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Design of Impressed Current Cathodic Pro
Design of Impressed Current Cathodic Pro
ABDELSALAM I S AHDASH
APRIL 2010
iii
DEDICATION
To my beloved parents, siblings and friends for their endless loves and supports...
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In preparing this project report, I was very lucky to have chances to learn
many new knowledge as this is a new field in corrosion protection and materials
science and technology for me. Those experiences hoped to be used and fully utilized
for my future undertaking.
My sincere appreciation also extends to all my friends for the motivations and
all the technicians in materials science laboratory and marine technology laboratory
that involved in helping me to carry out all the laboratory works.
v
ABSTRACT
Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) and coating give the optimum
protection against corrosion for steel immersed in freshwater. This project presents
the results of a study on the effectiveness of coating, impressed current cathodic
protection and different environment conditions in preventing corrosion of steel.
Experimental tests were carried out on coated and bare steel plates with ICCP and
without ICCP by immersing in stagnant and flowing freshwater for one month. The
results demonstrated that for coated and bare steel with ICCP and different variable
resistance, the values of the potential are sufficient to protect the bare and the coated
steel -840mV to -875mV.For coated steel without ICCP immersed in stagnant
freshwater the potential has changed from -702 mV to -630mV, but for the bare
sample the change in potential was about -10mV this may be due to oxide layer
formed on the metal surface. For coated steel without ICCP immersed in flowing
freshwater the drop in potential was about -50mV and the bare steel with the same
condition was about -100 mV. A good agreement was observed for corrosion rate
between weight loss measurement (4.29 mpy) test and electrochemical test (4.27
mpy) for bare steel in stagnant freshwater. The location of the reference electrode has
significant implications for the control the potential change of ICCP system, the
corrosion potential increases at the top of the sample (60cm below the water) and
decrease when the sample was immersed further down to 1 meter in the water level.
vi
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
LIST OF CONTENTS vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of the Study 1
1.3 Objectives of the Study 3
1.4 Research Questions 3
1.5 Significance of the Study 4
1.6 Scopes of the Study 4
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 General Review 5
2.2 Electrochemical Nature of Aqueous Corrosion 6
2.3 Corrosion Control 9
2.3.1 Design 9
viii
3 RESEARCH METHOLOGY 34
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Impressed Current Design 35
3.13.1 Physical Dimensions of Structure to be 36
Protected
3.13.2 Drawing of Structure to be Protected 36
3.13.3 Electrical Isolation 36
3.13.4 Short Circuits 37
3.13.5 Corrosion History of Structures in the 37
Area
3.3 Review pH Data 37
3.4 Variations in Temperature and Concentration 38
3.5 Current Requirement 38
3.6 Coating Resistance 40
3.7 Selection of Anode Material, Weight and 40
Dimensions
3.8 Calculate Number of Anodes Needed to Satisfy 42
Manufacturer’s Current Density Limitations
3.9 Determine Total Circuit Resistance 43
3.10 Calculate Rectifier Voltage to Determine Voltage 43
Output of the Rectifier
3.11 Power Source Selection 44
3.12 Monitoring by Measuring of the Potential 47
3.13 Electrochemical Testing 48
3.13.6 Principle of Measurement 48
3.13.7 Preparation of Working Electrode 50
3.14 Immersion Test 52
x
REFERENCES 79
APPENDICES 81
Appendices A - C 81-92
xii
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
3.8 Photographs of 50
(a) Connection of specimen to copper wire by 50
brazing technique
(b) Mounting of samples 50
3.9 Photographs of 51
(a) Working electrode 51
(b) Typical surface area of a sample 51
4.1 Potential measurement of coated and bare samples in 63
stagnant freshwater with ICCP
4.2 Samples with ICCP after 1 month immersion in stagnant 63
freshwater
(a) Coated sample 63
(b) Bare sample 63
4.3 ICCP anodes after 1 month immersion in stagnant 64
freshwater for
(a) Coated sample 64
(b) Bare sample 64
4.4 The potential measurement on coated and bare samples in 65
stagnant freshwater without ICCP
4.5 Samples without ICCP after 1 month immersion in 65
stagnant freshwater
(a) Coated sample 65
(b) Coated sample 65
(c) Bare sample 65
(d) Bare sample 65
4.6 Quantitative analysis of XRD pattern of corrosion 66
products from the bare sample in stagnant freshwater
4.7 Potential measurement of coated and bare samples in 67
flowing freshwater with ICCP
4.8 Samples with ICCP after 1 month immersion in flowing 67
freshwater
(a) Coated sample 67
(b) Bare sample 67
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This section discuss about the introduction of the study which are background
of the study, purpose and objective of the study, significant of study and scope of
study.
