implementation
Several aspects of the earlier stages in the project cycle will affect the success of the
implementation. The better and more realistic the plan, the more likely it is that the plan can
actually be carried out and the full benefits be realised. A flexible implementation plan should also
be sought. It is almost inevitable that some circumstances will change during the implementation.
Technical changes may be required as more detailed soils information becomes available or as the
relative prices of construction materials change. Project managers may need to change and re-plan
parts of the project to take account of such variations. The more innovative and original the
project is the greater is the likelihood that changes will have to be made during implementation.
2.3.8 Operation
This refers to the actual use of the road by traffic; it is during this phase that benefits are realised
and maintenance is undertaken.
The steps are not necessarily sequential and involve iteration. The above steps will now be
discussed:
Depending on the objectives of the investment, the project is appraised against different sets of
criteria. Development Banks like World Bank and the Asian Development Bank are increasingly
getting involved in strategic planning of road networks in developing countries. This calls for
alignment of a country’s Transport Plan with a Development Bank’s country strategy.
c) Stage construction – Planned improvements are made to the pavement standards of a road
at fixed stages through the project life. Although stage construction may be appropriate in
achieving an optimal economic balance, practice has shown that budgetary constraints
have often prevented later upgrading phases of stage construction projects leading to lower
rates of return.
a) Analysis period and design life – Most road projects are analysed on a 15 year time
horizon. The analysis period may be partly dictated by the nature of the investigation. For
example, long periods are useful when comparing mutually exclusive projects, whereas
short periods may be appropriate for small projects (such as regravelling of rural access
roads), where the life of the investment is expected to be limited to a few years.
b) Uncertainty and risk – Projects in developing countries are always set against a
background of economic, social and political uncertainty to some degree. The steps taken
to reduce uncertainty include risk analysis using probabilistic techniques for well defined
projects and scenario analysis in explanatory projects.
e) Socio-economic considerations – The major issues that are assessed in terms of the
impact of the project on the target community are social changes, construction
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consequences, road accidents, severance, minorities like gender issues and availability of
local expertise and resources.
3. Determine Alternatives
4. Project Strategy
8. Finalisation of Recommendation
Step 1: Objectives
The study objectives were derived from two major sources namely:
a) The 10 year road sector development programme (RSDP);
b) The strategy related to the Trans-African Highway.
Interestingly, the study period for the Kampala-Fort portal road took 26years (1972-1998). Yet the
process would ordinarily take three years.
Economic evaluation is a rational approach at quantifying the future benefits and costs of
proposed highway improvements with a view to determine the extent to which the projects will
contribute to the goal of raising the living standard of the people and their general welfare. It
provides for a systematic and unbiased procedure for selection of schemes for implementation
under the Ten Year Road Sector Development Plans. It ensures that the most worthwhile projects
are given the highest priority.
Economic evaluation of highway projects can also be carried out to weigh other alternative
transport projects, such as railway projects, pipe-lines or inland water transport projects, in order
to select the most beneficial scheme.
The following are some of the specific objectives in carrying out an economic evaluation:
1. To decide whether the scheme under consideration is worth investment at all;
2. To rank schemes competing for scarce resources in order of priority;
3. To compare various alternative schemes and select the one most economical;
4. To assist in phasing the programme (stage construction) depending upon the availability of
resources.
a) Economic evaluation makes it possible to choose the best of the various alternatives. The
question before the analyst is to suggest the most attractive of them. Often the choice is
between ‘do-nothing’, and other improvement schemes.
b) In economic evaluation, all past actions are irrelevant. What is of prime importance is the
future flow of costs and benefits.
c) In highway projects, the appraisal is carried out from the view-point of the nation as a
whole, and is not restricted to any sub-set like the highway agency, truckers, private
motorists and bus operators.
a) The amount A to which US$ 1 will increase in n years with a compound interest rate of r
will be given by;
1 … . 2.1
b) The present value P of US$ 1, n years therefore when discounted at a rate r will be given
by;
1
1 … . 2.2
1
Costs and benefits can be traced to the provider of the facility (highway department), the highway
users and non-users. In economic analysis, since all consequences are to be considered, the costs
and benefits to all parties are to be reckoned.
Some consequences can be quantified into monetary terms whereas some cannot. The aim of the
analyst should be to quantify as many elements as can be monetarily quantified. Those which
cannot be ultimately quantified into monetary terms are kept separately apart and a judgement
value can be accorded to them before a final decision is taken.
The economic evaluation of highway projects is generally done by computing the total transport
cost which consists of the following components:
a) Cost of construction of the facility
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b) Cost of maintenance of the facility
c) Road user cost
d) Cost to the society
The Government, which is often the agency providing the facility, incurs expenditure on
constructing a road. This includes land acquisition, earthwork, road pavement and structures. The
government also invests money on maintenance and up keep annually. The road user cost, which
is borne by the actual user of the highway facility (passenger, crew of vehicles, operator,
consignor of goods, pedestrian, cyclist etc.) is composed of:
c) Accident Costs
i) Cost of fatality
ii) Cost of injuries
iii) Cost of damages to property
d) Cost to Society
i) Impact on the environment (noise pollution, air pollution, vibration).
ii) Loss of aesthetics
iii) Changes in land values
iv) Land severance
v) Discomfort and inconvenience.
Benefits from highway projects in effect represent the difference in costs with the new facility and
the old facility. Benefits can be grouped under the following:
a) Benefits to the existing traffic, by way of reduced road user costs.
b) Benefits to the generated traffic
c) Benefits to traffic diverted from other routes and modes
d) Benefits to traffic operating on other routes and modes where reduction in traffic has been
caused by the opening of the facility.
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Vehicle operating costs are affected by a number of factors such as:
a) Vehicle Factors
i) Age
ii) Make
iii) Horse-power, engine capacity
iv) Load carried
v) Condition of Vehicle
vi) Level of maintenance input
vii) Type of fuel used
viii) Type of tyres (rayon, nylon, radial ply, cross ply etc.)
b) Roadway Factors
i) Roughness of the surface
ii) Type of the surface
iii) Horizontal curvature
iv) Vertical profile
v) Pavement width
vi) Type and condition of shoulder
vii) Urban and rural location
viii) Number of junctions per km
c) Traffic Factors
i) Speed of travel
ii) Traffic volume and composition.
d) Environmental Factors
i) Altitude
ii) Rainfall
iii) Temperature
Research has shown that the vehicle operating cost components are closely governed by (i)
roadway factors such as roughness, pavement width, rise and fall and horizontal curvature, (ii)
vehicle factors such as age and load carried and (iii) traffic factors such as speed and volume of
traffic. It follows therefore, that good roads result in lower vehicle operating costs.
Highway improvements result in speedier travel. Savings in travel time are enjoyed by occupants
of vehicles, goods in transit and the vehicles in transit
Road accident rates are governed to a certain extent by the condition of the road. Highway
improvements can thus bring about a reduction in road accidents. The cost of road accidents,
which have been eliminated by highway improvements, represents a benefit.
When carrying out economic analysis, costs and benefits are considered exclusive of taxes. Taxes
do not represent an economic cost and represent only a transfer within the community. Insurance
premiums are also excluded from economic analysis since the savings in accidents already
account for this element.
In a developing country, there are certain resources which are scarcer than the others. The
prevailing market prices, therefore, do not reflect the true economic value of the resources. In
order to correct such distortions and imperfections, ‘shadow pricing’ is done. A case in example is
the cost of imported fuel in Uganda. Since foreign exchange reserves are very precious, such
imported items are shadow priced at a higher value than the market price when carrying out the
Inflation is disregarded in economic analysis, as it is generally assumed that all prices increase in
the same proportion, but relative prices remain constant. But if differential inflation is expected to
occur among commodities, necessary adjustments need to be made.
… . 2.3
1
Where;
NPV0 = Net Present Value in the year 0;
Bi = Value of benefits which occur in the year i;
Ci = Value of costs which occur in the year i;
i = Discount rate per annum;
n = Number of years considered for analysis.
1
… . 2.4
1
In the AASHTO practice of road –user analysis the B/C ratio expresses the ratio of the net annual
benefits to the net annual costs. The benefits are determined for a simple reference year, which for
convenience can be the first year of operation after construction or the median year of the analysis
period [Kadiyali, 2006].
0 … . 2.5
1
Solutions are normally found graphically or by iteration. However, with a computer program, the
work is rendered simple. The IRR gives no indication of the sizes of the costs or the benefits of a
project, but acts as a guide to the profitably of the investment [Thagesen, 1996].
If the internal rate of return calculated from the above formula is greater than the rate of interest
obtained by investing the capital in the open market, the scheme is considered acceptable.
100
,% … . 2.5
Bj
FYRR = 100 j −1
.... (2.6)
∑ C (1 + r )
j =0
i
j −1
Where j is the first year of benefits, with j = 0 in the base year, and other notation is as before.
If the FYRR is greater than the planning discount rate, then the project is timely and should go
ahead. If it is less than the discount rate, but the NPV is positive, the start of the project should be
deferred and further rates of return should be calculated to define the optimum starting date.
It is should be noted that the results of the cost-benefit analysis are no better than the assumptions
and input data on which it is based. The data and parameters used in the analysis of a road project
can be prone to substantial errors and it is important to recognise that these exist and to take steps
to minimise them [Thagesen, 1996].
a) It requires an assumption of a discount rate, which should bear relation to the opportunity
cost of capital. It is however, rather difficult to know the opportunity cost of capital
accurately.
b) The significance of the B/C ratio is ambiguous, and its relative value is difficult to
understand and interpret. For instance, if there are two proposals, one with a B/C ratio of
1.05 and the other with a ratio of 1.10, the difference is very difficult to appreciate.
c) It is somewhat confusing and difficult to decide which items should be termed as costs and
placed in the denominator and which as benefits and placed in the numerator.
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 21
© foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
The IRR method is popular with international lending agencies like the World Bank. It lends itself
admiringly well for use in a computer-aided design model. It avoids the need for selecting a
discount rate initially. The rate derived from computations can be easily compared with the market
rate of interest, with which economists, financial experts and bankers are familiar. Its
disadvantage is that the computations are tedious and a solution can only be obtained only by trial
and error.
The NPV method suffers from the same disadvantage as in case of B/C ratio method in that a rate
of discount has to be assumed.
