Blasting Design

Blasting
1. Good Blasting and Good Drilling go hand in hand.
2. Drilling is the Foundation of the Blast Design.

Explosion – A chemical reaction involving an extremely rapid expansion of

gasses usually associated with the liberation of heat.

Detonation – An explosive reaction that moves at a velocity greater than

the speed of sound.

Explosive - a substance that contains a great amount of stored chemical energy that
can produce an explosion.

Explosives
1) Dynamite – Contains Nitroglycerin and Sensitizer
a. Granular
b. Gelatin
c. Semi Gelatin
2) Ammonium Nitrate Based
a. ANFO – Ammonium Nitrate & Fuel Oil
No water resistance
b. Slurry (water gel) – water resistant ANFO
Good water resistance
c. Emulsion – Stable Oil/Water Emulsion
Excellent water resistance
 The U.S. consumed 3.76 million
tons of explosives in 2008

Coal Mining
8% 2%
Construction
10%
Quarrying, Non‐Metal
Metal Mining
11%
Other
69%

Explosive Properties
1) Density
2) Strength
3) Specific Gas Volume
4) Detonation Velocity
5) Detonation Pressure
6) Blasthole Pressure

Explosive Density (d) – The weight per volume of an explosive expressed as (kg/m3 or
g/cm3 or lb/ft3).

kg g
d anfo  800 3
 0.8 3
m cm
Weight Strength/Energy – The energy content of an explosive expressed as an amount
of energy per weight (kcal/kg or MJ/kg).

kcal
Strw anfo  912
kg

Specific gas volume – The volume of gas produced per unit weight of explosive
(liters/kg).

Detonation Velocity
1) Detonation Velocity – The speed at which the reaction front moves through a
cylindrical charge.
2) Typical values ranges from 1500 m/s (5500 f/s) to 7500 m/s (25,000 f/s).
3) Faster velocities provide a shattering effect to strong rocks while slower
velocities provide a heaving effect.

Detonation Pressure
1) Detonation Pressure – The pressure of the detonation wave propagating through
the explosive column.
2) Typical values ranges from 500 MPa (5 kilobars) to 15,000 MPa (150 kilobars).
3) Higher detonation pressures provide a better shattering effect for stronger
rocks.

Blasthole Pressure
1) Blasthole Pressure – The pressure exerted on the walls of the blasthole
perpendicular to the detonation pressure.
2) Typical values ranges from 1000 MPa (10 kilobars) to 6000 MPa (60 kilobars).
3) Higher blasthole pressures provide a stronger breaking force for stronger
rocks.

Bulk Strength – The energy content of an explosive expressed as an amount of energy

per volume. Bulk strength is the weight strength times the density (kcal/cm3).

StrB  Strw * d

Relative Strength – The blasting energy of an explosive relative to the blasting energy of
ANFO.

Relative Weight Strength – The weight strength of an explosive relative to the weight
strength of ANFO.

StrW -A
Rel - StrW -A 
StrW -ANFO
Relative Bulk Strength – The bulk strength of an explosive relative to the bulk strength
of ANFO.

StrB-A StrW-A * d A
Rel - StrB-A  
StrB-ANFO StrW-ANFO * d ANFO
Table. Explosive Properties
Dynamite  ANFO 
Dynamite  Emulsion  Emulsion 
Explosive Property Units Semi‐ AN(94%) 
Gelatin (1000) (1070)
Gelatin + FO(6%)
Density g/cc 1.51 1.30 0.82 1.24 1.28
Energy/Strength  (Weight) cal/g 1,055 955 880 650 730
                                  (Bulk) cal/cc 1,510 1,240 720 800 935
Relative Weight Strength 1.20 1.09 1.00 0.74 0.83
Relative Bulk Strength 2.10 1.72 1.00 1.11 1.30
Detonation Velocity m/s 5,300 4,300 3,900 5,800 5,500
ft/s 17,400 14,100 12,800 19,000 18,000
Detonation Pressure Kbars 106 60 31 91 97
Gas Volume (moles/kg) 32 37 43 44 44
Water Resistance Excellent Good None Excellent Excellent

Bulk Strength (Problem)

One particular mix of ANFO has a Weight Strength (StrW) of 912 kcal/kg and a
Density (d) of 800 kg/m3. Explosive A has a Weight Strength (StrW)of 850 kcal/kg and
a Density (d) of 1200 kg/m3. What is the Bulk Strength (StrB) of the ANFO in
kcal/cm3?

