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HVDC Proven Technology PDF
HVDC Proven Technology PDF
Transmission –
Proven Technology for Power Exchange
1
2
Contents
3 Converter Theory 8
4 Principle Arrangement of an 11
HVDC Transmission Project
5 Main Components 14
7 Project Management 46
3
1 Why High Voltage Direct Current ?
1.1 Highlights from the High Line-Commutated Current Sourced Self-Commutated Voltage Sourced
Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) History Converters Converters
The transmission and distribution of The invention of mercury arc rectifiers in Voltage sourced converters require
electrical energy started with direct the nineteen-thirties made the design of semiconductor devices with turn-off
current. In 1882, a 50-km-long 2-kV DC line-commutated current sourced capability. The development of Insulated
transmission line was built between converters possible. Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) with high
Miesbach and Munich in Germany. voltage ratings have accelerated the
At that time, conversion between In 1941, the first contract for a commer- development of voltage sourced
reasonable consumer voltages and cial HVDC system was signed in converters for HVDC applications in the
higher DC transmission voltages could Germany: 60 MW were to be supplied lower power range.
only be realized by means of rotating to the city of Berlin via an underground
DC machines. cable of 115 km length.The system The main characteristics of the voltage
with ± 200 kV and 150 A was ready for sourced converters are a compact design,
In an AC system, voltage conversion is energizing in 1945. It was never put four-quadrant operation capability and
simple. An AC transformer allows high into operation. high losses.
power levels and high insulation levels
within one unit, and has low losses. It is Since then, several large HVDC systems Siemens is offering voltage sourced
a relatively simple device, which requires have been realized with mercury arc converters for HVDC applications with
little maintenance. Further, a three-phase valves. ratings up to 250 MW under the trade
synchronous generator is superior to a name HVDC plus Power Link Universal
The replacement of mercury arc valves Systems.
DC generator in every respect. For these by thyristor valves was the next major
reasons, AC technology was introduced development. The first thyristor valves This paper focuses upon HVDC trans-
at a very early stage in the development were put into operation in the late mission systems with high ratings, i.e.
of electrical power systems. It was soon nineteen-seventies. with line-commutated current sourced
accepted as the only feasible technology converters.
for generation, transmission and distri- The outdoor valves for Cahora Bassa
bution of electrical energy. were designed with oil-immersed
thyristors with parallel/series connection
However, high-voltage AC transmission of thyristors and an electromagnetic firing
links have disadvantages, which may system.
compel a change to DC technology:
Further development went via air-
• Inductive and capacitive elements of insulated air-cooled valves to the air-
overhead lines and cables put limits insulated water-cooled design, which is
to the transmission capacity and the still state of the art in HVDC valve design.
transmission distance of AC trans-
mission links. The development of thyristors with higher
• This limitation is of particular signi- current and voltage ratings has eliminated
ficance for cables. Depending on the the need for parallel connection and
required transmission capacity, the reduced the number of series-connected
system frequency and the loss eva- thyristors per valve. The development of
luation, the achievable transmission light-triggered thyristors has further
distance for an AC cable will be in the reduced the overall number of
range of 40 to 100 km. It will mainly components and thus contributed to
be limited by the charging current. increased reliability.
• Direct connection between two AC Innovations in almost every other area
systems with different frequencies is of HVDC have been constantly adding
not possible. to the reliability of this technology with
• Direct connection between two AC economic benefits for users throughout
systems with the same frequency or the world.
a new connection within a meshed
grid may be impossible because of
system instability, too high short-circuit
levels or undesirable power flow
scenarios. HVDC = high voltage direct current
DC = direct current
Engineers were therefore engaged over AC = alternating current
generations in the development of a IGBT = insulated gate bipolar
technology for DC transmissions as a transistor
supplement to the AC transmissions.
4
1.2 Technical Merits of HVDC 1.3 Economic Considerations 1.4 Environmental Issues
The advantages of a DC link over an AC For a given transmission task, feasibility An HVDC transmission system is basi-
link are: studies are carried out before the final cally environment-friendly because
decision on implementation of an HVAC improved energy transmission possi-
• A DC link allows power transmission or HVDC system can be taken. Fig.1-1 bilities contribute to a more efficient
between AC networks with different shows a typical cost comparison curve utilization of existing power plants.
frequencies or networks, which can between AC and DC transmission
not be synchronized, for other reasons. considering: The land coverage and the associated
• Inductive and capacitive parameters right-of-way cost for an HVDC overhead
do not limit the transmission capacity • AC vs. DC station terminal costs transmission line is not as high as that
or the maximum length of a DC • AC vs. DC line costs of an AC line. This reduces the visual
overhead line or cable. The conductor • AC vs. DC capitalised value of losses impact and saves land compensation for
cross section is fully utilized because new projects. It is also possible to in-
there is no skin effect. The DC curve is not as steep as the AC crease the power transmission capacity
curve because of considerably lower line for existing rights of way. A comparison
For a long cable connection, e.g. beyond costs per kilometre. For long AC lines between a DC and an AC overhead line
40 km, HVDC will in most cases offer the cost of intermediate reactive power is shown in Fig.1-2.
the only technical solution because of compensation has to be taken into
the high charging current of an AC cable. account.
This is of particular interest for trans-
mission across open sea or into large The break-even distance is in the range
cities where a DC cable may provide the of 500 to 800 km depending on a number
only possible solution. of other factors, like country-specific cost
elements, interest rates for project
• A digital control system provides financing, loss evaluation, cost of right
accurate and fast control of the active of way etc.
power flow.
• Fast modulation of DC transmission
AC- DC-
power can be used to damp power tower tower
oscillations in an AC grid and thus
improve the system stability.