Example
An existing single lane road, 30 km long, is to be widened to two lanes. The cost of widening is
US$ 10,000 per km. The vehicle operating costs, accident costs and maintenance costs, with and
without widening, for a 10 year period are tabulated in Table 2.1. The discount rate is 12 per cent.
Is the project worthwhile? Compare the results of NPV, B/C ratio and IRR methods.
Solution
Cost of project = US$ 10,000 x 30 = US$ 300,000
Year RoadUser Costs Accident Costs Maintenance Costs Benefits DiscountedBenefits DiscountedBenefits
With Impr. Without Impr. With Impr. Without Impr. With Impr. Without Impr. (NPV, B/C) (IRR)
1 101.5 160.7 2.5 3.6 10 7.5 57.8 51.607 49.048
2 105.6 168.2 2.6 3.7 10 7.5 61.2 48.788 44.070
3 110.2 176.3 2.7 3.8 10 7.5 64.7 46.052 39.536
4 116.2 185.2 2.8 3.9 10 7.5 67.6 42.961 35.053
5 122.3 190 2.9 4 10 7.5 66.3 37.620 29.173
6 128.4 199 2.9 4 10 7.5 69.2 35.059 25.839
7 135.6 210 3 4.1 10 7.5 73 33.021 23.130
8 143.2 219.5 3.1 4.2 10 7.5 74.9 30.251 20.139
9 149.1 228.2 3.2 4.3 10 7.5 77.7 28.019 17.729
10 154.6 240.1 3.2 4.3 10 7.5 84.1 27.078 16.283
Total 380.458 300.000
Project is Economically Justified NPVo 80.458
Project is Economically Justified B/C Ratio 1.268
Project is Economically Justified IRR 17.84%
2.7.1 Introduction
The location of a new or major road requires consideration of many complex and interrelated
factors and brings together different professionals namely economists, geologists, planners,
surveyors and road engineers. The process of defining the physical location of a new road must be
preceded by the analysis of data on traffic volumes, planning intentions in the area to be traversed
and preliminary estimates of the anticipated design of the new road. Route location consists of
selecting the best compromise between demand factors and terrain factors. Demand factors
determine the areas to be served by the new road standard and terrain factors influence the
engineering cost. Terrain factors include: Ground conditions, materials for construction,
earthworks, drainage both surface and subsurface and the need for structures. The choice of route
is normally associated with the problem identification and feasibility stages of the project life
cycle. Road locations are easier to determine through low cost relatively undeveloped lands than
through well developed rural and urban areas.
The first step requires the fixing of end termini and then defining a region which will determine all
feasible routes between these two points. In a non-urban setting this region can be one third as
wide as it is long. The region is then searched using reconnaissance techniques to obtain a limited
number of broad bands within which further searches can be concentrated. Such a band can be up
to 16km wide for a rural motorway. Within these bands, further reconnaissance searches result in
the selection of say three narrower corridors each 3-8km wide that can be labelled A, B and C. A
comparison of these may then suggest that C will provide the best route and then Route E is
generated through it. In rural setting route E may be 1-1.5km wide.
The next step is preliminary location where route E is searched and one or more feasible
alignments is located within it each perhaps 30m wide containing minor design differences. These
alignments are then compared during the final location phase of the analysis and the most suitable
one is selected for further development in terms of design and construction. The above process is
iterative in nature. Tangible considerations that might influence the selection process include
topographic, soil and geological survey data, land usage and population distributions, travel
demands and road user costs, construction and maintenance costs and safety factors. Intangible
considerations of a political, social and environmental nature requiring extensive public
consultation may need to be considered as well.
a) Reconnaissance Survey
The reconnaissance stage of the survey process takes place during the identification stage of the
project where alternative possible routes are determined in terms of the corridors in which they lie.
The first step in the reconnaissance survey is to carry out a major desk study of the
bands/corridors being evaluated within the region. The types of information typically gathered for
a desk study include:
Next, armed with questions from the desk study, the reconnaissance engineer visits the field to fill
in omissions in information gathered from the desk study and further limit the corridor under
study into a more suitable terrain and provide further data useful for design. The reconnaissance
study should be low key so as not to attract attention of local residents who may pre-empt the
development of the project. On completion of the reconnaissance survey the engineer should have
sufficient information which when combined with economic, environmental, planning, social and
traffic inputs enable the selection of the feasible corridor routes. The renaissance report describes
the preferred corridor routes; a state of criteria satisfied by the project, presents tentative project
cost estimates, provides provisional geotechnical maps and shows characteristics of important
engineering features. It also states special issues that may lead to design and construction
problems.
In the course of carrying out the preliminary survey, a ground survey, which is one of the
approaches, the other being an aerial survey is taken by means of traversing and levelling to
produce a strip map of the proposed corridor for the route showing the physical features along the
route, locations of soft ground, locations of water bodies, power lines pipelines, houses
monuments etc. These are converted into a topographic map that shows both horizontal and
vertical data usually with the aid of contour lines that enable the road alignment to be defined in
both horizontal and vertical planes. The survey area should be greater than the roadway width of
the proposed route.
The next step is the determination of the centreline of the proposed road. It should fit the
topography while meeting the intended traffic service requirements. It is a trial and error process
were trial centrelines are drawn on the strip map and are adjusted according to the skill and
judgement of the engineer. Sketching can be by the method of arcs or the method of tangents. The
process of sketching on paper should go hand in hand with field observations.
Many considerations influence the choice of centreline finally selected. These include;
a) In rural areas locate the road along property edges rather than through them;
b) Avoid alignments that cause the motorist to drive into the rising or setting sun for long
periods;
c) Site the road so as to view a prominent scenic feature;
d) Minimise the destruction of manmade culture, cemeteries etc;
Finally cost comparisons are made of alternative alignments to assist in recommendation of the
best route.
The final location survey is similar to the one described above for rural areas except it is more
complex to carry out. Setting out may need more complicated offsetting and reference methods.
2.7.4 References
1. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Danida, 1998. Kampala to Fort-Portal Road Upgrading Project,
Uganda: Design, Tendering and Supervision of Mityana-Mubende-Kyenjojo Section. Interim
Engineering Report, COWI in Joint Venture with Road Directorate, Denmark Ministry of
Transport.
3.1 Introduction
A highway engineer is required to design road facilities which will be used by pedestrians, cyclists
animal-drawn vehicles and a variety of motor-powered vehicles. The great variation in road user
behaviour and vehicle characteristics necessitates an understanding of these variations as a
precondition to highway design.
Human factors that govern the behaviour of the driver, cyclist and the pedestrians have a
considerable effect on the design elements. Knowledge of how this behaviour is influenced by
various external conditions is useful in designing the road facility. The characteristics of the
different types of vehicles will influence the geometric design elements of the highway and will
determine the safety of traffic using the road [Kadiyali, 2006].
a) Physiological
i) Vision;
ii) Hearing;
b) Psychological
i) Perception;
ii) Hearing;
iii) Intellection;
iv) Emotion;
v) Volition
3.2.2 Vision
Pedestrians, cyclists and drivers are able to use the road safely because of the help received by the
eyes in seeing the road and traffic thereon and in evaluating the size, shape, colour, distance and
speed of approach of various objects on the road. Safety of traffic depends upon the ability of the
road users to see traffic lights, traffic signs, vehicles on the road, safe gap and safe crossing places.
The drivers are able to cross, overtake, stop, accelerate and decelerate their vehicles on seeing the
road conditions, the traffic conditions and the environmental conditions affecting safe traffic
movement.
3.2.3 Hearing
For safe driving, cycling and walking, sound is an invaluable aid. Horns can alert the road user.
Similarly the sound of a nearing vehicle or that of skidding may alert the road user and avert and
accident. Efforts are being made to take measures for the control of noise pollution on roads.
The next stage is intellection, which means the identification of the stimuli by the development of
new thoughts and ideas. When a person receives certain stimuli, new thoughts and ideas may form
leading to better understanding of the stimuli.
Volition is the ability to make conscious choices or decisions. It is a person’s will to react to any
given situation.
In highway design practice, the time that elapses between the perception of danger by a road user
and the decision to take action (Perception and brake-reaction time) is an important consideration
especially in the design of sight distances. The perception time is that time required for a driver to
come to a realisation that brakes must be applied. The brake –reaction time is that time between
the perception of danger and the effective application of brakes. The AASHO practice is to use a
combined perception and brake-reaction time of 2.5 seconds.
3.3.1 Speed
Speed of walk of pedestrians is needed for design of traffic signals and other pedestrian facilities.
The average walking speeds range from 0.75m/s to 1.8m/s. The rate assumed in the Manual on
Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) for timing pedestrian signals is 1.2m/s.
The designers may keep in mind that many pedestrians consider themselves as not being governed
by any laws. In addition, any regulations pertaining to the movement of pedestrians are not being
enforced.
a) Size;
b) Power performance of vehicles;
c) Rolling resistance;
d) Air resistance;
e) Grade resistance; and
f) Inertial forces during acceleration.
3.5 References
1. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2. MoWH&C, 2005, Road Design Manual Vol.1 – Geometric Design Manual
4.1 Introduction
Geometric design is an aspect of the highway design dealing with the visible dimensions of a
roadway. It is dictated, within economic limitations, by the requirements of traffic and includes
the design elements of horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance, cross-section components,
lateral and vertical clearances, intersection treatment, control of access etc [Kadiyali, 2006].
The purpose of geometric design is to reduce the number and severity of road accidents while
ensuring high traffic flow with minimum delay to vehicles [Thagesen, 1996]. The safe, efficient
and economic operation of a highway is governed to a large extent by the care with which the
geometric design has been worked out. Safety or the lack of it is an immediate corollary of the
various design features of the highway. Efficient and comfortable operation of traffic is possible
only if the design elements have been meticulously considered. A well designed highway has to
be consistent with economy. Too liberal standards may not fit in with the available resources,
whereas if the standards are too low, the cost of operation may mount up [Kadiyali, 2006].
The basic inputs are the Design speed and the Design hourly volume. The design speed governs
the design of vertical and horizontal curvatures while design hour volume governs capacity
required.