StrB-ANFO  StrW-ANFO * d ANFO

kcal kg m3
* 800 3 *  912
kg m 1x10 6 cm3
kcal
 0.7296 3
cm
Relative Weight Strength (Problem)
What is the Relative Weight Strength (Rel-StrW-A) of explosive A?
StrW -A
Rel - StrW -A 
StrW -ANFO
850 kcal/kg

912 kcal/kg
 0.93

Relative Bulk Strength (Problem)

What is the Relative Bulk Strength (Rel-StrB-A) of explosive A?

StrB-A StrW-A * d A
Rel - StrB-A  
StrB-ANFO StrW-ANFO * d ANFO
850 *1200

912 * 800
 1.4
Relative Blasting Energy – The blasting energy of an explosive relative to the blasting
energy of ANFO.

5  StrW -A  1  VG -A 
Rel - StrA     
6  StrW -ANFO  6  VG -ANFO 
Rel - StrA  relative strength of explosive A.
StrW -A  weight strength of explosive A.
StrW -ANFO  weight strength ANFO.
VG -A  Specific gas volume of explosive A.
VG -ANFO  Specific gas volume of ANFO.

Explosive Selection
1) Rock Properties
2) Water Conditions in Hole
3) Hole Diameter
4) Number of Holes / Required Production

Rock Properties
1) Compressive Strength
2) Tensile Strength
a. 8-10 times lower than compressive strength
3) Density
4) Sonic Velocity – Compressive Wave Speed
5) Fracture Conditions

Rock Properties
Uniaxial  Uniaxial  Modulus 
Specific  Poisson's 
Comp.  Tensile  of  Sonic Velocity
Gravity Ratio
Strength Strength Elasticity
psi psi ksi ft/sec
Rock Type Min. Max. Mean Mean Mean Mean Min. Max.
Granite 2.6 2.7 24,070 1,740 6,525 0.23 13,700 19,700
Gneiss 2.6 2.9 23,055 3,020 8,410 0.22 12,000 19,000
Basalt 2.8 3.0 21,750 1,885 7,685 0.22 17,000 22,000
Dolomite 2.8 2.9 11,400 22,700
Marble 2.4 2.7 22,000 22,000
Limestone 2.3 2.7 14,790 1,740 6,960 0.25
  Soft " " 5,500 13,800
  Hard " " 9,100 20,990
  Crystalline " " 1,600 21,000
Salt 2.5 2.6
Sandstone 2.2 2.8 13,920 725 3,190 0.24 4,600 14,800
Quartzite 2.6 2.8 36,540 3,625 13,050 0.16 16,000 16,000
Shale 2.4 2.8 13,775 435 4,060 0.14 7,500 15,400
Water 1.0 1.0 0.50 1,000 1,000
Explosive Selection
In general, the Detonation Velocity (Vd) of the explosive should match, as closely as
possible, the Sonic Velocity (Vs) of the rock to be blasted.

There is no value in using an explosive which has a Vd greatly in excess of the Vs of the
rock

(Example) If the rock to be blasted is a hard limestone with a sonic velocity (Vs) of
17,500 ft/sec, then a 1070 Emulsion (Vd = 18,000 ft/sec) might be appropriate.

Teller (1985) Approach:

1. Determine the Characteristic Impedance (Z) of the rock:

Vs
Z  1.31* SG *
1000
Where:
SG = the Specific Gravity of the rock
Vs = the Sonic Velocity of the rock, in ft/sec

2. Determine the Characteristic Powder Factor (CPF) for the rock and particular
explosive:
CPF  Z K
Where:
K = the Detonation Pressure of the explosive, in kbars

3. The CPF should be between 0.75 and 1.00.

A. If CPF < 0.75 – The explosive has a Vd and/or density which is Higher than
required.

B. If CPF > 1.00 – The explosive has a Vd and/or density which is too Low for the
rock

(Problem) Using Teller’s approach, determine if the 1000 Emulsion will be

appropriate for a hard limestone which has a Vs of 19,000 ft/sec.

1. The Characteristic Impedance (Z) of the Limestone is:

Vs 19,000
Z  1.31* SG *  1.31* 2.5 *  62.22
1000 1000
2. The Characteristic Powder Factor (CPF) for the Limestone and 1000 Emulsion is:
CPF  Z K  62.22 91  0.68
3. No, the 1000 Emulsion has a Detonation Velocity and/or Density that is slightly
higher than required.