Acidity of water varies over a wide range because variety of the compositions.
Factors affecting acidness of water is moisture, alkalinity, permeability of air,
oxygen, salts, stray currents, and biological organisms [1].
Several methods used to protect materials from being corrode, for example
coating, cathodic and anodic protection. In our research, we will only concentrate
into impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) which is commonly used in big
structure or component protection. ICCP systems require the use of an external DC
power supply that is energized by standard AC current. There are several important
advantages for using ICCP systems, for example unlimited current output capacity,
adjustable out capacity and lower cost per ampere of cathodic protection current [2].
It’s usually cost effective to justify the adoption of an ICCP system, for
example it is much cheaper in term of long term and large structure, for build an
ICCP system than to locate and repair the underground structure leaks. Impressed
current cathodic protection (ICCP) system take advantage of natural electrochemical
reactions of the materials to minimize corrosion damage. In an ICCP system, an
external source of electrons is provided to the metal/electrolyte combination. In order
to achieve protection from the corrosion the sources of electrons must be sufficient to
raise potential of the structure to a level at which negligible corrosion occurs [3].
3
The findings of this study are important to understand theory of the ICCP
system. In the current project, an effective laboratory scale ICCP system has been
designed. Comparison of results for laboratory ICCP system and real application can
be done for further understanding the effect of parameters upon ICCP system.
LITERATURE REVIEW
connection between anode and cathode (the pipeline in Figure 2.1) is termed a
corrosion cell [4].
In our societies, water is used for a wide variety of purposes, from supporting
life as potable water to performing a multitude of industrial tasks such as heat
exchange and waste transport. The impact of water on the integrity of materials is
thus an important aspect of system management. Nearly all metallic corrosion
processes involve transfer of electronic charge in aqueous solutions. Thus, to
understand the electrochemical nature of aqueous corrosion it is necessary to start the
discussion with the electrochemical reactions. Basically all environments are
corrosive to certain degree, thus we take an example of corrosion of a metal M with
2+ as the oxidation number in HCl acid for discussion on the electrochemical
reactions as shown in Figure 2.2.
7
Metal reacts with acid solution forming soluble metal chloride and liberating
hydrogen bubbles on the surface. In ionic form the reaction is
and
2.3.1 Design
As an old adage says, corrosion prevention must start at the blackboard, at the
design stage. A good design at the blackboard is no more costly than a bad design, a
bad design is always more expensive than a good design in reality. Technical design
includes the aspects of design that directly bear on the proper technical functioning
of the product attributes that describe how it works and how it is made. Design
configuration has a critical role to play in the service life of components. The
important point is that the designers must have an understanding and awareness of
10
corrosion problems. Corrosion is, however, only one of the several parameters with
which the designer is concerned and it may not be, however, important to a designer
to give consideration to corrosion unless dictated by a requirement. In many
instances, corrosion is incorporated in design of an equipment only after its
premature failure. More often, more attention is paid to the selection of corrosion
resistant materials for a specific environment, and a minimal consideration is given
to design, which leads to equipment failure. For instance, even a material, like 90-10
copper–nickel may fail prematurely as a condenser tube material, if the flow velocity
of salt water or seawater is not given a due consideration for a smooth flow in the
tube design. This has been a common observation in desalination plants in the Gulf
region. This chapter would highlight how corrosion could be prevented by adopting
good design practices [8].