The design engineer has to consider the following points when selecting the design standards for a
highway.
a) Adequate geometric design in planning a highway facility ensures that the facility will not
become obsolete in the foreseeable future. Hence the volume and composition of traffic in
the design year should be the basis of design.
b) Faulty geometrics are costly, and in some cases impossible to rectify at a later date and so,
due to consideration should be given to geometric design at the initial stage itself.
c) The design should be consistent with and the standards proposed for different elements
should be compatible with one another. Abrupt changes in design should be avoided.
d) The design should embrace all aspects of geometrics of the road, including signs,
markings, proper lighting, intersections, etc.
e) The highway should be considered as an element of the total environment and its location
and design should enhance rather than degrade the environment. The highway should be
aesthetically satisfying. The design elements should strive to control pollution.
f) The design should be so selected that not only the initial cost of construction of the
facility, but also the total transportation cost, including maintenance cost and road user
cost should be minimised.
g) Safety should be inbuilt into the design elements.
h) The design should enable all the road users (motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians and
animal drawn vehicles) to use the facility. The performance of the vehicles using the
facility should be given due consideration.
It is important for engineers to exercise judgement in the use of a given design standard to ensure
that they come up with an economical solution for a geometric design. Sometimes, more than one
Roads of the highest classes, A and B, have as their major function to provide mobility and have
longer trip lengths. They are required to provide a high level of service with a high design speed.
The roads of Classes C and D serve a dual function in accommodating shorter trips and feeding
the higher classes or road. For these roads an intermediate design speed and level of service is
required. Road Class E has short trip length and their primary function is to provide access.
Design speeds and level of service for these roads may be low [MoWH&C, 2005].
4.4.1 General
There are certain basic design controls and criteria which govern the geometric features of a
highway. These are: topography, traffic (its volume, directional distribution, and composition,
including the future estimates), speed, capacity design vehicle and control of access.
4.4.2 Topography
Topography and physical features play an important role in the location and design of a highway.
The various design elements should be related to topographical features if an economical and
sound judgement is to emerge. The classification of terrain is normally done by means of the cross
(transverse) slope of the country, i.e. the slope approximately perpendicular to the centre-line of
the highway location.
Flat Level or gently rolling country which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road having
continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope around 5%)
Rolling Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately gently and
where occasional steep slopes may be encountered. It will offer some restrictions in horizontal
and vertical alignment. (20% ≥ transverse terrain slope > 5%)
Mountaneaous Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite
restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and
limited sight distances (70% ≥ transverse terrain slope > 20%)
Escarpment In addition to the terrain class given above, a fourth class is added to cater for those situations
whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be met.
Escarpment situations are where it is required to switchback road alignments or side hill traverse
sections where earthwork quantities are huge (transverse terrain slope >70%)
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005
4.4.3 Traffic
DHV is then expressed as DHV = AADT x K or ADT x K where K is estimated from the ratio of
the 30th HV to the AADT from a similar site. The 30th HV is the 30th highest hourly volume
during the year.
The 30th HV is expressed as a fraction of ADT can vary as indicated in the following table.
d) Traffic Composition
Traffic composition has a vital effect on capacity and other design considerations. In Uganda, the
traffic is heterogeneous in character, consisting of fast driven cars, trucks, and buses. It is
customary in this country to express the traffic volume in terms of passenger car units (PCUs).
The values in indicated in the table below.
The following definitions apply to the different vehicle types mentioned in the above table.
a) Design Vehicles
A design vehicle is a selected motor vehicle, the weight, dimensions and operating characteristics
of which are used to establish highway design controls to accommodate vehicles of a designated
type. The dimensions and operating characteristics of a vehicle profoundly influence geometric
design aspects such as radii, width of pavements, parking geometrics, etc. The weight of the axles
and the weight of the vehicles affect the structural design of the pavement and structures, as also
the operating characteristics of vehicles on grades. Because of its crucial importance the
standardisation of the dimensions and the weights of design vehicles is the first step in formulating
geometric design standards. This has been done in many countries. In Uganda, the Ministry of
Works, Housing and Communications’ Uganda Road Design Manual Vol.1 - Geometric Design
Manual 2005, is being followed [MoWH&C, 2005].
Front
Rear
4x4
DV-1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3 4.2
passenger car
Single unit
DV-2 4.1 2.6 9.1 1.2 1.8 6.1 12.8 8.5
truck
Single unit
DV-3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8 7.4
bus
Semitrailer
6.1 &
combination DV-4 4.1 2.6 16.7 0.9 0.6 13.7 5.8
9.1
large
Interstate 6.1 &
DV-5 4.1 2.6 21.0 1.2 0.9 13.7 2.9
Semitrailer 12.8
Sou rce: Ug and a Road Design ma nu al Vo l.1, 2005
b) Design Speed
Design speed is the speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a
highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained
over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so favourable that the design features of
the highway govern. The design speed obviously has to be correlated with terrain conditions and
the classification of the highway. There is considerable variation in the speed adopted by different
drivers and by different types of vehicles. This raises the question of what value of speed should
be adopted for design. The value selected should accommodate nearly all demands with
reasonable adequacy, yet the design should not fail completely under severe or extreme load. The
speed adopted should satisfy nearly all drivers with exception of those few who drive at extremely
high speed [Kadiyali, 2006].
The standard design speeds are 50km/h, 60km/h, 70km/h, 85km/h, 100km/h and 120km/h. These
speed bands are based on the premise that for a given highway, it is considered acceptable if 85%
of the drivers travel at or below the designated design speed, generally inducing a situation where
approximately 99% of the drivers travel at or below one design speed category above the design
speed. Thus if a chosen design speed is by definition the 85th percentile speed for the highway,
then the next speed band up will constitute the 99th percentile speed. Speed bands are related to
each other as follows:
99 85
√2 … . 4.1
85 50
The 85th percentile speed is selected as the design speed on the basis that it constitutes the most
appropriate choice. Use of the 99th percentile speed would be safer but extremely expensive while
use of the 50th percentile speed would be unduly unsafe for faster travelling vehicles [Rogers,
2003].
The curve depicting the cumulative distribution of speeds has a typical “S” shape. It is important
to note that designers use typical data previously obtained on similar roads.
Although control of access is one of the most important means for preserving the efficiency and
road safety of major roads, roads without access control are equally essential as land service
facilities. The following three levels of access control are applicable:
(2) Partial access control:- means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic to a degree in that, in addition to access connections with
selected public roads, there may be (some) private access connections.
(3) Unrestricted access: - means that preference is given to local traffic, with the road serving
the adjoining areas through direct access connection. However, the detailed location and
layout of the accesses should be subject to approval by the Road Authority in order to ensure
adequate standards of visibility, surfacing, drainage, etc.
Road function determines the level of access control needed. Roads of higher classes have their
major function to provide mobility, while the function of lower classes is to provide access.
Motorways should always have full control of access. For all purpose roads the following general
guidelines are given for the level of access control in relation to the functional road classification:
The reduced levels of access control may have to be applied for some road projects because of
practical and financial constraints.
Control of access is accomplished either by the careful location of accesses, by grouping accesses to
reduce the number of separate connections to the through traffic lanes or by constructing service
roads which intercept the individual accesses and join the through lanes at a limited number of
properly located and designed junctions. In every case the location and layout of all accesses,
service roads and junctions should be carefully considered at the design stage and include in the
final design for the project [MoWH&C, 2005].
4.5.1 General
Sight distance is defined as the length of carriageway that a driver can see in both the horizontal
and vertical planes. There are two types of sight distance: stopping sight distance and overtaking
sight distance [Rogers, 2003].
The design of a highway with adequate sight ahead of a travelling vehicle results in safe operation.
Knowledge of the sight distance requirements is needed in designing vertical curves. It also
governs the set-back of buildings, slopes, fence, and other obstructions adjacent to a carriageway
on a horizontal curve [Kadiyali, 2006].
When sensations received through the eyes, ears or body are strong enough to be recognised and
interpreted, they become perceptions. In the cases of a motorist, it is the time which elapses
between the instant the driver perceives the object on the carriageway and the instant that he
realises that braking is needed. The time lag or the brief interval between the perception of danger
and the effective application of the brakes is called the brake-reaction time. The perception time
and the brake reaction time depend upon a variety of factors, e.g. age, sex, alertness and visual
acuity of the driver, visibility, vehicle design, the size and type of the object etc.
According to Ugandan practice, a perception reaction time of 2.5s, eye height of 1.07m above the
road surface and an object height of 0.15m are used in computing stopping sight distance. The
distance travelled during this interval, d1 is given by:
The braking distance is the distance within which a moving vehicle comes to a stop after the
application of the brakes. On a level road, the distance is given by;
… . 4.3
254
Where;
d2 = braking distance travelled in metres;
V = speed in km/h;
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction between the tyre and the pavement.
The coefficient of friction (for a wet pavement condition) is assumed to vary from 0.40 at 30 km/h
to 0.28 at 120 km/h. The above considerations yield the values in Table 4.5 below as
recommended by MoWH&C.
Table 4.5: Stopping Sight Distance on Level Ground for Wet Pavement Condition
Brake Reaction Coeffi-
Assumed cient of
Breaking Stopping
Design Speed for friction for
distance sight
Speed Conditio Time Distance wet
on level distance for
[km/hr] n [sec] [m] pavement
[m] design [m]
[km/hr] conditin
(f)
30 30-30 2.5 20.8-20.8 0.40 8.9-8.9 29.7-29.7
40 40-40 2.5 27.8-27.8 0.38 16.6-16.6 44.4-44.4
50 47-50 2.5 32.6-34.7 0.35 24.8-28.1 57.5-62.8
60 55-60 2.5 38.2-41.7 0.33 36.1-42.9 74.3-84.6
Some slight adjustments are needed in the values of the braking sight distance to take into account
the effect of grades. The following amended formula may be used to calculate d1.
… . 4.4
254
Where;
G = Longitudinal grade in percent (%).
The positive sign is used when the gradient is upgrade and the negative sign may be used if the
gradient is downgrade. Correction for grade should not be applied on undivided roads with two-
way traffic but must invariably be considered for divided highways which have independently
designed profiles. The safe stopping sight distance, SSD is given by d1 + d2.
Example:
Calculate the safe stopping distance of a vehicle travelling at a speed of 80kph on an upward
gradient of 2%. Make suitable assumptions.
Solution
Full overtaking sight distance is measured from vehicle to vehicle (the hazard or object in this
case another car) between points 1.05m and 2.00m above the centre of the carriageway. FOSD is
made up of three components: d1, d2 and d3 as described below:
d1 = distance travelled by the vehicle in question while driver in the overtaking vehicle
completes the passing manoeuvre (Overtaking Time);
d2 = distance between the overtaking and opposing vehicles at the point in time at which
the overtaking vehicle returns to its designated lane (Safety Time);
d3 = distance travelled by the opposing vehicle within the above mentioned ‘Perception
– reaction’ and overtaking times (Closing Time).