CPF  0.68  0.75

Design of Drilling and Blasting Pattern:

Parameters:
1) Hole Diameter
2) Burden
3) Spacing
4) Sub-Drilling
5) Hole Length
6) Hole Inclination
7) Stemming
8) Charge Length
9) Charge Concentration
10) Column Concentration
11) Bottom Concentration
12) Total Charge
13) Total Explosives
14) Volume of Rock per Foot Hole
15) Volume of Rock per Hole
16) Weight of Rock per Hole
17) Powder Factor
18) Number of Required Holes
19) Specific Drilling
20) Total Required Drilling
21) Hole Pattern
22) Delay Component
23) Firing Sequence
24) Blasting Cost
Blasting Notation

Plan View

D
B
S
H = Bench Height
D = Blasthole Diameter
L = Blasthole Length
B = Burden
D B S = Spacing
T = Stemming
T J = Sub-Drilling Distance
Charge Length = L - T
Charge Length

H
L

Cross Section

Blasthole Diameter (D) – The diameter of the blasthole, it depends on:

1) Production Requirements - The higher the production requirements, the larger
the hole diameter.
2) Bench Height – The higher the bench, the larger the hole diameter.
3) Environmental Restrictions – The larger the amount of explosives, the greater
the ground vibration.

Blasthole Diameter
1) The larger the diameter, the greater the amount of explosives and the lower
drilling cost per ton
2) Ranges from 1 in to 17 in (25 mm to 440 mm)

Bench Height (H) – The height of the blasting bench.

Figure 1. Bench Height vs. Recommended Blasthole Diameter (from Sandvik Tamrock,
1999)
(Example) According to the chart, if the Bench Height is 12 m (40 ft), then the
Blasthole Diameter should be between 64 mm (2.5 in) and 127 mm (5 in).

Sandvik Tamrock Formula:

D  (0.06 to 0.12) * H
Where:
D = the Blasthole Diameter (in inches)
H = the Bench Height (in feet)

(Example) If the Bench Height is 40 ft, then using the Sandvik Tamrock Formula, the
Blasthole Diameter should be between 2.4 in and 4.8 in

D  0.06 * H  0.06 * 40 ft  2.4 in to

D  0.12 * H  0.12 * 40 ft  4.8 in

Burden (B) – The distance from the blasthole to the bench face or nearest free-surface.
Also, the distance between rows of holes perpendicular to the bench face.

Spacing (S) – The distance between the blastholes parallel to the bench or free-surface.
Blasthole Length (L) – The length of the blasthole.
LHJ
Sub-Drilling Distance (J) – The length of the blasthole drilled below the bench level.

J  L-H
If the blasthole is inclined at an angle (α), then the Blasthole Length (L) is:
L  H  J  cos α

Stemming (T) – The length of the blasthole filled with non-explosive material to
contain the blast.

Burden Factor (KB) – Specifies the burden distance as a function of the blasthole
diameter.
B  KB * D

For using ANFO with rocks that have a specific gravity of 2.5, KB averages about 25 for
surface mines and 20 underground.

Burden Factor - Ingersoll Rand recommends a Burden Factor of between 20 and 40:
1) 20 for difficult rocks
2) 40 for easy rocks

Burden Factor – Austin Powder Formula:

 d  
B    2 * e   1.5  * D
Where:  dr  
B = the Burden (ft)
de = the Density of the Explosive (g/cc)
dr = the Density of the Rock (g/cc)
D = the Blasthole Diameter (in)

Problem Determine the Burden (B) for shale rocks if the explosive “Emulsion 1070”
will be used with a 6 in Blasthole Diameter (D)?

From the explosive and rock properties tables: de = 1.28 and dr = 2.6; therefore

  1.28  
B    2 *   1.5  * 6 in  14.9 ft
 2.6  
  1.28  
K B    2 *   1.5  *12  29.8
 2.6  
(Note: the “12” in the above equation is to properly convert the factor in the original
equation, which takes inches and gives feet, into a dimensionless burden factor)
The Burden Factor for explosive A (KB-A) can be related to the Burden Factor for
ANFO (KB-ANFO) using the Relative Bulk Strength (Rel-StrB-A) relationship:

K B-A  K B-ANFO * Rel - StrB-A

(Problem) For the previous explosive A, what would be the burden factor?

K B-A  K B-ANFO * Rel - StrB-A

 25 * 1.4
 29.6

Spacing Factor (KS) – Specifies the blasthole Spacing as a function of the Burden.