Fig. 1-2: Typical transmission line structures
for approx. 1000 MW
AC
Terminals
Break-Even Transmission
Fig. 1-1: Distance Distance
Total cost/distance
5
2 Main Types of HVDC Schemes
AC System 1
AC System 2
HVDC
± Id ± flow. Cable/OHL
Ud1 Ud2
Electrodes
HVDC
AC System 2
AC System 1
AC System 2
HVDC
Cable/OHL
LVDC
6
2.4 Bipolar Long-Distance 2.4.1 Bipole with Ground Return 2.4.2 Bipole with Dedicated Metallic
Transmissions Path Return Path for Monopolar Operation
A bipole is a combination of two poles This is a commonly used configuration If there are restrictions even to temporary
in such a way that a common low voltage for a bipolar transmission system. The use of electrodes, or if the transmission
return path, if available, will only carry a solution provides a high degree of distance is relatively short, a dedicated
small unbalance current during normal flexibility with respect to operation with LVDC metallic return conductor can be
operation. reduced capacity during contingencies considered as an alternative to a ground
or maintenance. return path with electrodes.
This configuration is used if the required
transmission capacity exceeds that of a
single pole. It is also used if requirement
to higher energy availability or lower load HVDC HVDC
Cable/OHL Cable/OHL
rejection power makes it necessary to
AC System 2
AC System 1
AC System 2
AC System 1
split the capacity on two poles. Electrodes
LVDC
During maintenance or outages of one Cable/OHL
pole, it is still possible to transmit part
of the power. More than 50% of the HVDC HVDC
transmission capacity can be utilized, Cable/OHL Cable/OHL
limited by the actual overload capacity
of the remaining pole.
Fig. 2-6: in bipolar balanced operation (normal) Fig. 2-9: in bipolar balanced operation (normal)
The advantages of a bipolar solution over
a solution with two monopoles are Upon a single-pole fault, the current of
reduced cost due to one common or no the sound pole will be taken over by the 2.4.3 Bipole without Dedicated
return path and lower losses. The main ground return path and the faulty pole Return Path for Monopolar Operation
disadvantage is that unavailability of the will be isolated.
return path with adjacent components A scheme without electrodes or a
will affect both poles. dedicated metallic return path for
monopolar operation will give the lowest
HVDC initial cost.
Cable/OHL
AC System 2
AC System 1
Electrodes
HVDC
Cable/OHL
AC System 2
AC System 1
HVDC
Cable/OHL
AC System 2
Electrodes
operation can be established.
HVDC
Cable/OHL
7
3 Converter Theory
3.1 Bridge Circuit Function The angle between the time at which 3.2 12-Pulse Group and Converter
the valve voltage becomes positive and Transformer
Current flows through the valves when the firing time (start of commutation) is
the voltage between the anode and referred to as the firing delay. Fig. 3-2 HVDC converters are usually built as 12-
cathode is positive. For the valve to shows that for a firing delay of 90°, the pulse circuits. This is a serial connection
commutate the current, there must be average voltage equals zero. i.e. the of two fully controlled 6-pulse converter
a positive potential (voltage), and the positive and negative areas of the curve bridges and requires two 3-phase sys-
thyristor must have firing pulses. In the – voltage against time – cancel each tems which are spaced apart from each
reverse direction, i.e. when the potential other out. No active power flows through other by 30 electrical degrees. The phase
between anode and cathode is negative, the converter. difference effected to cancel out the
a firing pulse has no effect. The flow of 6-pulse harmonics on the AC and DC
current in a valve ends when the voltage When the firing delay is greater than side.
between anode and cathode becomes 90°, the negative voltage/time areas
negative. The instant when current begins dominate, and the polarity of the average
to flow through a valve, or to commutate direct voltage changes. Due to physical
from one valve to another, can be delayed reasons, the direction of the current does
by postponing the firing. This method not change. (The thyristor valves conduct 3 1
2
permits the average value of the outgoing current only in one direction.) When the
voltage of the rectifier to be changed. direction of energy flow is reversed, the
The firing pulses are generated by syn- delivery changes to the supply side. The
chronizing the network using an elec- rectifier becomes an inverter which
tronic control device. These pulses can be delivers energy to the AC network.
displaced from their ”natural firing“ point, 4
which is the point where the two phase The average value of the direct voltage
voltages intersect. The method of firing- as a function of the firing delay is given
by: 1 Valve Branch
pulse displacement is called phase 2 Double Valve
control. Udiα = 1.35 * UL * cos α
UL = secondary side line voltage 3 Valve Tower
4 6-pulse Bridge
α = firing angle
γ = extinction angle
Fig. 3-3: Arrangement of the valve branches
in a 12-pulse bridge
DC current in each valve and phase
1 3 5 1
0°
L1 L2 L3 Udi
60°
0° 120° Ud ωt α = 0°
6 2 4 6 2
0°
Id
i1
i2
ωt α = 60°
i3
60°
i4
i5
i6 ωt α = 90°
90 ° γ = 90°
i
L1
i
L2
iL 150° ωt
3 α = 150°
Id γ = 30°
1 3 5
L1
180° ωt
L2 Ud α = 180°
γ = 0°
L3
4 6 2
Fig. 3-1: Six-pulse converter bridge Fig. 3-2: DC voltage of bridge converter
as a function of α
8
3.3 Reactive Power as a Function
α = 60° of Load
The curve of reactive power demand of
an HVDC station with changing active
power P can be calculated from equation:
Udi α
Q = P * tan [ arc cos ( cos α - dx)]
In Fig. 3-5, the reactive power demand
ωt of a converter is presented under three
different control methods.