In order to establish the values for full overtaking sight distance, it is assumed that the driver
making the overtaking manoeuvre commences it at two design speed steps below the designated
design speed of the section of highway in question. The overtaking vehicle then accelerates to the
designated design speed. During this time frame, the approaching vehicle is assumed to travel
towards the overtaking vehicle at the designated design speed. The safety time, d2 is assumed to
be 20% of d3. These assumptions yield the following equation:
… . 4.6
Where;
v = speed in m/s;
V = speed in km/h;
t = time taken to complete the entire manoeuvre.
The value of, ‘t’ is generally taken as 10 seconds, as it has been established that it is less than this
figure in 85% of observed cases [Rogers, 2003].
Extra
distance Passing Sight Distance
for large
vehicles
The presence of obstructions adjacent to the highway such as boundary walls, buildings,
slopes of cuttings may constrain the limiting radius of the horizontal alignment. To provide
the necessary horizontal sight distances, it may be necessary to set back obstructions. In
cases where the obstructions are immovable, it may be necessary to redesign the road
alignment in order to meet the safety requirements. It is therefore necessary to estimate the
offset clearance necessary to secure the required horizontal distance by considering two
cases as in the following sections.
a) Required Sight distance, S lies wholly within the length of the curve, L (S ≤ L)
S
Assume Straight =
2
x
Vehicle Truck
C
A M B
D
R–M
R
The offset M can be approximated by considering the vehicle truck to be along the chords AC
and CB.
When the radius of horizontal curvature is large, then it can be assumed that the required sight
distance, S, approximates to a straight line. When S lies within the curve length, the minimum
… . 4.8
8
b) Required Sight distance, S lies outside the length of the curve, L (S > L)
S is greater than the available length of the curve L and overlaps on the tangents for a
distance l on each side.
x
C
l D E l
M
A P B
R
R–M
Assuming a large horizontal radius of curvature and considering triangles ACP and OAP,
2
⎛S⎞
⎜ ⎟ = x +M
2 2
(i)
2
⎝ ⎠
d 2 = x 2 + (R − M ) .
2
(ii)
Also,
d 2 = l 2 + R2 (iii)
S L
But = + l so that (iii) becomes
2 2
2
⎡S − L⎤
d =⎢
2
⎥ +R
2
(iv)
⎣ 2 ⎦
Solving (i), (iii) and (iv),
2
… . 4.9
8
Solution
From the question, S = 160 m, R = 600 m.
(a) The length of the curve 200 m > 160 m. So the required sight distance S lies wholly
within the length of the curve. Applying equation (4.8), the required offset
M=
(160)
2
= 5.33 m
8(600)
(b) The length of the curve 100 m < 160 m. So the required sight distance S lies outside the
length of the curve. Applying equation (4.9), the required offset
100 [2 (160 ) − 100 ]
M = = 4 .58 m
8(600 )
Minimum permitted horizontal radii depend on the design speed and the super-elevation of the
carriageway, which has a maximum allowable value of 7% in the UK, with designs in most cases
using a value of 5%. The relationship between super-elevation, design speed and horizontal
curvature is detailed in the following sub section.
… . 4.10
127
Equation 4.10 above is the basic equation relating the speed of vehicles, the radius of the
curve, the super-elevation and coefficient of friction. This equation forms the basis of design
of horizontal curves,
Equation 4.10 can be rewritten as shown below and is known as the minimum radius equation:
… . 4.11
127
v2 2
The terms and v are known as the ‘centrifugal ratio’ and ‘centrifugal acceleration’
gR R
respectively.
If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by super-elevation, then frictional force will not
come into play. In this case, µ = 0 in equation 4.10. The super-elevation then provided is said to
be ‘equilibrium super-elevation’. In such a case, the pressures on the inner and outer wheels
would be equal.
Design practice is based on the assumption that at absolute minimum radius the 99th
percentile speed vehicle should not experience more than the maximum level of centrifugal
2
acceleration acceptable for comfort. Its value is 0.22g. Thus if v = 0 .22 g , then the total
R
centrifugal acceleration at the design speed (85th percentile speed) should not exceed:
Super-elevation can be provided either to fully counteract the centrifugal force or to counteract a
fixed proportion of the centrifugal force. In the former case, the super-elevation needed would be
more than 1 in 15 (6.67%) on sharp curves causing inconvenience to slow moving vehicles. Since
super-elevation has to be limited to 7% or 8% as per Ugandan practice, maximum friction would
have to be relied upon when the sharpest possible curve is traversed. When a vehicle negotiates a
flat curve, friction would not be developed to the maximum and this would not be a balanced
design. It is desirable that the super-elevation should be such that a moderate amount of friction is
developed while negotiating flat curves and friction not exceeding the maximum allowable value
should be developed at sharp curves. Therefore designing the super-elevations to fully counteract
the centrifugal force developed at a fraction of the design speed will provide the necessary
balance.
The above is achieved as per UK practice by providing full super-elevation for a speed of
67.082% of the design speed such that 45% of the centrifugal force is balanced by super-elevation
while 55% of the centrifugal force is balanced by friction. Therefore equation 4.10 becomes:
0.67082 0.45
… . 4.13
127 127 282
… . 4.14
282
Substituting the values of camber for e in equation 4.14 above, the minimum radius beyond which
no super-elevation is required is obtained. In such cases where the radius is greater than those
given by the above formula it is desirable to remove the adverse crown in the outer half of the
carriageway and super-elevate at the normal crown slope.
It is desirable to accomplish the raising of the outer-half till it is level before the starting point of
the transition curve. The raising of the outer edge should be done in a slope not exceeding 1 in 150
for plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for hilly terrain.
In the second stage, any of the three methods given below may be adopted to attain the full super-
elevation:
a) The surface of the road is rotated about the centre-line of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the outer edge while keeping the level of the centre-
line constant (Figure 4.5 d);
b) The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the centre and the outer
edge (Figure 4.5 e);
c) The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the centre and the inner
edge (Figure 4.5 f);
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 45
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In most circumstances method (a) is generally used a it results in the least distortion of the
pavement. Figure 4.6 below shows the method of attaining super-elevation using method (a).
Example
Calculate the super-elevation to be provided for a horizontal curve with a radius of 400m for a
design speed of 100kph in plain terrain. Comment on the results. What is the coefficient of lateral
friction mobilised if super-elevation is to be restricted to 7%.
Solution
100
0.089 8.9%
282 282 400
127
100
0.07 0.127
127 127 400
b) The Spiral
Various forms of curves are suitable for highway transitions, but the most popular and
recommended for use in this country is the spiral. It is easy to set out in the field and the rate of
acceleration is uniform through the length of transition. Figure 4.7 below shows the main elements
of a circular curve provided with spirals for transition at its two ends.
c) Length of Transition
The length of the transition should be determined from the following two considerations:
i) The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration then:
… . 4.19
Where;
aT1 = radial acceleration at T1 (= v2/R)
aT = radial acceleration at T (= 0)
t = time taken (= L/v)
0
… . 4.20
1
. … . 4.21
3.6
Where v is speed in m/s and V is speed in Km/hr. The value of C is usually taken as
0.3m/s3.
ii) The rate of change of change of super-elevation should also be such as not to cause higher
gradients and unsightly appearances. This could be kept in 1 in 150 for roads in plain and
rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for roads in hilly terrain. Since the super-elevation can be given
by rotating about the centreline, inner or outer edge, the length of the transition will be
governed accordingly. In calculating the length of transition, the pavement width should
include any widening that may have been provided at the curve.
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 48
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The higher of the values given by the above two methods should be adopted.
2
… . 4.22
2
Assuming a wheel base of 6m for a vehicle corresponding to AASHTO single unit, widening in
metres, m is given by:
18
… . 4.23
The widening due to psychological reasons is a function of speed and can be assumed to be given
by the empirical formula, Wp;
Solution
146.319
… .
2
Since radius, R < 300m, extra widening, We, of the carriageway is required.
6.1 80
2. 0.1 0.655
2 250 √250
7.655
2.5 7.0 72.723
2 0.5
Therefore;
Adopt L = 146.319m since La > Ls. (i.e. take the greater of the two values)
θ L
T R S tan
2 2
Where;
L 146.319
S 3.57m
24R 24 250
Therefore;
60 146.319
T 250 3.57 tan 219.558
2 2
220m
LT L 2L
L R θ 2φ angles are in radians
πθ L π 60 146.319
L R 2 R 2 115.500m
180 2R 180 2x250
From which;
LT 115.500 2 146.319
408.138m
In order to provide adequate visibility, oncoming vehicles or any obstructions in the road must be
seen clearly and in good time to ensure that vehicles travelling at the design speed can stop or
overtake safely. This requirement is achieved by use of sight distances and K-Values to be
discussed shortly in this chapter.
In order to provide passenger comfort, the effect of the radial force on the vehicle traversing a
vertical curve must be minimised. In crest curve design this effect could cause the vehicle to leave
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 52
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the road surface (e.g. in hump-back bridges) while in the sag curve the underside of the vehicle
would come into contact with the surface, particularly where the gradients are steep and opposed.
The result is discomfort and danger to passengers travelling. This can be minimised by:
• Restricting the gradients; which has the effect of reducing the radial force;
• Choosing a suitable type and length of curve such that this reduced force is introduced
gradually and uniformly as possible [Uren et al, 1989].
4.7.2 Gradients
The rate of rise or fall of road surface along its length with respect to horizontal distance is termed
as gradient [MoWH&C, 2004]. The use of steep gradients in hilly terrain generally results in
lower road construction and environmental costs. However, it also adds to road user costs through
delays, extra fuel costs and accidents. Gradients of up to about 7% have little effect on the speeds
of passenger cars. Nevertheless, the speeds of commercial vehicles are considerably reduced on
long hills with gradients in excess of 2%. For short distances, gradients of 5% or 6% may have
little detrimental effect on commercial vehicle speeds [O’Flaherty, 2002]. Long, steep, downhill
grades are very dangerous and need careful design, preferably with escape roads (side roads that
are designed to bring out-of-control vehicles to a safe stop) [MoWH&C, 2004]. The Uganda Road
Design manual (2004), suggests maximum gradients as presented in Table 2.16 below:
According to British Standards of road design, a minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.5% is needed
to ensure effective drainage of carriageways with kerbs.