S  KS * B

KS typically equals about 1.0 - 1.3 for sequenced rows and 1.8 - 2.0 simultaneous rows.

Spacing Factor – Ingersoll Rand and Sandvik Tamrick recommend a Spacing Factor
(KS) of 1.25.

Spacing Factor – Austin Powder Formula:

H
if  4; S  1.4 * B  K S  1.4
B
H H  7 * B
if  4; S 
B 8
Where:
H = the Bench Height (ft)
B = the Burden (ft)
S = the Spacing (ft)

(Problem) What will be the Spacing (S) if the Bench Height (H) is 50 ft and the
Burden (B) is 15 ft?

Based on Ingersoll Rand and Sandvik Tamrock:

S  1.25 * B  1.25 * 15 ft  18.75 ft
Based on Austin Powder:
H 50
  3.33  4 
B 15
H  7 * B 50 ft  7 *15 ft 
S   19.4 ft
8 8
Sub-Drilling Factor (KJ) – Specifies the distance of sub-drilling as a function of the
burden.
J  KJ * B

KJ typically equals about 0.2 - 0.3 for hard rock, but J typically equals -3 - -5 ft for coal.

Ingersoll Rand and Sandvik Tamrock Recommend a Sub-Drilling Factor (KJ)

between 0.2 -0.4.

Austin Powder Recommends a Sub-Drilling Factor (KJ) between 0.2 - 0.5.

Stemming Factor (KT) – Specifies the length of stemming as a function of the burden.

T  KT * B

Stemming Factor - Austin Powder Recommends a Stemming Factor (KT) between 0.7
– 1.3.

The Particle Size (P) in the stemming is recommended to be 1/12 to 1/18 of the
Blasthole Diameter (D)
P  D/(12 to 18)
Rock Volume (V) – The volume of rock broken per unit length of blasthole (m3/m or
ft3/ft).
V  B *S

Total Rock Volume (VT) – The total volume of rock broken per blasthole (m3 or ft3).
VT  B * S * H
Rock Weight (W) – The weight of rock broken per unit length of blasthole (kg/m or
lb/ft).

W  V * d rock  B * S * d rock

Total Rock Weight (WT) – The total weight of rock broken per blasthole (kg or lb).

WT  VT * d rock  B * S * H * d rock

Explosive Charge (C) – The weight of explosive per unit length of blasthole (kg/m).

π
C * D2 * d
4
Total Explosive Charge (CT) – The total weight of explosive per blasthole.

π
CT  * D 2 * d exp * (L  T)
4

Weight Powder Factor (PFweight) – The amount of explosive needed to fragment a

certain mass of rock (kg/ton or lbs/ton).
π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
CT
PFweight   4
WT d rock * B * S * H
π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
 4
d rock * (K B * D) * (K S * K B * D) * H
π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
 4
d rock * (K S * K 2B * D 2 ) * H
Volume Powder Factor (PFvolume) – The amount of explosive needed to fragment a
certain volume of rock (kg/m3 or lb/yd3).

π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
CT 4
PFvolume  
VT B*S* H
π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
 4
(K B * D) * (K S * K B * D) * H
π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
 4
K S * K 2B * D 2 * H
(Problem) At a surface mine, we have a 4 in Blasthole Diameter (D)using ANFO with
a Density(dANFO) of 0.8 g/cm3. The rock has a Density (drock)of 2.5 g/cm3 and it has
been found that a Burden Factor (KB) of 20 and a Spacing Factor (KS)of 1.2 effectively
fragment the rock. What is the Weight-Based Powder Factor (PFweight) of this blast
design?

π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
PFweight  4
d rock * K S * K 2B * D 2 * H

(We assume, since they do not say anything about bench height, stemming or sub-
drilling, that the stemming and subdrilling are functionally zero compared to the drillhole
length.)

π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
PFweight  4
d rock * K S * K 2B * D 2 * H
π kg
* (.1m)2 * 800 3 * (L  0)
 4 m
kg
2500 3 * (1.2 * 20 2 * (.1m)2 ) * L
m
 0.52 kg/tonnes

Burden & Spacing

In some situations, you may know the Powder Factor (PF) for the rock and for a given
blasthole Diameter (D), you are looking for the Burden (B) and Spacing (S).