If the terminal DC voltage Ud and the
firing angle α (or the extinction angle γ
of an inverter) are held constant, curve
(1) will be obtained. If, however, Uv is
Secondary Voltage held constant (Udi = const regulation), a
of the Transformer linear curve such as (2) is obtained. The
Basic AC Current power of a converter can also be changed
α
when the (nominal) current is held con-
stant by varying the DC voltage. Curve (3)
shows the reactive power demand for
this control method. It is important to
ϕ note that the entire area between curves
(1) and (3) is available for reactive power
control. Each point within this area can
be set by the selection of firing angles
α and ß (or γ).
Fig. 3-4:
Current displacement with angle control
Q/PN
HVDC DC Circuit 1.2
UdN = PdN Rec /IdN 3
1.0
UdN => nominal DC voltage 12-pulse
IdN => nominal DC current 0.8
0.2 1
P/PN
0.5 1.0
Fig. 3-5:
Reactive power demand of an HVDC converter
9
3 Converter Theory
Over load
20
- 20
- 40
- 60
Electronic Capacitor bank
reactive-power
regulation
High-pass f ilter 2
- 80
High-pass f ilter 1
- 100
Reactive-Power Balance
UAC in p.u. (AC bus voltage)
– cap. reactive-power reactive-power reactive-power reactive-power
+ ind converter AC filters reactors capacitors
10
Principle Arrangement of an HVDC Transmission Project 4
System Data
Transmission capacity 2 x 250 MW
System voltages 250 kV DC
275 kV AC
Rated current 1000 A
Transmission distance 63.5 km
M oy l e I n t e rco n n e c t o r
Overhead Line
11
4
4. Principle Arrangement of an HVDC Transmission Project
LL
14
HA
LL
HA
DC
E
LV
VA
NG
DI
IL
BU
L
RO
4
DC
NT
kV
CO
0
25
EA
AR
ER
RM
O
SF
1
AN
TR
R
TE
ER
3 2 16
NV
14
CO
NK
BA
OR
CIT
PA
CA
T
UN
6 14 15
SH
10
8
9
250 DC Power Cable. HVDC Station Auchencrosh
63,5 km to HVDC Station
Ballycronan More
Northern Ireland Smoothing Reactor
AC-Filter
Pole 1, 250 MW
AC-Filter
Thyristor
Valves
C-Shunt
Thyristor
Valves AC-Filter
Pole 2, 250 MW
AC-Filter
Smoothing Reactor
AC-Filter
AC Bus
12
11
TER
FIL
AC
ST
TER
FIL
9
8
10
AC
TT
15
275
kV A
C SW
ITCH 5
YAR 6 7
D 5 6 5
6
9
10 275 kV O
HL
8
10 13
9
12
14
13
5 Main Components
12-pulse group
Multiple
valve unit –
quadruple Valve
valve branch
14
Thyristor Valves 5.1
15
5.1 Thyristor Valves
a c
b
17
5.2 Converter Transformer
18
5.2.1 Functions of the HVDC 5.2.2 Transformer Design Variations
Converter Transformer
There are several aspects which play a
The converter transformers transform role in selecting the transformer design:
the voltage of the AC busbar to the
required entry voltage of the converter. Transportation Weight and Dimensions
The 12-pulse converter requires two In systems of high power, weight can
3-phase systems which are spaced apart be an important consideration, in
from each other by 30 or 150 electrical particular where transportation is difficult.
degrees. This is achieved by installing a The relative transportation weights of
transformer on each network side in the the 4 major design types are
vector groups Yy0 and Yd5. approximately as follows:
At the same time, they ensure the
voltage insulation necessary in order to Single-phase – two-winding transformer 1
make it possible to connect converter Single-phase – three-winding transformer 1.6
bridges in series on the DC side, as is
necessary for HVDC technology. The Three-phase – two-winding transformer 2.2
transformer main insulation, therefore, Three-phase – three-winding transformer 3.6
is stressed by both the AC voltage and
the direct voltage potential between The transport dimension and the weight
valve-side winding and ground. The of the converter transformer depends
converter transformers are equipped with on the limitations for street, railway and
on-load tap-changers in order to provide shipping, especially in the case of
the correct valve voltage. bridges, subways and tunnels.
19
5.2 Converter Transformer
20
Smoothing Reactor 5.3
5.3.1 Functions of the Smoothing smoothing reactors is often selected The wall bushing in composite design
Reactor in the range of 100 to 300 mH for long- is the state-of-the-art technology which
distance DC links and 30 to 80 mH for provides superior insulation perform-
• Prevention of intermittent current back-to-back stations. ance.
• Limitation of the DC fault currents
• Prevention of resonance in the 5.3.3 Arrangement of the
DC circuit Smoothing Reactor
• Reducing harmonic currents including
limitation of telephone interference In an HVDC long-distance transmission
system, it seems quite logical that the
Prevention of intermittent current smoothing reactor will be connected in
series with the DC line of the station pole.
The intermittent current due to the This is the normal arrangement.
current ripple can cause high over-volt- However in back-to-back schemes, the
ages in the transformer and the smoothing smoothing reactor can also be connected
reactor. The smoothing reactor is used to the low-voltage terminal.
to prevent the current interruption at
minimum load. 5.3.4 Reactor Design Alternatives
Limitation of the DC fault current There are basically two types of reactor
design:
The smoothing reactor can reduce the • Air-insulated dry-type reactors
fault current and its rate of rise for • Oil-insulated reactors in a tank
commutation failures and DC line faults.