2.3.3 Inhibitors
The objective of a coating is to provide a barrier between the metal and the
environment. Another advantage of protective coatings is that it is possible to
combine the protective function with aesthetic appeal. Coating can be classified into
Metallic and Non Metallic coatings [8].
potential; thus, anode and cathode sites will not exist. Cathodic protection is
commonly used on many types of structures, such as pipelines, underground storage
tanks, locks, and ship hulls.
There are two main types of cathodic protection systems; there are impressed
current and sacrificial anode. Both types of cathodic protection have anodes, a
continuous electrolyte from the anode to the protected structure, and an external
metallic connection (wire). These items are essential for all cathodic protection
systems.
A sacrificial anode cathodic protection system in fig 2.4 (a) makes use of the
corrosive potentials for different metals. Without cathodic protection, one area of the
structure exists at a more negative potential than another, and results the occurrence
14
of corrosion on the structure. On the other hand, if a negative potential metal, such as
Mg is placed adjacent to the structure to be protected, such as a pipeline, and a
metallic connection is installed between the object and the structure, the object will
become the anode and the entire structure will become the cathode. New addition
object will be sacrificially corrodes to protect the structure. Thus, this protection
system is called a sacrificial anode cathodic protection system because the anode
corrodes sacrificially to protect the structure. Anodes materials in this system are
usually made of either Mg or zinc because of these metals higher potential compared
to steel structures [7].
Figure 2.4 (a) Sacrificial Anode System (b) Impressed Current System
15
Table 2.1: Comparison Between Sacrificial Anode System and Impressed Current
System
The system may also be provided with a current control circuit to regulate the
protection level. Such regulation is particularly useful when different structures are
protected by the same current source.
potential is compared with the required protection value (set potential), typically 800
or 850 mV vs silver/silver chloride or copper/copper sulfate System current output is
then varied, via the driving voltage of the power supply, to maintain a zero error
signal and hence a constant potential at the RE. Current output is thus controlled
automatically in response to the operational conditions and the system is, therefore,
demand-responsive. The processes involved in cathodic protection are essentially
electrochemical phenomena at the interfaces between the water and the cathodic
structure (and the anodic surfaces). ICCP system current output, as determined via
the maintenance of the set potential in the vicinity of the RE(s), will be affected by a
number of factors, such as surface condition, coatings and the presence or of flow
[6].
2.4.1 Transformer/Rectifiers
AC sources able to accelerate the corrosion of mild steel even though they are
cathodically protected in both the media [11].
The rectifying elements shall be constructed with high current density silicon
diodes, so arranged as to provide full wave rectification. To prevent damage to
overload or short spikes in the supply, the current rating of the diodes shall be more
than 125 % of the maximum current rating of the rectifier and have a minimum peak
inverse voltage of 1200 V.
The unit shall be able to withstand a short circuit at the output terminals of up
to 15 s duration without damage to the circuits.
The output RMS ripple shall not exceed 5 % of the DC output current
between 5 % and 100 % of the rated current output. This is particularly important for
certain anode types such as platinised titanium.
The output voltage shall be adjustable from zero to the maximum rated output
when on load. A stepless (continuous) adjustment is preferred. If tapping switches
are used, these shall be front mounted switches with a step-size of maximum 3 % of
maximum output. Transformer tapping should not be done by relocating jumpers
unless changes in operating conditions are expected to be infrequent (e.g. when
subsequent potential or current control is used). Electronic voltage and/or current
control may be used, e.g. in combination with automatic potential control
18
A built-in timer unit may be required. The timer unit may be mechanical or
electronic and shall be capable of switching the full output current in a sequence of
50 s on and 10 s off. If more than one transformer/rectifier are protecting a single
structure, all transformer/rectifier timer units should be provided with a facility for
synchronous switching. During normal operation, the timer shall be bypassed.
The three-phase bridge is the most common circuit for rectifiers operated
from a three-phase AC power line. Each phase of a three-phase AC current is spaced
120 electrical degrees apart and therefore the voltage of each secondary winding
reaches its peak at different times.
