Fluid Mechanics

Definition of Fluid
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to external shearing forces. It has no
definite shape of its own, but conforms to the shape of the containing vessel. Even a small amount of
shear force exerted on a fluid will cause it to undergo a deformation which continues as long as the force
continues to be applied. It is interesting to note that a solid suffers strain when subjected to shear forces
whereas a fluid suffers Rate of Strain i.e. it flows under similar circumstances

Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses. Viscosity is due
cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers.

Newton’s Law of Viscosity: According to this law that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of
viscosity.

Where µ = coefficient or constant of proportionality and known as Coefficient dynamic viscosity

Unit of dynamic viscosity

S. I system = N.sec/m2
C.G.S system = dyne-sec/cm2
1 poise = 0.1 N.sec/m2

Kinematic Viscosity: υ = (dynamic viscosity/ Density) = (µ/ρ)

Unit of kinematic Viscosity

S.I system = m2/sec
C.G.S system = cm2/sec
1 stoke = 10-4 m2/sec

Note- Viscosity of liquid decrease with increase of temperature while viscosity of gases increases with
increase in temperature

Classification of fluid: fluid may be classified as below

Newtonian fluid: - fluid which obeys Newton law of viscosity is known as Newtonian fluid, in this type
of fluid viscosity does not change with deformation rate.

Non Newtonian fluid: - fluid which do not obeys Newton law of viscosity is known as non –Newtonian
fluid,these may be classified as given below :
Surface tension:
The tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two
immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension. Surface tension
basically due to cohesion force. If temperature of liquid increases then surface temperature would
decrease, because decrease in cohesive force. Unit of surface tension is N/m.

Pressure inside a Water droplet due to surface tension: P = 4σ/d (where σ = surface tension)
Pressure inside a soap bubble due to surface tension: P = 8σ/d
Pressure inside a liquid droplet due to surface tension P = 2σ/d
Capillarity:
The rise or depression of liquids in narrow tubes is known as capillarity effect. Capillary rise and
depression phenomenon depends upon the surface tension of the liquid as well as the material of the tube.
Capillarity is due to both cohesion and adhesion.

General formula for Capillarity h = 4σcos/ρgd

For water and glass  = 00

For mercury and glass  = 1380

Note-: when adhesion is more than cohesion then wetting tendency is more and the angle of contact is
smaller

Pressure of fluid at a point : if fluid is in rest then forced exerted on the fluid on surrounding area will
be perpendicular to area and expression for the ratio of force to cross sectional area is known as intensity
of pressure
P = F/A
Unit of pressure
S.I system = N/m2 = 1 Pascal
C.G.S System = dyne /cm2

Pascal’s law: According to this law for a static fluid pressure remain equal in all direction.

i.e Px = Py = Pz

Hydrostatic law: according to this law increase of pressure in vertical direction equal to weight density
of fluid at that point i.e P = ρgh or ωh (where ω = ρg)

Absolute pressure: when the pressure is measured with respect to absolute vacuum pressure, known as
Asolute pressure.

Gauge pressure: when the pressure is measured with the help of measuring instrument in which
atmospheric pressure is taken as datum is known as gauge pressure.

Vacuum pressure: pressure below the atmospheric pressure is known as Vacuum pressure.

Pab = Patm + Pgauge

Pvaccum = Patm – Pabsolute

Manometers: Manometers are defined as the device used for the measuring the pressure of fluid at a
point by balancing the coloum of fluid by another coloum of same coloum. Simple manometer can be
classified as
(a) Piezometer (b) u- tube manometer (c) differential manometere

Piezometer : Piezometer is a type of manometer which is used to measure gauge pressure of fluid

U-tube manometer: is used to measure both gauge as well as vaccum pressure of fluid by the help of a u
tube which is filled by some heavy liquid then filled in vessel. Other liquid which is used for this purpose
is mercury
Differential manometer: is used to measure pressure difference between two points of fluid in a pipe or
in a two different pipe, can be classified as differential manometer and inverted manometer.

Mechanical gauges: These are the pressure measuring device which measured the pressure of coloum by
balancing the coloum by the the spring weight or dead weight. Can be classified
(a) Diaphagram pressure gauge (b) bourden pressure gauge
(b) Dead –weight pressure gauge (d) Bellow pressure gauge

Note: Mechanical gauges are used to measure gauge pressure and some mechanical gauges are also used
to measure outside pressure (atmospheric pressure) for example Android gauge.

Vapour pressure: change of liquid state to gaseous state is known as vaporization. When the pressure of
liquid below the atmospheric pressure the liquid start to boil and pressure coreesponding that boiling
condition is known as vapour pressure.

Cavitation : Due to vapour pressure liquid state of fluid start to change into gasous state i.e fluid starts to
vapourize and these vaporized molecules taken into high pressure region, where they collapsed ,and
pressure increases rapidly due to this material of vessel get eroded and cavities are formed on them .this
phenomenon is known as cavitation.

Centre of pressure: it is defined as point of application of total pressure on the surface. There are four
types of submerged surface on which total pressure force and centre of pressure is to be determined.
1. Vertical plane surface 2. Horizontal plane surface 3. Inclined plane surface 4 curved surface.