The reactor type should be selected taking
This is of primary importance if a long the following aspects into consideration:
DC cable is used for the transmission. • Inductance
For an overhead line transmission, the • Costs
current stress in valves is lower than the • Maintenance and location of spare
stress which will occur during valve short units
circuit. • Seismic requirements
Fig. 5.3-1: Oil-insulated smoothing reactor –
Prevention of resonance in the An advantage of the dry-type reactor is Three Gorges project
DC circuit that maintaining spare units (to the extent • Inductance: 270 mH
necessary) is not very expensive because • Rated voltage: 500 kV DC
The smoothing reactor is selected to avoid they usually consist of several partial • Rated current: 3000 A DC
resonance in the DC circuit at low order coils. However for very large inductances
harmonic frequencies like 100 or 150 Hz. it is possible to have more than one unit
This is important to avoid the ampli- and it could be a problem if much space
fication effect for harmonics originally is not available.
from the AC system, like negative se-
quence and transformer saturation. In high seismic regions, setting them on
post-insulators or on an insulating plat-
Reducing harmonic currents form is a possible problem. Oil-insulated
including limitation of telephone smoothing reactors are then the preferred
interference solution.
Limitation of interference coming from The oil-insulated reactor is economical
the DC overhead line is an essential for very high power (Id2 * Ldr).
function of the DC filter circuits. However, It is the best option for regions with high
the smoothing reactor also plays an seismic requirements.
important role to reduce harmonic
currents acting as a series impedance. One bushing of the oil-insulated
smoothing reactor penetrates usually
5.3.2 Sizing of the smoothing Reactor into the valve hall, while the other
bushing is normally in a vertical position.
While the current and voltage rating of For the air-insulated dry-type smoothing
the smoothing reactor can be specified reactor, a wall bushing is needed to
based on the data of the DC circuit, the connect with the valves.
inductance is the determining factor
in sizing the reactor.Taking all design
Fig. 5.3-2: Air-insulated smoothing
aspects above into account, the size of reactor – Tian Guang project
• Inductance: 150 mH
• Rated voltage: 500 kV DC
• Rated current: 1800 A DC
21
5.4 Harmonic Filters
Filter Impedance
main duties: filter types
• to absorb harmonic currents generated 1000
by the HVDC converter and thus to 800
reduce the impact of the harmonics 600
on the connected AC systems, like AC 400
voltage distortion and telephone 200
interference 0
• to supply reactive power for compen- Single - 0 10 20 30 40 50
sating the demand of the converter tuned
station
Each filter branch can have one to three Harmonic Order
tuning frequencies. Figure 5.4.1-1 shows
different harmonic filter types with their Filter Impedance
impedance frequency characteristics. 1000
800
600
400
200
0
Double- 0 10 20 30 40 50
tuned
Harmonic Order
Filter Impedance
800
600
400
200
0
Triple- 0 10 20 30 40 50
tuned
Fig. 5.4.1-2:
AC filters and capacitor banks
of Gezhouba/Shanghai
22
AC Harmonic Filter 5.4.1
5.4.1.1 Design Criteria for AC Filters related to the harmonic voltage on the There are basically two methods to
converter station busbar. The purpose of include the network impedance in the
Reactive Power Requirements the filter circuit is to provide sufficiently filter calculations:
The reactive power consumption of an low impedances for the relevant harmo-
nic components in order to reduce the • to calculate impedance vectors for all
HVDC converter depends on the active relevant harmonics and grid conditions
power, the transformer reactance and harmonic voltages to an acceptable level.
• to assume locus area for the imped-
the control angle. It increases with in- The acceptance criteria for the harmonic ance vectors
creasing active power. A common re- distortion depend on local conditions and
quirement to a converter station is full regulations. A commonly used criterion The modelling of a complete AC network
compensation or overcompensation at for all harmonic components up to the with all its components is very complex
rated load. In addition, a reactive band for 49th order is as follows: and time-consuming. For this reason, the
the load and voltage range and the locus method is very often used. It is
permitted voltage step during bank Dn individual harmonic voltage based on a limited number of measure-
switching must be determined. These distortion of order n in percent of ments or calculations. Different locus
factors will determine the size and the fundamental AC busbar voltage areas for different harmonics or bands
number of filter and shunt capacitor (typical limit 1%) are often determined to give a more
banks. precise base for the harmonic perform-
Drms total geometric sum of individual ance calculation.
Harmonic Performance Requirements voltage distortion Dn (typical limit
2%) A typical locus area is shown in
HVDC converter stations generate fig. 5.4.1-4. It is assumed that the im-
characteristic and non-characteristic The BTS Telephone Interference Factor pedance vector will be somewhere inside
harmonic currents. For a twelve-pulse (TIF) and the CCITT Telephone Harmonic the perimeter of the coloured area.
converter, the characteristic harmonics Form Factor (THFF) are determined with
are of the order n = (12 * k) ± 1 (k = 1,2,3 weighted factors in order to evaluate the The impedance vector of the filter is
...). These are the harmonic components voltage distortion level on the AC busbar transformed into the Y plane for each
that are generated even during ideal with respect to the expected interference harmonic frequency.
conditions, i.e. ideal smoothing of the level in nearby analogue telephone
systems. The IT product is a criterion for With both the network and the filter
direct current, symmetrical AC voltages, impedances plotted in the admittance
transformer impedance and firing angles. harmonic current injected into AC over-
head lines. The criteria based on tele- plane, the shortest vector between the
The characteristic harmonic components filter admittance point and the network
are the ones with the highest current phone interference are in many cases
irrelevant, because modern digital tele- admittance boundary gives the lowest
level, but other components may also possible admittance value for the parallel
be of importance. The third harmonic, phone systems are insensitive to har-
monic interference. combination of the network and the filter.
which is mainly caused by the negative This value is used to determine the
sequence component of the AC system, highest possible harmonic voltage.
will in many cases require filtering. Network Impedance
23
5.4.1 AC Harmonic Filter
24
DC Harmonic Filter 5.4.2
5.4.2.1 DC Filter Circuits 5.4.2.2 Design Criteria for DC Filter The equivalent disturbing current com-
Circuits bines all harmonic currents with the aid
Harmonic voltages which occur on the of weighting factors to a single inter-
DC side of a converter station cause AC The interference voltage induced on the ference current. With respect to tele-
currents which are superimposed on the telephone line can be characterized by phone interference, it is the equivalent
direct current in the transmission line. the following equation: to the sum of all harmonic currents. It
These alternating currents of higher also encompasses the factors which
frequencies can create interference in m
determine the coupling between the
neighbouring telephone systems despite
limitation by smoothing reactors.