Figure 2.6 shows the operation of a single phase bridge rectifier. The
direction of flow reverses 60 times per second for 60 cycles AC. In a positive half-
cycle (diagram A), current originates at T2 on the secondary winding. It is blocked
by D3 (silicon diode). The current, therefore, flows through direction D1, follows the
path (3) and through diode D4 it enters the negative terminal T2. In the next half-
19
cycle (1/120th) of a second later, polarities at T1 and T2 are reversed (see diagram
B). The current is blocked by diode D4 and flows through D2, follows the path (3)
through D3 in the same direction as before. The load RL thus receives energy in the
form of pulses at 120 per second.
These are basically switches with an internal mechanism which opens the
switch when the current exceeds a prescribed designed limit. They also serve as ‘on
and off’ switches. There are two types of switches: (1) magnetic and (2) thermal. The
circuit breaker protects equipment from over loading.
In the magnetic type, a coil is woven around a brass tube and a magnetic field
is set up by a current flowing in the coil. The magnetic slug is held at one end of a
tube by a spring. The magnetic field attracts the slug, but at or below the rated
current the slug does not move. At overload, the magnetic field pulls the slug into the
coil. When the slug is drawn to the opposite end of the tube, the circuit is completed
for the trip mechanism and the breaker switch trips. The movement of the magnetic
flux is slowed down and a time delay is provided. The breaker can trip on to 101–
125% of the rated current. Overloads
of ten times the rated currents can be sustained. The dropping is very fast
when the overload is ten times.
2.4.1.2 Transformer
This consists of two coils of wire wound around an iron core. The coils are
not connected electrically, but the core provides a magnetic link between them. AC
voltage is applied to one coil (primary), the changing magnetic field crosses to the
other coil (secondary) and induces a voltage in it. The changing field induces the AC
voltage in the secondary coil that is proportional to the turn’s ratio between the two
coils [7].
P P
=
S S
This is the ratio between the DC power output and AC power input.
Rectifiers are used as a source of DC power. Rectifiers convert the AC current (60
cycles) to DC current through rectifier operated at maximum efficiency at the full
rated loads.
DC
Overall rectifier efficiency = × 100%
Where AC power is not available to supply rectifiers and the required power
is high, engine generator sets may be used to provide the electrical supply needed.
Remote generator units are prone to failure and vandalism and require
frequent maintenance. For critical systems, alternatives such as solar power may be a
better option [7].
If the AC mains suffer frequent power failures, the use of batteries, charged
by mains powered battery chargers, may be used instead of transformer/rectifiers.
The design of wind and solar generators shall be based on extensive local
weather reports, stating average and minimum sun and/or wind periods and intensity
during all seasons, generally a one-year period, to determine the capacity of the
system. The battery capacity shall be based on the required autonomy during the
prevailing maximum time without sun or wind.
Wind and solar generators shall be rated to recharge the batteries in less than
48 hours from a partially discharged state due to an extended period of no wind/sun.
Cast iron scrap generally has the advantage of being thick in section and of
such form that any one piece will be in soil of more or less uniform resistivity.
Moreover, a graphite surface is left exposed as the outer iron is consumed, so that the
remaining iron with its graphite surface acts as a graphite anode, thus reducing the
rate of iron consumption. Old engine blocks are examples. The anode cable
connection remains the weak point [7].
High silicon cast iron has been found to be a suitable anode material. It is
relatively inexpensive and it is used on quite a large scale for groundbeds. It is
suitable both in soil and water. In soil applications, it is normally surrounded by a
carbonaceous backfill. Current densities can be high and consumption rates are low
taking into account the high mass per anode. The anodes come in different sizes and
different cable attachments. They are quite brittle and shall be handled carefully. For
seawater applications the silicon iron is usually alloyed with about 5 % chromium to
resist pitting [7].
Graphite anodes are generally cylindrical in shape, though other forms are
available. The graphite is impregnated with wax or resin, which reduces flaking, or
28
disintegration of the anodes as the graphite is consumed. The anodes are supplied
with terminal connections, and with cables if required. When installed in soil,
impregnated graphite anodes are generally used with a backfill of carbonaceous
material such as coke breeze. In soil and seawater, current densities of up to 10 A/m2
may be employed, but in fresh or brackish water, the current densities should not
exceed 2.7 A/m2 in fresh water or 5.4 A/m2 in brackish water. At higher outputs, the
surface of the graphite deteriorates excessively due to the formation of gas.