In Uganda, however, climbing lanes are recommended for use if the design truck speed decreases
more than 20 km/h under the truck speed limit, normally 80 km/h in rural conditions. A climbing
lane is inserted into the carriageway by means of entry and exit tapers to the left of the continuous
lane so that slow moving vehicles have to merge into the faster traffic at the termination point as
shown below.
… .
Let;
Then;
… .
At x = L
… .
100 100 100
… .
100 100
From the above equation, it implies that If x = 0, the y = C2 = RLPC (i.e. reduced level at PC)
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 55
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Therefore the general equation used determine the reduced level at any point on the vertical curve,
RLx is given by;
… . 4.26
100 200
/
100 200
From which;
/ … . 4.27
200
c) Sight Distances
The length of curve to be used in any given situation depends on the sight distance. It is the
distance of visibility from one side of the curve to the other [Uren et al, 1989].
There are two categories of sight distance namely:
• Stopping sight distance (SSD); which is the theoretical forward sight distance required by
a driver in order to stop safely and comfortably when faced with an unexpected hazard on
the carriageway, and
• Full overtaking sight distance (FOSD); which is the length of visibility required by
motorists to enable them to safely and comfortably overtake vehicles ahead of them.
When designing vertical curves, it is important to know whether safe overtaking is to be included
in the design. If it is to be included, then the FOSD must be incorporated in the design and if it is
not then SSD must be incorporated. On single carriageways, it is usually necessary to consider
whether to design for overtaking only at crest curves since overtaking is not a problem on dual
carriageways and visibility is usually more than adequate on single carriageways [Uren et al,
1989].
Figure 4.13: Sight distance over crest curves when a) S ≤ L and b) when S > L
Source: O’Flaherty (2002)
d) K-Values
In the past it was necessary to use the appropriate sight distance for the road type and design speed
in question to calculate the minimum length of the vertical curve required. Nowadays, however,
constants which greatly simplify calculations have been provided by the MoWH&C [Uren et al,
1989]. The minimum length of vertical curve Lmin for any given road is obtained from the formula.
Where;
K = constant obtained from MoWH&C standards (K = R/100)
R = radius of curvature of the curve (in meters)
A = algebraic difference in grade (%)
There are three categories of K-Values for crest curves (SSD and FOSD crest curve values
obtained from Table 2.17) and one category of K-Values for sags obtained from Table 2.18. The
K-Values obtained are derived from the sight distances as already discussed [MoWH&C, 2004].
For S > L;
200
2 … . 4.30
Where;
Lmin = minimum length of vertical crest curve (m)
S = required sight distance (m)
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 57
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A = Algebraic difference in gradients
h1 = Driver eye height (m); taken as 1.05m
h2 = Object height (m); taken as 0.26m
For full overtaking sight distance, FOSD, h1 = h2 = 1.05m. The decision to which equation should
be used at a given site can be made by solving either of the equations below;
If e > h1 then equation (4.29) is used and when e < h1, equation (4.30) is used [O’Flaherty, 2002].
When SSD ≤ L
AS 2 ....(4.33)
Lmin =
⎡ ⎛ h1 − h2 ⎞⎤
⎢8 D − 8 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
When SSD > L
⎡ h + h2 ⎤
2 S − 8⎢ 1 ⎥
Lmin = ⎣ 2 ⎦
....(4.34)
A
Where;
h1 =` Drivers eye height (Usually 1.05m)
h2 = Object height (usually 0.26m)
L = minimum length of sag curve (m)
A = algebraic difference in grades expressed as a decimal.
D = vertical clearance (ideally taken as 5.7m) to the critical edge of the
bridge
The critical edge is assumed to be directly over the point of intersection of tangents. In practice
both equations can be considered valid provided that the critical edge is not more than 60m from
the point of intersection [O’Flaherty, 2002].
For SSD ≤ L
AS 2
Lnight = ....(4.35)
200(h3 + S tan α )
For SSD > L
200 ( h3 + S tan α )
L night = 2 S − ....(4.36)
A
Where h3 = headlight height (usually 0.6m above the carriageway), α = angle of upward
divergence of light beam (usually 1.0o), and L, A, and S are as defined previously.
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 58
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It should however be noted that the above equations (based on night time conditions) are;
• Very sensitive to the assumption of a 1degree upward divergence of the light beam;
• They erroneously assume that headlights can illuminate an object on the carriageway at
long distances and they ignore the fact that many vehicles are driven on dipped lights;
and
• The effect of headlamps is reduced on horizontal curves [O’Flaherty, 2002].
Speed limit on the other hand is the maximum allowable speed on a road. The normal speed limit
on rural roads in Uganda is 80km/hr and that in trading centres, towns and cities is 50km/hr.
Speed limits may be reduce but not increased by local speed limits shown on regulatory traffic
signs [MoWH&C, 2004].
In a nutshell, the design speed should not be lower than the speed limit and should be preferably
10km/hr higher than the speed limit. Short rural sections with design speeds lower than the speed
limit should be treated with warning signs and no overtaking markings [MoWH&C, 2004].
a) The grade line selected should be smooth with gradual changes, consistent with the class
of highway and terrain. Numerous breaks and short lengths of grades should be avoided;
b) The ‘roller-coaster’ or ‘hidden type’ of profile should be avoided as it is hazardous and
aesthetically unpleasant;
c) Undulating grade line, involving substantial lengths of momentum grades, should be
appraised for their effect upon traffic operation. Such profiles permit heavy trucks to
operate at higher overall speeds than when an upgrade is not preceded by a down grade,
but may encourage excessive speeds of trucks with consequent hazard to traffic;
d) A broken-back grade line (two vertical curves in the same direction separated by short
section of tangent grade) should generally be avoided;
e) On long continuous grades, it may be preferable to place the steepest grades at the bottom
and flatten the grades near the top. Alternatively, long grades may be broken by short
intervals of flatter grades;
f) Intersections on grades should be avoided as far as possible. Where unavoidable, the
approach gradients and the gradient through the intersections should be flattened to the
maximum possible extent.
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Grades; Initial, m = 1.5%
Final, n = -1.0%
b) Point of Intersection
Stationing of PVI = 0 + 671.340
Elevation of PVI = 93.600m AOD
c) K-value = 55
The elevation of the highest point is located at x = 82.5m, therefore from the above equation
1.5 82.5 2.5
. 92.570 82.5 93.189m AOD
100 200
Question Two
An equal tangent vertical curve is to be constructed between grades of -2.0% (initial) and +1.0%
(final). The PVI (Point of vertical intersection) is at station 11 + 000.000 and elevation 420.000m
AOD. Due to a street crossing, the elevation of the roadway at station 11 + 071.000 must be at
elevation 421.500m. Design the curve assuming it has a shape of the form; y = ax 2 + bx + c .
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Type of vertical curve : Equal tangent
b) Grades; Initial, m = -2.0%
Final, n = +1.0%
c) Point of Intersection, PVI
Stationing = 11+000.000
Elevation = 420.000m AOD
d) Point of Interest
Stationing = 11+710.000
Elevation = 421.500m AOD
Note: There is need to determine, L such that station 11+071.000 is at elevation 421.500m AOD
4.0 Determination of the Length of Vertical Curve, L based on the ‘Point of interest’
The point of interest (Sta. 11+071.000) is 71m from PVI (Sta.11+000.000). Hence, from PVC,
this point is located at:
0.5 71 … . vii
Equation (viii) in (vi) for L gives;
0.015
0.5 71 0.02 0.5 71 420 0.01L 421.500
L
Multiply through by L and simplify to obtain
0.00375 1.855L 75.615 0
Exercise
A 150m long equal tangent vertical curve connecting grades of +1.2% (initial) and -1.08% (final)
crosses a one-meter diameter pipe at right angles. The pipe is located at station 11 + 025.000 and
its centerline is at elevation 1091.6m. The PVI of the vertical curve is at station 11 + 000.000 and
elevation 1095.2m. Using offsets determine the depth, below the surface of the curve, to the top of
the pipe and determine the station of the highest point on the curve.
4.8.1 General
The cross-sectional elements of a highway design pertain to those features which deal with its
width. They embrace aspects such as road reserve width, carriageway width, central reservation
(median), shoulders, camber, side slopes, horizontal and vertical clearances etc.
carriageway right-of-way
boundary
support support
strip shoulder traffic lane traffic lane shoulder strip cut
catch drain
lateral
lateral clearance
camber % camber % back or outer
clearance
slope
fill or
embankment edge strip for road markings
fore or inner table drain
slope
natural terrain verge
roadside area
road prism safety zone
verge
road reserve
divider
kerbed edge separate
footway edge edge edge footway/
strip strip strip
traffic lanes strip median traffic lanes cycleway
outer inner
camber % camber %
Internationally, it is generally accepted that lane widths should normally be at least 3.5m,
although narrower lanes are often used for economic or environmental reasons on both rural
and urban roads. However, increasing the lane width up to 3.65m on two lane two way rural
roads decreases accident rates [O’Flaherty, 2002].
The central reservations on high-speed heavily trafficked rural roads in the United States are
typically 15m to 30m. In Europe they tend to be much narrower (say 4 – 10m) and to be used with
safety barriers. Those in Britain are normally 4.5m wide, and include a crash barrier. In urban
areas they can be as narrow as 1m, but 3m is preferred so that a crossing pedestrian pushing a
pram or wheelchair has space to wait in safety [O’Flaherty, 2002]. On severely restricted arterial
streets, where a narrow separator of 0.6 – 1.2m is feasible, it may be desirable to have few, if any,
openings in median except at intersections.
4.8.5 Shoulders
A shoulder is a portion of the roadway adjacent to the carriageway and is intended for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use and lateral support of base and surface
courses. The width of the shoulder should be adequate for giving working space around a stopped
vehicle. American practice recommends a 3m width for high type facility and a width of 1.2m -
2.4m for low type facilities. UK practice for rural roads recommends widths ranging from 1.2m to
3.65m depending upon the road type and nature of kerb treatment.
4.8.7 Kerbs
A kerb (as termed as curb) is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a pavement or
shoulder, forming part of gutter, strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining the
edge to vehicle operators. Its functions are:
Kerbs are classified as ‘barrier’ or ‘mountable’. Barrier kerbs are designed to discourage vehicles
from leaving the pavement. The face may be vertical or sloping and the height may range from
15cm to 25cm. Mountable kerbs are those which can be easily crossed by vehicles if required.