Ieq =
√ ∑ (H
1
μ * Cμ * Iμ(x) )
2
HVDC and telephone lines:
DC filter circuits, which are connected Vin(x) = Z * Ieq • Operating mode of the HVDC system
in parallel to the station poles, are an (bipolar or monopolar with metallic or
effective tool for combating these pro- where ground return)
blems. The configuration of the DC filters • Specific ground resistance at point x
very strongly resembles the filters on the
AC side of the HVDC station. There are Vin(x) = Interference voltage on the The intensity of interference currents is
several types of filter design. Single and telephone line at point x strongly dependent on the operating
multiple-tuned filters with or without the (in mV/km) condition of the HVDC. In monopolar
high-pass feature are common. One or Hμ = Weighting factors which reflect operation, telephone interference is
several types of DC filter can be utilized the frequency dependence of significantly stronger than in bipolar
in a converter station. the coupling between tele- operation.
phone and HVDC lines
Cμ = “C message“ – weighting
factors
Iμ(x) = Resulting harmonic current
of the ordinal number μ in the
HVDC line at point x as the
vector sum of the currents
caused by the two HVDC
stations
Ieq = Psophometric weighted
equivalent disturbing current
Z = Mutual coupling impedance
between the telephone and
HVDC lines
25
5.4.3 Active Harmonic Filter
26
One harmonic controller is dedicated to
each harmonic selected for elimination
by the action of the active filter. In these
harmonic controllers, the particular Voltage on the To the IGBT
400-kV Busbar Converter
harmonic is isolated and expressed by
a complex signal in the frequency domain.
This is done through multiplication by
sin (hωt) and cos (hωt), where h is the Optical Self-Tuning IGBT
order of the harmonic, ω the network Input system control
angular frequency and t the time. These
two orthogonal signals are produced by
a module synchronized by the funda- LP PI
Filter Controller Σ
mental component of the filter current.
The signal pair obtained after the
mentioned multiplication and filtering To Other From Other
feeds a complex controller with PI Harmonic Harmonic
cos (hωt)
characteristic. The output of the controller Controllers Synchronization sin (hωt)
Controllers
is then shifted back to the time domain
by multiplication by cos (hωt) and sin (hωt).
Harmonic Controller
The process is essentially linear, so that
all harmonic controllers can operate
Fig. 5.4.3-3: Principle block diagram of the harmonic control
simultaneously and the sum of all har-
monic controller outputs gives the wave-
form required by the active filter. This
signal is then given to the IGBT control
module, which includes a pulse width
modulator besides functions for pro-
tection and supervision of the converter.
Harmonic voltages at the 400-kV bus …with active filter control (23th, 25th,
(L1) without and… 35th, 47th and 49th harmonics)
Fig. 5.4.3-4: Plots from measurement:
left without, right with active filter control
27
5.5 Surge Arrester
28
Fig. 5.5-3 shows the sectional view of For terminal voltage lower than the
such an arrester. The housing consists of permissible maximum operating voltage
a fibre-glass-reinforced plastic tube with (MCOV), the arrester is capacitive and
insulating sheds made of silicon rubber. carries only few milli-amps. Due to its
The advantages of this design which has extreme non-linear characteristics, the
the same pressure relief device as an arrester behaves at higher voltages as
arrester with porcelain housing are low-ohmic resistor and is able to dis-
absolutely safe and reliable pressure charge high current surges. Through
relief characteristic, high mechanical parallel combination of two or more
strength even after pressure relief and matched arrester columns, higher energy
excellent pollution-resistant properties. absorption capability of the ZnO arrester
The very good mechanical features mean can be achieved.
that Siemens arresters with polymer
housing (type 3EQ/R) can serve as post Routine and type tests have been
insulators as well. The pollution-resistant determined in accordance with the
properties are the result of the water- international standards:
repellent effect (hydrophobicity of the IEC 60060 High-voltage test techniques
silicon rubber). IEC 60071 Insulation coordination
The polymer-housed high-voltage arrester IEC 60099 Surge arresters
design chosen by Siemens and the high-
quality materials used by Siemens
provide a whole series of advantages
including long life and suitability for
outdoor use, high mechanical stability Fig. 5.5-3: Cross-section of a polymer-housed
and ease of disposal. arrester
29
5.5 Surge Arrester
Aa
AC V D D
2 Filter 4 AC Bus 5 11
A V
DC 12
3 7 C Filter
V
Fdc2
Fac1 Fac2 6 Fdc1
A V
8 Neutral
Neutral 8
AC bus arrester ’A’ The ZnO arrester will be installed close to Limit the overvoltages on the primary and secondary
the converter transformer line side bushing side of the converter transformer
AC filter bus The ZnO arrester will be installed at the Protect the AC filters busbar against
arrester ‘Aa’ busbar of the AC filter banks lightning surges
Valve-arrester ‘V’ 3-pulse commutation group The main events to be considered with respect to
arrester discharge currents and energies are:
a) Switching surges from the AC system through
converter transformer
b) Ground fault between valve and HV bushing of
converter transformer during rectifier operation
Converter group 12-pulse converter group Protection against overvoltages from the
arrester ‘C’ AC and DC side
DC bus arrester ‘D’ At the HV smoothing They will protect the smoothing reactor and the
reactor and at the DC lines converter station (e.g. DC switchyard) against
overvoltages coming from the DC side
Neutral DC bus Neutral DC bus The neutral bus arresters protect the LV terminal of
arrester ‘E’ the12-pulse group and the neutral bus equipment
AC filter arrester AC filter The operating voltage for the AC filter arresters consists
‘Fac‘ of low fundamental frequency and harmonic voltages.