Graphite anodes are brittle and require careful handling during transport,
storage, and installation. Long graphite cylinders may be broken by subsidence of
surrounding soil [7].
These anodes are used for salt water or fresh water where the conductivity is
very low. Titanium develops an adherent oxide layer of high electrical resistance.
The oxide layer prevents corrosion by acting as a barrier. Titanium acts as an inert
support for the platinum. Platinum can withstand very high current density and it is
generally applied to a small area only. The platinum layer is normally 2.5 microns in
thickness and it has an estimated life expectancy of 10 years. Titanium sheets, 1–2
mm thick with a platinum coating of 2.5–5.0 μm, can be loaded to 10 A/dm2 or over
a period of years. Rod anodes of 10–25 mm diameter are used frequently for
protection of vessels, pipes, condensers, heat oil terminals, etc. [7].
These anodes are the latest technology in anode material and have largely
replaced other anode types, both onshore and offshore. They consist of a proprietary
mixture of (noble) metal oxides plated on a titanium or niobium substrate. This type
of anode has the same advantages (and some limitations) as platinised anodes but is
generally cheaper. They can be made in various shapes such as ribbons, rods, wires,
mesh etc. Ribbon shapes are often used as distributed anodes for localised protection
of structure or under structure bottoms. Applicable current densities are high and
consumption rate is low [7].
30
Zinc anodes are frequently used for protection of submarine pipelines. They
are commercially available in weights from 5 to 60 lb. They have a driving potential
of –1.10V compared to a Cu–CuSO4 reference electrode. The details of zinc anodes
are shown in Figure 2.7.
Corrosion products insulate the anodes and the anodes are, therefore, installed
below the water table in soils with no free carbonate or phosphate so that passivity
does not occur [8].
31
These are mostly employed for seawater applications. The base metal
contains 98–99% of aluminum. Aluminum anode has some characteristics which are:
4. The anodes are easily passivated and must be rinsed with NaCl to
reactivate. Backfill must be used with aluminum anodes [8].
The cathodic protection current decreases with the time of the immersion, and
attains stable value after approximately 15 days, probably due to the solidification of
32
the coating and/or the accumulation of the corrosion products in the coating pores
[10].
In ICCP design it’s difficult to know the expected potential distribution over
the underwater structure that leads to reliance to current density measurement as a
mean of assessment. The corrosion influenced by the environment factors such as
velocity and pH. Accordingly, when ICCP system is designed, various protection
factors need to reflect in accord one with the underwater environment. The current
density increases with increasing velocity, but it decreases with increasing pH [6].
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Literature Review
Review pH data
Current Requirement
Coating Efficiency
Select Rectifier
Monitoring
The installation drawings must include sizes, shapes, material type, and
locations of parts of the structure to be protected [13].
system from another. Since each electrically isolated part of a structure would need
its own cathodic protection, the locations of these insulators must be determined[13].
All short circuits must be eliminated from existing and new cathodic
protection systems. A short circuit can occur when one structures contact with each
other, causing interference with the cathodic protection system. When updating
existing systems, eliminating short circuits would be a necessary first step [13].
Studying the corrosion history in the area can prove very helpful when
designing an impressed current cathodic protection system. The study should
reinforce predictions for corrosivity of a given structure and its environment, in
addition, it may reveal abnormal conditions not otherwise suspected. Facilities
personnel can be a good source of information for corrosion history [13].
Cathodic protection current density and limiting current density increase with
increasing temperatures [9].
The second methods above can be used on existing and new structures.
39
where:
Equation 3-1 may be used when a current requirement test is not possible, as
on new structures, or as a check of the current requirement test on existing structures.
Coating efficiency is directly affected by the type of coating used and by quality
control during coating application. The importance of coating efficiency is evident in
the fact that a bare structure may require 100,000 times as much current as would the
same structure if it were well coated [13] Current density depends on the type of the
environment as in the table 3.1.
Platform productions are coated only in exceptional cases or for the purposes
of investigation because the life of the structure is greater than the life of the coating.
Therefore in the design of the cathodic protection, only the protection potential of the
steel need be considered [13].