Pressure force for first 3 surface is equal to P = ωAy

Where P = pressure force

A = Area of the submerged surface
Y = distance of C.G of submerged body from surface of liquid
ω = specific or weight density of liquid.

For curved surface pressure force has two components

Horizontal component, PH = ωAy
And Vertical component Pv = weight of the liquid column

Position of centre of pressure:

Position of centre of pressure for horizontal and vertical submerged surface h = (Ig/Ay) + y

Where h = centre of pressure

Ig = moment of inertia of submerged body
A = area of submerged body
Y= distance of c.g of submerged body from liquid surface
Position of centre of pressure of inclined surface h = (Igsin2/Ay) + y

Buoyancy force :force exerted by fluid on submerged or floating body which is equals to weight of fluid
diplaced by the body is called buoyancy force. And point about which buoyancy force acted is known a
buoyancy centre.
Meta centre : it is the point about which body starts oscillating when titled by a small angle, or
metacentre is defined as the point where line of action buoyancy force meet with normal axis of body
when it is tilted.

Metacentric Height: distance between Meta centre and centre of gravity of the body is known as
metacentre height in above figure it is shown by MG

General formula to find out the Metacentric height GM = (I/V) – BG

Where I = moment of interia of body

V= volume of the body
BG= distance between buoyancy centre and centre of gravity

Condition of equilibrium for a submerged body:

 When W = FB and centre of buoyancy lies above centre of gravity then body will be stable
 When W = FB and centre of buoyancy lies below centre of gravity then body will be un stable
 When W = FB and centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity coincides then body will be neutral.

Condition of equilibrium for a floating body:

 When metacentre lies above centre of gravity then body will be stable
 When metacentre lies below centre of gravity then body will be un stable
 When metacentre and centre of gravity coincides then body will be neutral.

Time of oscillation of a floating body:

T = 2πK2/GM.g
Where T = time period
K = Radius of gyration
GM = metacentric height
g = gravitational constant

Dynamics of fluid flow : According to newtons law of motion for a moving fluid net force acting on the
body is equal to product of mass of the body and acceleration
Force acting on the fluid comprises following forces
(1) Gravity forces
(2) Viscous forces
(3) Turbulence forces
(4) Compressible force
 (5) Pressure force

Bernoullies theorem: according to this theorem for a steady, imcompressible and frictionless flow total
energy is constant at every point

Assumption in Bernoullies theorem:

 Flow should be steady
 Flow should be incompressible
 Flow should be friction less
 Flow should be irrorational

Application of Bernoullies theorem

 Venturimeter ( used to measure discharge of fluid )

 Orifice meter ( used to measure discharge of fluid)
 Pitot tube (used to measure stagnant pressure )
 Hot wire anemometer (used to measure velocity of gases)
 Flow nozzle ( used to measure discharge of fluid)

Veturimetere :
It is used to measure the flow rate of flowing fluid and has three parts as described below
(1) Converging section (2) throat (3) diverging section
Points to remember
 Venturimeter works on the principle of pressure difference.
 Value of divergence angle should be in between 50 to 70 other separation problem can be happens
 Value of discharge coefficient Cd is less than 1 generally it is taken in between .95 to .98
 Where a1 = area of converging section
a2 = area of throat
h = height of liquid rise in u-tube manometer
when manometer contain heavier liquid then flowing

When manometer contain lighter liquid then flowing

where Sh= specific gravity of liquid in manometer

S0 = specific gravity of flowing fluid

Orifice meter: it is used to measure flow rate of flowing fluid, it is cheaper than venturimeter but
accuracy of discharge measured by orifice meter is less then venturimeter, works on same principle as of
venturimeter
Points to remember
 Diameter of orifice taken as 0.5 times of pipe diameter
 Vena contract is the area where discharge is maximum and area is minimum
 Coffieicent of contraction Cc is the ration of area of vena contract to area of orifice
 Value of coffieicent of velocity Cv is taken as .96 to .97
 Value of coffieicent of discharge Cd is taken as .62 to .64

Where a1 = area at inlet, a0 = area of orifice h = height of column

Pitot tube: It is used to measure stagnant pressure at a point in a flowing fluid with the use of piezometer
velocity of a flowing fluid can be measured.
Points to remember:
 Its works on principle of conversion of kinetic energy in to pressure energy when a flowing fluid
is stopped
 Coffieicient of velocity Cv is taken as .95 to .97

Hydraulic coefficient: there are three main hydraulic coefficients namely

Orifice: small opening on the side or bottom of the tank which is used to measure the rate of flow .

Formula for rate of flow for some standard cases

1 flow through sharp edged orifice (orifice) Qactual = Cd a2gh

Where a = area of orifice, h = height between centre of orifice and surface of fluid

2 flow through large rectangular orifice

3 flow through partially submerged orifice

4 flow through fully submerged orifice

Time of emptying a tank through an orifice at its bottom

Time of emptying a hemispherical tank through an orfice at its bottom

Mouth piece: it is a short length of pipe which is 2 or 3 times in length of its diameter and used to
measure the flow rate

Cofficient of discharge for mouth piece

Note : in case of internal mouthpiece if jet of liquid comes out of mouthpiece without touching its sides
then it is called internal mouthpiece running free, but if liquid jet comes out of mouthpiece with touching
its sides then it is called internal mouthpiece running full.