π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
PFweight  4 or
d rock * B * S * H
π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
B * S  KS * B 
2 4
d rock * H * PFweight
π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
B 4
d rock * H * PFweight * K S
(Problem) Assuming that the hole diameter is 100 mm, the spacing factor is 1.3, the
explosive is ANFO with a density of 800 kg/m3 and the required powder factor is 0.31
kg /tonne, what is the Burden?

π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
B 4
d rock * H * PFweight * K S

(Again, we assume that the stemming and subdrilling are functionally zero.)

π kg g
* D 2 * d anfo  800 3  0.8 3 * (L  T)
B 4 m cm ANFO
d ANFO * H * PFWeight * K S
π kg
* (0.1m)2 * 800 3 * (L  0)
B 4 m
tonnes kg
2.5 3
* L * 0.31 *1.3
m tonnes
B  2.5m

Sample Test Question #50. (Total Explosive Charge) Given a 35-ft deep, 7-
7/8 in, diameter hole, 10 ft of stemming, and a prill specific gravity of 0.85; the charge
(lb) of free poured ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) prill is most nearly?

π
CT  * D 2 * d exp * (L  T)
4
2
π  7.875 in   lb 
 *   *  0.85 * 62.4 3  * (35  10)ft
4  12 in ft   ft 
 448.5 lb
Sample Test Question #51. (Powder Factor) Given a 12-1/4 in. diameter
blast hole, massive volcanic tuff overburden, poured ANFO prills, prill specific gravity
of 0.85, 30 ft X 36 ft pattern, 8 ft of sub-drill, 21 ft of stemming and a 50 ft shovel
bench height; the powder facter (pounds of explosive per bank cubic yard) is most
nearly?
π
* D 2 * d ANFO * (L  T)
CT 4
PFvolume  
VT B *S* H
2
π  12.25in   lb 
*   *  0.85 * 62.4 3  * (50  8  21)ft
4  12 in ft   ft 

1 yd3
30 * 36 * 50 *
27 ft 3
 0.803 lb yd3

Other Blasting:
Ring Blasting – Holes are drilled from a central point and radiate outwards (also Fan
Blasting). Used for: sublevel stoping, draw bell creation, tunneling, etc.

Crater Blasting – Uses a spherical, or near spherical, charge in a half space to create a
crater. Used for Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR), other.
Flyrock
1) Uncontrolled material fragments generated by the effects of blasting
2) Rock fragments are thrown at excessive distances and can result in human
injuries, fatalities, property damage, litigation, etc.

Causes of Flyrock
1) Insufficient burden
2) High explosive concentration
3) Improper blast design
4) Discontinuity in the overburden
5) Inadequate stemming
6) Improper delays

Air Blast
1) Transient increase in air pressure
2) Pressure wave travels at the speed of sound
3) Caused by the gas released during the detonation of the explosives

Controlling Air Blast

To control air blasts, the delay between holes must be greater than tmin:

Where: t min  S 1.127

tmin = minimum delay time (in ms)
S = the Blasthole Spacing (in feet)
Blast Vibrations
1) Shaking of the ground due to elastic waves emanating from the blast
2) Measured in inches per second (in/sec) of particle velocity
3) Can result in structural damage

The Peak Particle Velocities (PPV) are calculated as:

PPV  k SD 
1.6

Where:
k = the Ground Response Factor
where 24.2 < k < 242 with low to high confinement 160 is average
SD = the Scaled Distance Factor

The Scaled Distance Factor (SD) is calculated as:

SD  Dist CT
Where:
Dist = the Distance to the nearest structure
CT = the Total weight of explosive Charge per delay or per hole

The Office of Surface Mining has established the following Peak Particle Velocities
based on distance

(Problem) – For the following conditions: Blasthole Diameter (D) = 4 in, Blasthole
Length (L) = 33 ft, Sub-Drilling (J) = 7 ft, ANFO with a Density (d) of 0.85 g/cm3,
distance to nearest structure (Dist) = 600 ft, determine the Peak Particle Velocity (PPV)

First, we calculate the total explosive charge in a hole (see above), being careful to keep
the units consistent:
π
CT  * D 2 * d exp * (L  T)
4
2
π  4 in   62.4 lb ft 3 
 *   *  0.85 g cm 3 *  * 33 ft  7 ft 
4  12 in ft   1g cm 3 
 120 lb
Then the Scaled Distance (SD) is:
SD  Dist C T  600 120  54.7 in sec
and the Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) is:
PPV  k SD   160/ 54.7   0.265 in sec
1.6 1.6

This is less than the allowable 1.00 in/sec at 600 ft (see table above)