Overvoltages can occur transiently during faults
DC filter arrester DC filter The operating voltage for the DC filter arresters consists
‘Fdc‘ of low DC component and harmonic voltages.
Overstresses may occur transiently during DC bus
fault to ground
30
DC Transmission Circuit 5.6
Design Basics
• The general layout of insulation is
based on the recommendations of
IEC 60815 which provides 4 pollution
classes.
• This IEC is a standard for AC lines. It
has to be observed that the creepage
distances recommended are based on
the phase-to-phase voltage (UL-L). When
transferring these creepage distances
recommended by IEC 60815 to a DC
line, it has to be observed that the DC
voltage is a peak voltage pole to
ground value (UL-G). Therefore, these
creepage distances have to be multi-
plied by the factor √3.
• Insulators under DC voltage operation
Fig. 5.6.1-1: are subjected to more unfavourable
DC transmission line conditions than under AC due to higher
(bipolar tower 300-kV link) collection of surface contamination
caused by constant unidirectional
electric field. Therefore, a DC pollution
factor as per recommendation of
CIGRE (CIGRE-Report WG04 of
Cigre SC33, Mexico City 1989) has
to be applied.
The correction factors are valid for por-
celain insulators only. When taking com-
posite insulators into consideration,
additional reduction factors based on the
FGH report 291 “Oberflächenverhalten
von Freiluftgeräten mit Kunststoffge-
häusen“ must be applied.
31
5.6.1 DC Transmission Line
32
DC Cable 5.6.2
5.6.2.1 General Application for 2) Oil-Filled Cable 2) Lapped Thin Film Insulation
DC Cables In comparison to mass-impregnated
cables, the conductor is insulated by As insulating material a lapped non-
An important application for HVDC are paper impregnated with a low-viscosity impregnated thin PP film is used instead
transmission systems crossing the sea. oil and incorporates a longitudinal duct of the impregnated materials. The tests
Here, HVDC is the preferred technology to permit oil flow along the cable. Oil- for the cable itself are completed. Now
to overcome distances > 70 km and trans- filled cables are suitable for both AC and the tests for the accessories such as
mission capacities from several hundred DC voltages with DC voltages up to joints are under process.
to more than a thousand MW (for bipolar 600 kV DC and great sea depths. Due This type of cable can sustain up to 60%
systems). For the submarine transmission to the required oil flow along the cable, higher electrical stresses in operation,
part, a special cable suitable for DC the transmission line lengths are however making it suitable for very long and deep
current and voltage is required. limited to <100 km and the risk of oil submarine cables.
leakage into the environment is always Another area of development are the
5.6.2.2 Different Cable Types subject to discussions. cable arrangements. For monopolar
For HVDC submarine cables there are transmission systems, either the return
different types available. 5.6.2.3 Future Developments for path was the ground (’ground return‘) or
HVDC Cables a second cable. The first solution always
1) Mass-Impregnated Cable provokes environmental concerns where-
This cable type is used in most of Most of the research and development
activities for new cable types are done as the second one has excessive impact
the HVDC applications. It consists on the costs for the overall transmission
of different layers as shown in with the insulation material. These
include: scheme.
Fig. 5.6.2.2-1. Therefore, a new cable was developed
The conductor is built of stranding copper 1) XLPE with an integrated return conductor. The
layers of segments around a central cable core is the traditional design for a
To overcome the disadvantages of the mass-impregnated cable and the return
circular rod. The conductor is covered by above mentioned cable types, extensive
oil and resin-impregnated papers. The conductor is wound outside the lead
R&D was conducted by the cable sheath. The conductor forms also part of
inner layers are of carbon-loaded papers suppliers. The result is the XLPE cable.
whereas the outer layer consists of the balanced armour, together with the
XLPE means ‘cross-linked polyethylene‘ flat steel wire layer on the outside of the
copper-woven fabrics. and forms the insulation material. The
The fully impregnated cable is then lead- return conductor insulation.
conductor is the segmented copper This cable type was installed between
sheathed to keep the outside environ- conductor insulated by extruded XLPE
ment away from the insulation. The Scotland and Northern Ireland for
layers. The insulation material is suitable 250 kV and 250 MW. R&D is ongoing to
next layer is the anti-corrosion protection for a conductor temperature of 90°C and
which consists of extruded polyethylene. increase the voltage as well as the capa-
a short-circuit temperature of 250°C. city of the cable with integrated return
Around the polyethylene layer galvanized Although the main application for XLPE
steel tapes are applied to prevent the conductor.
cables is the land installation and the off-
cable from permanent deformation shore industry, XLPE with extruded
during cable loading. Over the steel tapes insulation material for HVDC systems of
a polypropylene string is applied followed lower transmission capacities are under
by galvanized steel wire armour. development.
The technology is available for voltages
up to 500 kV and a transmission capacity
of up to 800 MW in one cable with instal-
lation depths of up to 1000 m under sea
level and nearly unlimited transmission
lengths. The capacity of mass-impreg-
nated cables is limited by the conductor
temperature which results in low overload
capabilities.