They are used at medians and channelizing islands.
4.8.8 Camber
Camber, also known as cross fall, facilitates drainage of the pavement laterally. The pavement can
have a crown or a high point in the middle with slopes downwards towards both edges. This is
favoured on two-lane roads and wider undivided roads. On divided roads, the individual
carriageways may be centrally crowned separately or a unidirectional slope may be provided
across the entire carriageway width. The amount of camber to be provided depends upon the
smoothness of the surface and the intensity of rainfall. In the UK, a value of 2.5% is generally
adopted for design. A cross fall for the shoulders should be generally steeper than for the
pavement by about 0.3 – 0.5% to facilitate quick drainage. The UK practice is to provide 5% slope
on the shoulder [Kadiyali, 2006].
4.9.1 General
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross, within
which are included the roadway and roadside design features which facilitate orderly traffic
movements in that area. An intersection leg is that part of any one of the highways radiating from
an intersection which is outside of the area of the intersection.
a) The number of intersections should be kept to a minimum. If necessary, some minor roads
may be connected with each other before joining a major road;
b) The geometric layout should be so selected that hazardous movements by drivers are
eliminated. This can be achieved by various techniques such as channelizing and
staggering;
c) The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from the layout or from
traffic signs about which path he/she should follow and the actions of merging and
diverging. This can be achieved by good layout, traffic islands, signs and carriageway
markings. Good visibility improves safety;
d) The layout should follow the natural vehicle paths. Smoothness, in contrast to abrupt and
sharp corners, should guide minor streams of traffic into stopping or slowing down
positions;
e) The number of conflict points should be minimised by separating some of the many
cutting, merging or diverging movements;
f) Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided with
adequate space at the junction.
The choice between an at-grade and grade separated intersection at a particular site depends upon
various factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay etc. Grade-separated junctions
generally are more expensive initially, and are justified in certain situations. These are:
Traffic data gathered for design purposes normally include peak period volumes, turning
movements and composition for the design year, vehicle operating speeds on the intersecting
roads (these are needed for sight-distance/ speed-change lane design) pedestrian and bicycle
movements (these affect the layout/traffic control design), public transport needs (e.g. bus priority
measures and bus stop locations affect the layout/traffic control design), special needs of oversize
vehicles (the selected design may have to cope with the occasional heavily loaded commercial
vehicle with a wide turning path), accident experience (if an existing intersection is being
upgraded), and parking practices (especially in built-up areas).
Site data collected typically include topography, land usage, and related physical features (natural
and manufactured), public and private utility services (above and below ground), items of special
interest (e.g. environmental, cultural and historical features), horizontal and vertical alignments of
intersecting roads (existing and future), sight distances (and physical features which limit them),
and adjacent (necessary) accesses.
The preliminary design phase is essentially an iterative one. It involves preparing a number of
possible intersection layouts and generally examining each in terms of its operating characteristics
(especially safety and capacity), ease of construction and likely capital cost, and environmental
and local impacts that might affect the design selection. The most promising of the rough layouts
are then selected for further development and analysis (including road user and vehicle operating
costs, if appropriate), refined and examined in greater detail until that considered most suitable for
the intersection is selected for detailed design and preparation of final construction plans and
specifications [O’Flaherty, 2002].
b) A Junction or an Intersection
A junction is the intersection of two or more classified roads on the same surface / at grade. At
grade intersections can be classified in to two main intersection categories based on the type of
control used. For each category, there are a number of intersection types as shown below.
i) Priority Intersections
Priority intersections will be adequate in most rural situations. Three types of T intersections are
given below:
Roundabout (D)
Roundabouts are controlled by the rule that all entry traffic must give way to circulating traffic.
The ratio of minor road incoming traffic to the total incoming traffic should preferably be at least
10 to 15%. Roundabouts can be of normal size, i.e. with central island radius 10 m or more, or
small size, i.e. with central island radius less than 10 m (see Figure 4.18).
• safety
• operational comfort
• capacity
• economy
Perception
• The junction should be sited so that the major road approaches are readily visible;
• Early widening of the junction approaches;
• The use of traffic islands in the minor road to emphasize a “yield” or “stop” requirement.
• The use of early and eye-catching traffic signs;
• Optical guidance by landscaping and the use of road furniture, especially where a junction
must be located on a crest curve;
• The provision of visibility splays which ensure unobstructed sight lines to the left and right
along the major road;
• The angle of intersection of the major and minor roads should be between 70 and 110 degrees;
• The use of single lane approaches is preferred on the minor road in order to avoid mutual sight
obstruction from two vehicles waiting next to each other to turn or cross the major road.
Comprehension
• The right of way should follow naturally and logically from the junction layout;
• The types of junctions used throughout the whole road network should be as much as possible
similar;
• The provision of optical guidance by the use of clearly visible kerbs, traffic islands, road
markings, road signs and other road furniture.
Manoeuvrability
• A1l traffic lanes should be of adequate width for the appropriate vehicle turning
characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turning radii shall be 15 meters minimum;
• The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings;
• Traffic islands and kerbs should not conflict with the natural vehicle paths.
ii) Capacity
The operation of uncontrolled junctions depends principally upon the frequency of gaps which
naturally occur between vehicles in the main road flow. These gaps should be of sufficient
duration to permit vehicles from the minor road to merge with, or cross, the major road flow. In
consequence junctions are limited in capacity, but this capacity may be optimized by, for example,
channelisation or the separation of manoeuvres.
iii) Economy
An economical junction design generally results from a minimization of the construction,
maintenance and operational costs.
Delay can be an important operational factor and the saving in time otherwise lost may justify a
more expensive, even grade separated, junction.
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 71
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Loss of lives, personal injuries and damage to vehicles caused by junction-accidents are
considered as operational "costs" and should be taken into account.
The optimum economic return may often be obtained by a phased construction, for example by
constructing initially an at-grade junction which may later become grade separated [MoWH&C,
2005].
The selection is divided into two steps; selection of intersection category (priority or control) and
selection of intersection type. It is based on the following assumptions:
• Priority intersections can be safe and give sufficient capacity for certain traffic volumes and
speed limits;
• If a priority intersection is not sufficient for safety and capacity, the major road traffic must
also be controlled.
Depending on location, traffic conditions and speed limits, different types of priority or control
intersection should be selected.
1000
Select priority
intersection
5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
The diagrams are based on Swedish capacity studies with findings similar to other European
countries. It is judged reasonable to be used in Uganda until sufficient Ugandan research is
available.
Minor road approaching DHV, Q3 pcu/design hour Minor road approaching DHV, Q3 pcu/design hour
50km/h 80km/h
400 Control or grade-separated
400 Control or grade-separated
Acceptable
intersection needed intersection needed
Acceptable
Desired
Desired
200 200
Q3
Q3
Q1 Q2
Q1
Q2
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour
Q1
Q2
0
0 500 1000 1500
Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour
6000 Q3 50 km/h
Q1 Select channelised
Q2
T-intersection
4000
Select unchannelised
2000 or partly channelised
T-intersection
5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
3000 Q3 80 km/h
Q1 Q2
2000
Select channelised
T-intersection
1000
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised
T-intersection
5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
1000 Q1
Q2
Select channelised
T-intersection
500
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised T-intersection
5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
Control intersections
Roundabouts are suitable for almost all situations, provided there is enough space. Roundabouts
have been found to be safer than signalised intersections, and are suitable for both low and
medium traffic flows. At very high traffic volumes they tend to become blocked due to drivers
failing to obey the priority rules. Well-designed roundabouts slow traffic down, which can be
useful at the entry to a built-up area, or where there is a significant change in road standard, such
as the change from a dual carriageway to a single carriageway.
Traffic signals are the favoured option in the larger urban areas. Co-ordinated networks of signals
(Area Traffic Control) can bring major improvements in traffic flow and a significant reduction in
delays and stoppages. However, they must be demand-responsive, in order to get the maximum
For some traffic distributions, for example high traffic volumes on the major road, the total delay
can be shorter in a signalised intersection than in a roundabout. The diagram in Figure 8-8 shows
the traffic conditions for which signalised intersections are most suited, based on Kenyan and UK
experience.
10 000
Interchange
needed
Roundabout
5 000
Consider
Signalised
Intersection
0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000
Major road approaching AADT, veh/day
Field measurements on single carriageway roads indicate that the critical time gaps accepted by
minor road vehicles at the head of a queue average about 3 seconds for left turn merging with, and
4 to 5 seconds for right turn cutting of, the traffic stream in the nearside lane of the main road.
Empirical research has resulted in predictive capacity equations for T-intersections, which were
derived from traffic flow measurements and from certain broad features of junction layout.
A T-intersection has six separate traffic streams (see Figure 4.24 below), of which the through
streams on the major road (C-A and A-C) and the left-turn stream off the major road (A-B) are
generally assumed to be priority streams and to suffer no delays from other traffic, while the two
minor road streams (B-A and B-C) and the major road right-turn stream (C-B) incur delays due to
their need to give way to higher priority streams. Predictive capacity equations for the three non-
priority streams are as follows:
Where;
1 0.0345 … . 4.41
• The superscript s (e.g. qsB-A) denotes the flow from the saturated stream i.e. one in which there
is stable queuing.
• The geometric parameters wB-A and wB-C denote the average widths of each of the minor road
approach lanes for waiting vehicles in streams B-A and B-C respectively, measured over a
distance 20m upstream from the Give Way line;
• wC-B denotes the average width of the right-turn (central) lane on the major road, or 2.1m if
there is no explicit provision for right turners in stream C-B.
• The parameters VrB-A and VlB-C denote right and left visibility distances, respectively, available
from the road;
• VrC-B is the visibility available to right-turning vehicles waiting to turn right from the major
road;
• W is the average major road carriageway width at the intersection; in the case of ghost or
raised islands, W excludes the width of the central (turning) lane;
• WCR is the average width of the central reserve lane at the intersection on a dual carriageway
road.
All capacities and flows are in passenger car units per hour (pcu/hr) and distances are in meters.
One heavy vehicle is considered equivalent to two (2) pcu for calculation purposes. Capacities are
always positive or zero; if the right-hand side of any equation is negative, the capacity is taken as
zero. The ranges within which the geometric data are considered valid are as follows: w = 2.05-
4.70m, Vr = 17 – 250m, Vl = 22 – 250m, WCR = 1.2 - 9m (dual carriageway sites only), W = 6.4 -
20m.