The choice of anode is arbitrary at this time economy will determine which
anode is the best.
coated with cast resin or the whole tube is filled with a suitable sealing compound.
Because of the poor electrical conductivity of titanium, with long and highly loaded
anodes it is advisable to provide current connections at both ends.
Disc and ingot-shaped anodes are also used in water besides the cylindrical or
conical shapes. Several parallel-connected rod anodes as well as hurdle-shaped racks
are sometimes used for the protection of larger objects such as sheet steel lining and
loading bridges if sufficient space is available and there is no likelihood of the
anodes being damaged, e.g., by anchors. These are situated on the ground and
contain several anodes, mostly rod anodes, next to one another in insulated fixtures.
Floating anodes are used for offshore installations in which the current outflow
surface is attached to the outside of a cylindrical or spherical float which is attached
to the seabed by the anchor rope, so that the anode body floats at a predetermined
depth in the water. The advantage of this is the ability to carry out repairs without
interrupting the operation of the offshore installation. Furthermore, a desired uniform
current distribution can be achieved by distancing the anode from the protected
object [7].
Aluminum anodes with the same protection effect and life as zinc anodes
have much less weight. This is a very important advantage for the uncoated surface
that is to be protected. Several thousands of tons aluminum anodes are used on
platforms at greater depths, which must be taken into account of construction and
transport to the installation site. The anode mountings are welded to lap joints in the
yard, and the anodes are installed at a minimum distance of 30 cm from the structure
to achieve the most uniform current distribution. Non uniform potential distribution
occurs even with this distance. important factor. The number of anodes has to be
small so the anodes need to be relatively large, which will result in too negative a
potential if the distance is not sufficiently great. A minimum distance of 1.5m is
prescribed, but this involves considerable construction effort due to the effects of
heavy seas. Besides the so-called restriction on impressed current installations, there
is the requirement that the corrosion protection be switched off when diving work is
being carried out. This regulation is not justifiable. Work on the underwater region of
production platforms takes place continuously, as far as the weather allows if the
42
protection must be switched off each time, the impressed current protection becomes
very limited [7].
Other anodes used most often are made of mexid metal oxide MMO, zinc or
magnesium. When impressed current-type cathodic protection systems are used to
mitigate corrosion on an underwater steel structure [7].
𝑀
𝓃𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑇 (3.2)
𝑎
Where:
MT = LF x C x Is
𝑚𝑎 : Mass of anode.
43
The total circuit resistance (cables of anode and cathode) will be used to
calculate the rectifier size needed.
L
Rcc=K×Scc (3.5)
cc
K: Cable conductivity.
U = RT x IS (3.6)
U: Output Voltage
44
Many power sources are available commercially; one that satisfies the
minimum requirements of (I) and (Vrec) should be chosen. Besides the more
common rectifiers being marketed, a solar cathodic protection power supply (for
D.C. power) may be considered for remote sites with no electrical power.
P = U x IS (3.7)
P: Output power
After all the calculations above to calculate the output current, voltage and
output power start immersing eight samples (40cm x 7.5cm x 4mm) in different
freshwater conditions as shown in table 3.2. Schematic of the design immersed in
stagnant and flowing freshwater are shown in figure 3.2
Table 3.2: Coated and bare samples immersed in different conditions of freshwater
Sample Condition
Coated sample with ICCP
Coated sample without ICCP Stagnant Freshwater
Bare sample with ICCP
Bare sample without ICCP
Coated sample with ICCP
Coated sample without ICCP Flowing Freshwater
Bare sample with ICCP
Bare sample without ICCP
45
Figure 3.2 Schematic of Coated and Bare Samples With and Without ICCP in
(a) Stagnant Freshwater (b) Flowing Freshwater.
This work has done in marine technology laboratory, actual sites for stagnant
and flowing freshwater are shown in Figure 3.3.
46
a b
For the flowing sude the wave has been generated by using wave generator
tank Figure 3.4. More details for wave generator towing tank refer to appendix C.
a b
a b
A filtered direct current (DC) power supply, PS, supplies current (I) to the working
electrode is measured with respect to a reference electrode, with a series-connected
potentiometer, P.