33
5.6.3 High Speed DC Switches
AC System 2
Electrodes
HVDC
Overhead Line
HVDC
Overhead
overhead Line
line
AC System 1
AC System 2
Electrodes
HVDC
Overhead
overhead Line
line
34
5.6.3.3 Design Considerations The ground resistance Re is normally much With reference to Fig 5.6.3-4, the principle
lower than the metallic resistance Rm. of commutation is as follows: At t0,the
Details regarding the duties of ”HSNBS” Therefore, during the transitional steady- contacts of the breaker separate, thereby
and ”HSGS” are not discussed here but state condition with both MRTB and GRTS introducing an arc into the circuit. The
the more severe requirements for “MRTB“ closed, most of the current is flowing characteristic of this arc sets up an oscilla-
and ”GRTS“ are explained. through ground which determines the tory current (frequency determined by
commutation requirements for MRTB and Lp Cp) which is superimposed on the
Fig. 5.6.3-2 shows the disposition of MRTB GRTS. I3 may reach values of up to 90% current I1. As Rp is very small, the oscillation
and GRTS. Rm and Lm represent resistance of the total current I0 and I4 values of up is not damped but increases. As soon as
and inductance of the transmission line. to 25% of I0. the current I1 passes through zero (refer
Re and Le comprise resistances and The following considerations refer to MRTB to t1 in Fig. 5.6.3-4), the breaker current is
inductances of the ground return path. only. From the above it can be concluded interrupted. I3 ,however, remains unchanged
that the commutation duties for transfer now charging the capacitor Cp until it
from ground to metallic return (MRTB) are reaches a voltage limited by the energy
much heavier than from metallic to ground absorber. This voltage acts as a counter
I4 Rm Lm
return (GRTS). voltage to reduce the current I3 and to in-
Fig. 5.6.3-3 shows the basic MRTB circuit. crease the current I4 (refer to Fig. 5.6.3-4
GRTS An energy absorber and the LpCp resonant and Fig. 5.6.3-3). When the absorber
I3 Re Le circuit (Rp represents the ohmic resistance limiting voltage has been reached, the
I0
of that branch only) are connected in current I3 flows into the absorber which
MRTB parallel to the main switch (MRTB) which dissipates an amount of energy deter-
is a conventional SF6 -type AC breaker. mined by the counter voltage to bring I3
to zero. When I3 has dropped to zero, I4
equals I0 and the current commutation
from ground to metallic return has been
Fig. 5.6.3-2: Equivalent circuit relevant to completed. It should be noted that the
MRTB and GRTS operation current I0 of the system (refer to Fig. 5.6.3-2)
did not change, i.e. the power transmission
was never interrupted.
I4 Rm Lm
There are also MRTB principles other than
Lp Cp the explained one which are based on
GRTS Rp Lp Cp complex resonant circuits, externally exci-
I3 Re Le ted with additional auxiliary power sources.
I0
With respect to reliability and availability,
MRTB the advantage of the above principle with
I3 I1 Uarc
Energy Absorber passive resonant circuit which is used by
Siemens is quite evident. The nozzle
system and specifically the flow of SF6
I1 gas in the Siemens standard SF6 AC
Fig. 5.6.3-3: Details of the MRTB circuit
breakers result in an arc characteristic
t0 t1 t which ensures reliable operation of the
tc passive resonant circuit. One unit of a
Uabsorber standard three-phase AC breaker is used.
Uarc Extensive series of laboratory tests have
I3 shown the capabilities of Siemens SF6
breakers for this application. Furthermore,
such switches are successfully in operation
in various HVDC schemes.
35
5.6.4 Earth Electrode
36
5.6.4.2.3 Cathodic Submarine Electrodes
The design and construction of the Electrode
cathodic submarine electrodes of a Module
monopolar HVDC system with sub-
marine power transmission cable do not
present any particular problems. Since Feed
there is no material corrosion, a copper Cable
cable laid on the bottom should theo-
retically suffice. The length of the cable
must be designed so that the current Coke Bed Graphite Rod
Concrete Cover
density on its surface causes an electrical
field of < 3 V/m in the surrounding water,
which is also safe for swimmers and
Cable
divers. 0.5 – 1 m
37
5.7 Control & Protection
5.7.1 General
The WIN-TDC Control and Protection demand thus contributing to network
System plays an important role in the stability.
successful implementation of HVDC All WIN-TDC components from the
transmission systems. High reliability is Human Machine Interface (HMI)
guaranteed with a redundant and fault workstations, the control and protection
tolerant design. Flexibility (through choice systems down to the state of the art
of optional control centres) and high measuring equipment for DC current
dynamic performance were the and voltage quantities have been up-
prerequisites for the development of our graded to take advantage of the latest
control and protection system. Know- software and hardware developments.
ledge gained from over 30 years of These control and protection systems
operational experience and parallel use are based on standard products with a
of similar technology in related fields has product life cycle for the next 25 years.
been built into the sophisticated tech-
nology we can offer today. The control is divided into the following
hierarchical levels:
Main objectives for the implementation • Operator control level (WIN CC)
of the HVDC control system are reliable • Control and protection level (SimaticTDC)
energy transmission which operates • Field level (I/Os, time tagging,
highly efficient and flexible energy flow interlocking)
that responds to sudden changes in
Dispatch
Centres
Opposite Converter
WinCC WinCC GPS
System 1 System 2 Printer Printer
Telecommunication Equipment Equipment
Station
Remote Control Remote Control
Router Router Interface Interface Router Router
System 1 System 2
LAN 1
LAN 2
Field Level
I I I I I I
O O O O O O
Fig. 5.7.1-1: HVDC control hierarchy, one station (bipolar HVDC transmission scheme)
38
In the following section, functions, tasks
and components are described to provide
an overview.
39
5.7 Control & Protection
40
• Analysis of operating mode based
on user-defined and archived data
(trend system)
• Generation of process data reports
41
5.7 Control & Protection
System 2
9
System 1
System 2
Valve Valve
Base Base 7 6
Electronic Electronic
4
Fibre Optic
5
1
12-Pulse Group
Fig. 5.7.1-7: Redundant pole control system Fig. 5.7.1-8: Protection zones, one pole/one
structure (for one 12-pulse group) station
42
All protective equipment in the HVDC
converter station is implemented either
with digital multi-microprocessor
systems or with digital Siemens standard
protective relays. ”The DC protection
is designed to be fully redundant.