4.9.8 Delay
An estimate of the total 24 hour delay due to congestion, D24x, at an existing T-intersection can be
estimated from the empirically derived equation
… . 4.45
8
Where; D3 = total intersection delay (h) during the peak three hours, and P32 = ratio of flow in the
peak three hours to the 24-hour flow. The above formula assumes that delays are inflicted only on
minor road vehicles, which have to yield priority to the major road streams.
T-Junction Example
A new industrial complex is planned to be sited adjacent to an existing priority intersection. The
width of the main carriageway is 8m. The width of the carriageway for traffic movements B-A, B-
C and C-B are 3, 3 and 2m respectively. The visibility distances at the drivers’ eye height for the
junction are: VrB-A = 60m, VlB-A = 75m, VrB-C = 60m, VrC-B = 60m. The width of the central
reservation is 2m wide. The design flows (in pcu/hr) are represented in the figure below.
Where;
1 0.0345 . .
1 0.0345 8 0.7240
Substituting the above values in equation (i), (ii) and (iii), the required turning movement
capacities can then be obtained as shown below;
0.4885 627 14 2 0.7240 0.364 800 0.114 500 0.229 800 0.520 400
59 /
Arm B-A
1.69 0.85
Arm B-C
0.93 0.85
Arm C-B
1.24 0.85
The main objective of roundabout design is to secure the safe interchange of traffic between
crossing traffic streams with the minimum delay. The operating efficiency of a roundabout
depends upon entering drivers accepting headway gaps in the circulating traffic stream. Traffic
streams merge and diverge at small angles and low relative speeds. For this reason, accidents
between vehicles in roundabouts rarely have fatal consequences [O’Flaherty, 2002].
• Where there is inadequate space or unfavourable topography that limits a good geometric
design;
• Where traffic flows are unbalanced, e.g. at major/ minor T-Intersections;
• Where they follow a downhill approaches. The approach should be at least a 2% grade and
should be flattened at least 30m to the intersection.
• Where there are heavy volumes of vehicular traffic and where there is heavy cyclist and
pedestrian traffic
• Between traffic controlled signal intersections which could cause queing back into the
roundabout exits.
b) Types of Roundabouts
In Uganda there are two types of roundabouts namely:
i) Normal roundabouts with a centre island radius greater than or equal to 10m. The central
island radius should normally be between 10m and 25m otherwise it becomes difficult to
control speeds for a radius bigger than the above range and puts pedestrians and cyclists at
risk. The width of the circulating carriageway depends on whether it is one or two lane.
ii) Small roundabouts with a central island less than 10m. The inner central island radius
should be at least 2m.
d) Capacity of Roundabouts
The capacity of a roundabout as a whole is a function of the capacities of the individual entry
arms. The capacity of each arm is defined as the maximum inflow when the traffic flow at the
entry is sufficient to cause continuous queuing in its approach road.
The main factors influencing entry capacity are the approach half width, and the width and flare of
the entry, while the entry angle and radius also have small but significant effects. The predictive
equation used with all types of single at-grade roundabouts is
The symbols e, v, l’, S, D, ϕ and r are described in Table 4.11. Qe and Qc are in pcu/h, and one
heavy goods vehicle is assumed equivalent to 2 pcu for computation purposes.
From the roundabout equation above, entry capacity decreases as circulation flow increases. The
sharpness of flare, S is a measure of the rate at which extra width is developed in the entry flare.
Small ‘S’ values correspond to long gradual flares and big ones to short severe ones. The angle ϕ
acts as an alternative for the conflict angle between the entering and circulating traffic streams.
The entry radius, r is measured as the minimum radius of curvature of the nearest kerbline at
entry.
Roundabout Example
The table below shows measured turning movements in the AM peak period as recorded in a
traffic survey at a four arm roundabout. The survey was carried out in 2005. The expected rate of
traffic growth is 2%. It is assumed that funding will be readily available and that if any redesign
and reconstruction is needed, the roundabout will be reopened to traffic in the same year the
survey was carried out. The roundabout is being assessed for capacity to carry peak flows in 2019.
The geometric parameters for arms A and B are as shown below:
The base year traffic survey carried out in 2005 revealed the following traffic flows in pcu/hr.
To (Destination)
A B C D
From A - 220 450 210
(Origin) B 200 - 320 450
C 550 250 - 320
D 100 420 220 50
Solution
1.0 Summary of Design Data
a) Traffic growth rate, r = 2%
b) Design life, Y [= (2019-2005)+1] = 15yrs
c) Geometric parameters of Arm A and B as shown in the table
Where;
P = present flows (in pcu/hr);
r = traffic growth rate (in %);
Y = design life (in years);
DF = Design Flow (a modification of the future traffic flow);
DRF = Design Reference Flow.
The design flows, DF in 2019 are presented in the table below using the above formulae
To (Destination)
A B C D
From A 0 333 681 318
(Origin) B 303 0 485 681
C 833 379 0 485
D 151 636 333 76
b) Values of F
F 303
Where;
1.6 e v 1.6 14 8 1.6 9 4.5
S SA A 0.240, SA B 0.180
l 40 40
e v 14 8
x v x A A 8 12.054
1 2S 1 2 0.24
9 4.5
x A B 4.5 7.809
1 2 0.180
c) Values of fc
f 0.210 1 0.2x
Where;
60
M exp MA A e 0.0498, MA B e 0.0498
10
And;
0.5 0.5
tD 1 t D A A 1 1.476, t D A B 1.476
1 1 0.0498
Therefore;
: 0.210 1.476 1 0.2 12.054 1.057
: 0.210 1.476 1 0.2 7.809 0.794
d) Circulating Capacity Qc
Arm A: Qc = QBB + QCC + QDD + QCB + QDB + QDC
= 0 0 76 379 636 333
= 1424 /
Q 1332
Arm A: RFC 0.61 0.85
Q C
2200
Q 1469
Arm B: RFC 1.20 0.85
Q D
1225
4.0 Conclusion
Arm C has a RFC ratio of 61% which is less than 70%, implying that queuing on this arm will
be avoided for 39 out of 40 peak hours.
Arm D, on the other hand, has a RFC ratio of 120% which is far greater than 85%, implying
that queuing will occur on this arm of the roundabout in all the peak hours.
4.10 References
1. Banister, A. and Baker, R, 1998, Surveying, 7th Edition, Longman limited, Singapore.
2. Irvine W, H, 1998, Surveying for construction, 4th Edition, Patson press, Great Britain.
3. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including Expressways
and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
4. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
5. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2005. Road Design Manual Vol.1,Geometric
Design Manual, Republic of Uganda, Kampala.
6. O’Flaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and Maintenance of
Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
7. Rogers, Martin 2003, Highway Engineering, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
8. Thagesen, B., 1996. Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries. 1st Edition. E &
FN Spon Publishers, London, Uk.
9. Transport Research Laboratory, 1988, A Guide to Geometric Design, Overseas Road Note 6,
Crowthorne, England.
10. Uren, J, and Price, W.F, 1989, Surveying for Engineers, 2nd Edition, Macmillan Publishers, Hong
Kong.
5.1 Introduction
The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed
material whose function is to distribute the applied wheel loads to the subgrade. This is to ensure
that the stresses transmitted to the subgrade do not exceed its support capacity. Road traffic is
carried by the pavement, which in engineering terms is a horizontal structure supported by in situ
natural material. In order to support this structure, existing records must be examined and sub
surface explorations conducted. The engineering properties of the local rock and soil are
established, particularly with respect to strength, stiffness, durability, susceptibility to moisture,
and propensity to shrink and swell over time. The relevant properties are determined by either
field tests, by empirical estimates based on soil type, or by laboratory measurements. The material
is tested in its weakest expected condition, usually at its highest moisture content. Probable
performance under traffic is then determined. Soils unsuitable for the final pavement are identified
for removal, suitable replacement materials are earmarked, the maximum slopes for embankments
and cuttings are established, the degree of compaction to be achieved during construction is
determined, and drainage needs are specified. If the road is in cut, the subgrade will consist of the
in situ soil. If it is constructed on fill, the top layers of the embankment structure are collectively
termed the subgrade [TRL, 1993].
The pavement designer must develop the most economical combination of layers that will
guarantee adequate dispersion of the incident wheel stresses so that each layer in the pavement
does not become overstressed during the design life of the highway. The major variables in design
of a highway pavement are:
• The thickness of each layer in the pavement;
• The material contained within each layer of the pavement;
• The type of vehicles in the traffic stream;
• The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life;
• The strength of the underlying subgrade [Rogers, 2003].
Pavements are called either flexible or rigid depending on their relative flexural stiffness.
5.3.1 Surfacing
The surfacing forms the topmost layer of the pavement. It usually consists of a bituminous surface
dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material. It is comparatively thin, but resists abrasion
and the impacts caused by wheel loads and the effects of weather condition [Bindra, 1999]. The
functions of this layer are; provision of a safe and comfortable riding surface to traffic, taking up
wear and tear stresses caused by traffic, provide a water tight surface against infiltration of water,
provide a hard surface which can withstand tyre pressure. Where premixed materials are laid in
two layers, these are known as the wearing course and the base course (or binder course) as shown
in Figure 1.1 (See next page) [TRL, 1993].
5.3.2 Roadbase
The roadbase is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It is structurally the most
important layer of a flexible pavement. It distributes the applied wheel load to the subgrade in
such a way that the bearing capacity of the subgrade soil is not exceeded. This layer requires
higher quality material often obtained by stabilizing sub-base materials. It will normally consist
of crushed stone or gravel, or of gravely soils, decomposed rock, sands and sand-clays stabilised
with cement, lime or bitumen [TRL, 1993].
Wearing Course
Base Course or Binder Course
Surfacing
Roadbase
Sub-base
Subgrade
5.3.3 Subbase
This is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the roadbase. It will normally consist of a
material of lower quality than that used in the roadbase such as unprocessed natural gravel, gravel-
sand, or gravel-sand-clay. It may or may not be present as a separate layer since its presence is
justified by the insufficiency of the subgrade or reliability [TRL, 1993].