Auxiliary electrode
Reference
electrode
Test solution
Working electrode
The low carbon steel specimens were cut using precision cutter into small
pieces approximately 30mm x 20mm. Brazing technique was applied to connect the
specimen to the copper rod for ease of connection to the electrochemical cell
(Figures 3.5 (a) and (b)). Then the specimen was mounted by embedding in epoxy
resin for 24 hours as shown in Figures 3.6 (a) and (b). The surface of each sample
was smoothened and cleaned to remove any unwanted particles or grease [14].
a b
Immersion test was conducted to determine corrosion rate using weight loss
method in which a specimen known initial weight is exposed to the corrosive
environment for a specified period of time. By the end of the test, the specimen is
cleaned and weighed to determine the weight loss and the pits behaviour. The
immersion test is in accordance to ASTM G31-72 [15]. The parameters for the
immersion test are given by table 3.4.
𝐾𝑊
Corrosion penetration rate, r (mpy), r = 𝐷𝐴𝑇
K = Constant (3.45x106)
W = mass loss, g
Sample dimensions:
Length 40 cm
Width 7.5 cm
Thickness 4 mm
JS = 10 mA/m2
IS = S x Js
IS = 0.1276 mA
Current layout IS = 1 mA
Number of anodes
MT
nb
ma
0.00033332
nb 0.000666 anode 1anode
0.5
Length of anode cable (Lca = 5 m ) Size of anode cable (Sca = 0.64 mm2 )
Length of cathode cable (Lcc = 5m) Size of cathode cable (Scc= 0.64 mm2)
Lca 5
Anode cable resistance: Rca Rca 0.14
k S ca 56 0.64
Cathode cable resistance:
Lcc 5
Rcc Rcc 0.14
k S cc 56 0.64
Current layout Is = 1 mA
Output voltage
U = RT x IS
U = 0.28 Ω x 1 mA = 0.28 mV
U= 1 mV
Output power p = U x IS
P = 1mV x 1mA = 1 mW
JS = 10 mA/m2
IS = S x Js
IS = 0.0638 x 10 x 10-3
IS = 0.638 mA
Current layout IS = 2 mA
MT = LF x C x Is
Number of anodes
57
MT
nb
ma
0.0006666
nb
0.5
nb 0.00133 anode 1anode
RT = Rca + Rcc
Length of anode cable (Lca = 5 m ) Size of anode cable (Sca = 0.64 mm2 )
Length of cathode cable (Lcc = 5m) Size of cathode cable (Scc= 0.64 mm2)
K = 56 sm/mm2
Lca 5
Rca Rca 0.14
k S ca 56 0.64
Cathode cable resistance:
Lcc 5
Rcc Rcc 0.14
k S cc 56 0.64
Current layout Is = 2 mA
Output voltage
U = RT x IS = 0.28 Ω x 2 mA = 0.56 mV
U = 0.56 mV
U= 1 mV
JS = 30 mA/m2
IS = S x Js
IS = 0.3828 mA
Current layout: IS = 1 mA
MT = LF x C x Is
Number of anodes
59
MT
nb
ma
0.00033332
nb
0.5
nb 0.000666 anode 1anode
Length of anode cable (Lca = 5 m ) Size of anode cable (Sca = 0.64 mm2 )
Length of cathode cable (Lcc = 5m) Size of cathode cable (Scc= 0.64 mm2)
K = 56 sm/mm2
Lca 5
Rca Rca 0.14
k S ca 56 0.64
Cathode cable resistance:
Lcc 5
Rcc Rcc 0.14
k S cc 56 0.64
Current layout Is = 1 mA
Output voltage
U = RT x IS
U = 0.28 Ω x 1 mA = 0.28 mV
U= 1 mV
Output power p = U x IS
P = 1mV x 1mA = 1 mW
JS = 30 mA/m2
IS = S x Js
IS = 0.0638 x 30 x 10-3
IS = 1.914 mA
Current layout IS = 4 mA
MT = LF x C x Is
Number of anodes
61
MT
nb
ma
0.00133328
nb
0.5
nb 0.00266 anode 1anode
RT = Rca + Rcc
Length of anode cable (Lca = 5 m ) Size of anode cable (Sca = 0.64 mm2 )
Length of cathode cable (Lcc = 5m) Size of cathode cable (Scc= 0.64 mm70)2
K = 56 sm/mm2
Lca 5
Rca Rca 0.14
k S ca 56 0.64
Cathode cable resistance:
Lcc 5
Rcc Rcc 0.14
k S cc 56 0.64
Current layout Is = 4 mA
Output voltage
U = RT x IS
U = 0.28 Ω x 4 mA = 1.12 mV
U= 3 mV
Output power p = U x IS
P = 3mV x 4mA = 12 mW
4.3.1 Coated and Bare Steel Immersed in Stagnant Freshwater with ICCP
From the results obtained shown in figure 4.1 the potential of coated steel