Additionally both protection systems
incorporate main and back-up protection
functions using different principles. The
AC protection consists of a main and
back-up system using different principles.
Each protective system is assigned its
own measuring devices as well as power
supplies.”
5.7.3 Control Aspects
5.7.3.1 Redundancy
All control and protection systems that
contribute to the energy availability are
configured redundantly. This covers any
single faults in the control and protection
equipment without loss of power.
43
5.7.4.3 Functional Performance Test This is required to assure the systems
are free of transportation damage.
In the functional performance test, the The next station-related tests are the
dedicated control and protection hard- subsystem tests. Subsystems consist
ware is installed and tested with a real- of equipment items which are grouped
time simulator. The purpose of the FPT according to common functions like AC
is to test the proper signal exchange filter banks or thyristor valve systems.
between the various control components The main task is testing the proper
as well as the verification of the specified function of interconnected systems
control sequences. This allows optimized before switching on high voltage.
Following this, station tests with high
commissioning time. Furthermore, voltage but no energy transfer will take
customer personnel can participate in place. Finally, system and acceptance
this test for operator training and become tests with several operating points of
familiar with the control system. energy transfer will be used for fine
Fig. 5.7.1-11: Example of a functional
tuning and verification of system
performance test setup
5.7.4.4 On-Site Tests performance.
On-site tests are basically divided into At the precommissioning stage, the base
test steps regarding the related station work for commissioning the control Fig. 5.7.1-10: The main steps for the HVDC
(station A, station B) and into the test system and protection system is re- control and protection versus the time starting
steps related to the whole HVDC system. quired. The main task is preparation and from the contract award up to commercial
individual testing of any single system. operation
44
System Studies, Digital Models, Design Specifications 6
During the planning stage of a HVDC project, preliminary Digital models of HVDC system can be developed
studies are carried out in order to establish the basic according to the specified requirements. Typically a
design of the whole HVDC transmission project. This digital model of dc system is needed for a specific load
includes the co-ordination of all relevant technical parts flow and stability simulation program, while another
of the transmission system like HVDC converters, AC digital model is required for simulation in a typical
and DC overhead lines as well as the submarine cable, electromagnetic transients program such as EMTDC.
if applicable. The functionality and settings of HVDC control and
All specified requirements will be taken into account protection system will be represented in a proper manner
and are the basis for the preliminary design of the HVDC in such models, which allow suitable simulation of steady
transmission link. In addition, special attention is paid state and transient behavior of HVDC system in the
to improving the stability of both connected AC systems. corresponding digital programs. Digital models consistent
Several additional control functions like power modulation, with the actual dc control and protection system are
frequency control and AC voltage limiter can be included beneficial both for the operation of the HVDC scheme
in order to provide excellent dynamic behaviour and to and for the network studies including DC link. Typically
assist the AC systems if the studies show it necessary. such models can be developed on request in the detailed
Sub-synchronous oscillation will be avoided by special project design stage when all major design works of
control functions, if required. All the AC system conditions control and protection functions are completed.
and the environmental conditions as given in the relevant
documents will be considered in the design calculations. 6.3 Control and Protection Design Specifications
The final design of the HVDC transmission system,
including the operation characteristics, will be defined Design Specifications are written for the control,
during the detailed system studies. All necessary studies protection and communication hardware and software.
are carried out to confirm the appropriate performance The control panels are then designed, manufactured
requirements and ratings of all the equipment. inspected and tested in accordance to the design
Due consideration is given to the interaction with the specification. The software for the control and protection
AC systems on both sides, the generation of reactive is also written in accordance to the design specification.
power, system frequency variations, overvoltages, short It is tested using real time simulators in the dynamic
circuit levels and system inertia during all system performance test and functional performance test.
configurations.
Specifications for the topics below are typically written:
Typically the following studies are carried out: a) General Control and Protection
a) Main Circuit Parameters b) Interface Systems
c) Station Control
b) Power Circuit Arrangements
d) Diagnosis Systems
c) Thermal Rating of Key Equipment
e) Pole Control
d) Reactive Power Management
f) HVDC Protection
e) Temporary Overvoltages and Ferro-Resonance
g) AC Protection
Overvoltages
h) Metering and Measuring
f) Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination
i) Operator Control
g) Transient Current Requirements
j) Communication
h) AC Filter Performance and Rating
i) DC Filter Performance and Rating
j) AC Breaker and DC High-Speed Switch Requirements
k) Electromagnetic Interference
l) Reliability and Availability calculations
m) Loss Calculation
n) Subsynchronous Resonance
o) Load Flow, Stability and Interaction between different
HVDC Systems
p) Audible Noise
45
7 Project Management
Activity Time
Award of Contract
Engineering/System Studies
Manufacturing
Transportation
Civil Works & Buildings
Erection & Precommissioning
Station Tests
System Tests
Commercial Operation
Fig.7-2: Structured bar-chart timeschedule
46
47
47
Siemens AG For more information, contact our Order No. E50001-U131-A92-V3-7600
Energy Sector Customer Support Center. Printed in Germany
Dispo 30000
High Voltage Phone: +49 180/524 70 00
TH 263-070877 103017 WS 02081.0
P.O. Box 3220 Fax: +49 180/524 24 71
91050 Erlangen (Charges depending on provider)
Germany E-mail: support.energy@siemens.com
www.siemens.com/energy-support
www.siemens.com/hvdc
The information in this document contains general descriptions of the technical options available, which do not always have to be present in individual cases.
The required features should therefore be specified in each individual case at the time of closing the contract.
48