Major uses include:
• Distribution of stresses to the subgrade; as a result the sub base material must be stronger
than the subgrade material;
5.3.5 Subgrade
This is the top surface of a road bed on which the pavement structure and shoulders including
kerbs are constructed. Generally the top soil portion up to 0.5m of the embankment or cut-section
is referred to as the subgrade [Bindra, 1999].
It may be undisturbed local material or may be soil excavated elsewhere and placed as fill. The
loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the subgrade layer; it is therefore, essential that
the layer should not be over-stressed. The top part of the layer requires preparation to receive
layers on top either by stabilizing it adequately and therefore reduce required pavement thickness
or designing and constructing a sufficiently thick pavement to suit subgrade strength. The
subgrade strength depends on the type of material, Moisture content, dry density, internal structure
of the soil particles, and type and mode of stress applied [TRL, 1993]. The major factors that
influence pavement thickness are; design wheel load, strength of subgrade (and other pavement
materials), climatic and environmental factors [Singh, 2001].
It is important for engineers to exercise judgement in the use of a given design standard to ensure
that they come up with an economical solution for a pavement design. Use of local materials has
to always be taken into considerations. Sometimes, more than one design standard is used for the
purposes of comparing one pavement design with another so that the comparison guides the
engineer in selecting the most economical option.
Where;
DT = Design Traffic in 80kN e.s.a.;
SN = Total Required Structural Number;
R = Regional Factor;
S = Soil Support Value.
Based on research carried out by the transportation department of the World Bank in connection
with the development of the HDM III model, a method for weighing SNW and SND was developed
to obtain the Design Structural Number ‘DSN’ taking the actual wet and dry periods into account.
The modified formula for weighing of the structural number in accordance with the applicable
seasonal conditions (rainfall) assumes the form:
SND SNW
DSN … . 5.2
n . nD . .
SND SNW
12 12
Where;
DSN = Design Structure Number;
SND, SNw = The structure number for dry and wet condition respectively;
nD, nw = Number of wet and dry months respectively during one year (nD+ nw = 12);
Table 5.5: Determination of DSN for different Subgrade and Traffic Classes
Nw 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
S2 T4 27.0 27.6 28.2 29.0 29.7 30.6 31.6 32.7 33.9 35.4 37.2 39.3 42.0
T3 59.0 60.1 61.3 62.5 63.9 65.4 67.1 68.9 70.9 73.1 75.7 78.6 82.0
T2 69.0 70.3 71.7 73.1 74.8 76.5 78.4 80.6 82.9 85.6 88.6 92.0 96.0
T1 80.0 81.4 83.0 84.6 86.4 88.3 90.4 92.7 95.2 98.1 101.2 104.9 109.0
S3 T4 24.0 24.5 25.0 25.5 26.1 26.7 27.4 28.2 29.1 30.1 31.2 32.5 34.0
T3 54.0 55.0 56.1 57.3 58.6 60.0 61.6 63.3 65.2 67.4 69.8 72.7 76.0
T2 64.0 65.2 66.5 67.8 69.3 71.0 72.7 74.7 76.9 79.3 82.1 85.3 89.0
T1 74.0 75.3 76.7 78.3 79.9 81.7 83.7 85.8 88.2 90.8 93.8 97.1 101.0
S4 T4 21.0 21.4 21.8 22.2 22.7 23.2 23.8 24.5 25.2 25.9 26.8 27.8 29.0
T3 49.0 50.0 51.0 52.1 53.3 54.6 56.1 57.7 59.6 61.6 64.0 66.7 70.0
T2 59.0 60.1 61.3 62.5 63.9 65.4 67.1 68.9 70.9 73.1 75.7 78.6 82.0
T1 68.0 69.2 70.6 72.0 73.6 75.3 77.2 79.2 81.5 84.0 86.9 90.2 94.0
S4 T4 12.0 12.3 12.6 13.0 13.4 13.8 14.4 15.0 15.7 16.5 17.6 19.0 21.0
T3 29.0 29.7 30.4 31.3 32.2 33.2 34.4 35.7 37.3 39.1 41.4 44.2 48.0
T2 37.0 37.8 38.8 39.8 40.9 42.1 43.5 45.1 46.9 49.1 51.7 54.9 59.0
T1 46.0 47.0 48.1 49.2 50.5 51.9 53.5 55.3 57.4 59.7 62.5 65.8 70.0
Source: AASHTO, 1993
Base
Bitumen Macadam a2 = 0.20
Natural or Crushed Gravel a2 = 0.12
Crushed Stone on:
Natural Gravel Subbase a2 = 0.14
Stabilised Subbase a2 = 0.18
Cement Treated Gravel:
Type A, 3.5 ≤ UCS (MPa) ˂ 5.0 a2 = 0.18
Type B, 2.0 ≤ UCS (MPa) ˂ 3.5 a2 = 0.14
Subbase
Natural Gravel, CBR ≥ 30% a3 = 0.11
Cement Treated Material:
Type B, 2.0 ≤ UCS (MPa) ˂ 5.0 a3 = 0.16
Type C, 0.7 ≤ UCS (MPa) ˂ 2.0 a3 = 0.12
Source: AASHTO, 1993
Base
Natural and Crushed Gravel 125 200
Crushed Stone 125 200
Cement Treated Gravel:
Type B 125 175
Type A 125 175
Bituminous Dense Graded Macadam 70 150
Bituminous Semi-Dense Macadam 70 150
Subbase
Natural Gravel 100 250
Cement or Lime treated Material, Type C 100 200
Cement Treated Gravel, Type B 100 200
Source: AASHTO, 1993
P
C … . 5.3
80
Where;
C = 80kN equivalence factor;
P = Load of a single axle (in kN);
α = Influence coefficient (may be taken as 4.0 for most instances).
It is better to measure actual axle loads using a mobile weighbridge for medium to heavily
trafficked roads. For purposes of feasibility studies or where it may not be possible to obtain
actual axle loads especially in lightly trafficked roads, the equivalence factors in Table 5.3 may be
applied.
The average daily traffic from equivalent standard axles is obtained using the formula below:
T V C … . 5.4
Where;
Vi = average daily number of each type of commercial vehicle;
Ci = appropriate equivalence factor.
For all commercial vehicles having the same growth rate, a cumulative number of standard axles
during the design period are calculated using the formula below:
1 r Y 1
DT 365T … . 5.5
r
Where;
DT = Design traffic as cumulative number of 80kN esa;
Td = Average daily number of esa in the first year after opening;
r = average growth rate for the design period in percent per annum;
Y = Design period in years.
r Y 1 1
G … . 5.7
Y. r
c) Selection of Possible Types of Pavements
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 94
© foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
Knowledge of the types and characteristics of the available pavement materials as well as of the
climates, allows selecting one type of pavement.
Where;
DSN = Weighted structural number for the entire pavement;
a1,a2,a3 = layer coefficients representing the surfacing, base and subbase course respectively.
h1,h2,h3= actual thicknesses in mm of surface, base and subbase courses respectively
Note: The layer coefficients assumed are in Table 5.6. For different types of materials considered,
guide values for the minimum and maximum practical thicknesses of a layer are given in Table
5.7 for effective compaction [Ruhweza, 2005].
Solution
1.0 Design Information
(a) Number of wet months in the region, nW = 5
(b) Subgrade CBR = 20 – 30%
(c) Traffic growth rate, r = 2.5%
(d) Design life, Y = 15yrs
(e) Construction Materials:
Surfacing Material Asphalt Concrete (AC)
Roadbase material Crushed stone on stabilised subbase
Subbase material Cement treated Type C
Where;
365. . . . 10
b) Wear factor, W
From equation 5.3
.
,
80
e.g. for 2-Axle and Tandem Trucks; C = 2.0 (from Table 5.3) since no axle loads were
provided.
c) Growth Factor, G
According to AASHTO growth factor equation;
1 r Y 1
G
Y. r
1 0.025 1
G 1.1955
15 0.025
d) Table of results
Vehicle Class V C G Y DT
(Veh/day) (esa) (years) (msa)
2-Axle and TandemTrucks 140 2 1.1955 15 1.833
Trucks with Drawbar Trailer 30 6 1.1955 15 1.178
Articulated Units 16 6 1.1955 15 0.628
Buses 40 1 1.1955 15 0.262
Cumulative Design Traffic, DT (in msa) 3.901
From Table 5.4 a cumulative design traffic of 3.901 msa corresponds to a traffic class of
T2 i.e. 2.5 < T (in msa) < 8.0.
SND SNW
DSN
n . nD . .
SND SNW
12 12
59 82
65.4
5 7 .
59 . 82 .
12 12
5.0 Layer Thicknesses based on the Actual Design Structural Number, DSNa
CE 323 – Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA 96
© foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
The Actual Design Structural Number, DSNa is given by
DSN a h a h a h
From design chart no. 6, for a subgrade strength class S4 and Traffic Class of T2 (i.e. S4 –
T2) corresponds to an asphalt surfacing thickness, h1 of 50mm. And from Table 5.6 a1 =
0.35, a2 = 0.18 and a3 = 0.12. Therefore;
By trial and error with guidance from Table 5.7, let’s try h2 = 200mm and h3 = 200mm.
From which;
Since DSNa (= 77.5) > DSN (= 65.4), it implies that the design thicknesses of the layers are
acceptable.
6.0 Conclusion
The pavement should therefore be composed of the following layer thicknesses
a) Surfacing material : 50mm
b) Roadbase : 200mm
c) Subbase : 200mm
5.8 References
1. Arora, K. R, 2000, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 5th Edition.
2. Bindra, S.P, 1999, A Course in Highway Engineering, 4th Edition, Dhanpat Rai Publishers, New
Delhi.
3. Gupta, B.L, 1995, Roads, railways Bridges and Tunnels engineering, 4th edition, Standard
publishers Distributors, Nai sarak, Delhi.
4. Kadiyali, L.R., 2000. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering, 4th Edition. Khanna
Publishers, New Delhi.
5. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
6. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2005. Road Design Manual Vol.1, Geometric
Design Manual, Republic of Uganda, Kampala.
7. Rogers, M., 2003, Highway Engineering, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
8. Ruhweza, D., 2005, Highway Engineering I. Course notes, Department of Civil Engineering,
Kyambogo University.
9. Singh, G, 2001, Highway Engineering, 3rd edition, Standard publishers and Distributors, Delhi.
10. Transport Research Laboratory, 1993, A Guide to Design of Bitumen Surfaced Roads in Tropical
and Sub Tropical Countries, Overseas Road Note 31, Crowthorne, England.