was initially -713mV Cu/CuSO4 and after applying ICCP system the potential has
shifted into the negative direction until it reached the protection level between (-
867mV to -875mV) Cu/CuSO4 and these values were maintained until the end of
the test. Coated sample with ICCP after 1 month immersing in stagnant freshwater is
shown in figure 4.2 (a)
For the bare steel, the initial potential was -654mV and after applying ICCP
system and adjusting the variable resistance the potential has become more –ve until
reached the protection level between (-830mV to -854mV) Cu/CuSO4 and these
values were almost the same until the end of the test and in this case the anode has
corroded more than the coated steel as shown in Figure 4.3. Bare sample with ICCP
after 1 month immersing in stagnant freshwater is shown in Figure 4.2 (b). Detail of
the potentials measurement is given in appendix A.
63
Figure 4.1 The potentials measurment for coated and bare steel in stagnant
freshwater with ICCP
a b
Figure 4.2 Samples with ICCP after 1 month immersion in stagnant freshwater
a b
Figure 4.3 ICCP anodes after 1 month immersion in stagnant freshwater for
4.3.2 Coated and Bare Steel Immersed in Stagnant Freshwater without ICCP
From the results obtained shown in figure 4.4 that for the coated steel the
initial potential was -702mV Cu/CuSO4 and it started shifting immediately after few
hours into the positive direction. With increase in time the potential shifted to less
negative values until it reached -663 mV Cu/CuSO4 after 30 days which means out
of protection region.
For the bare sample the potential was initially -689 mV Cu/CuSO4 and then
has shifted slightly into the positive direction and only very little change has
happened until the potential reached -682 mV Cu/CuSO4.Among the two samples
the bare one has almost stable values of potentials.The steel showed some red rust
products as shown in figures 4.5 (c) and (d). Based on XRD analysis of the red rust
showed that the little change was due to oxide layer formed on the metal surface as
shown in figure 4.6. Detail of the potentials measurement is given in appendix A.
65
Figure 4.4 The Potential measurment on coated and bare samples in Stagnant
freshwater without ICCP
a b
c d
Figure 4.5 Samples without ICCP after 1 month immersion in stagnant freshwater
(a) Coated Sample (b) Coated Sample (c) Bare Sample (d) Bare Sample
66
Figure 4.6 Quantitative analysis of XRD pattern of corrosion products from the
bare sample in the stagnant freshwater
4.3.3 Coated and Bare Steel Immersed in Flowing Freshwater with ICCP
For the bare steel, the initial potential was -648 mV Cu/CuSO4 and after
applying ICCP system and adjusting the variable resistance the potential has shifted
67
into the protection level between (-841mV to -853mV) Cu/CuSO4 and these values
were almost the same until the end of the test and in this case the anode has corroded
more than the coated steel as shown in figure 4.9. Bare sample with ICCP after 1
month immersing in flowing freshwater is shown in figure 4.8 (b). Detail of the
potentials measurement is given in appendix A.
Figure 4.7 The Potential measurment on coated and bare samples in Flowing
freshwater with ICCP
a b
Figure 4.8 Samples with ICCP after 1 month immersion in flowing freshwater
a b
Figure 4.9 ICCP anodes after 1 month immersion in flowing freshwater for
4.3.4 Coated and Bare Steel Immersed in Flowing Freshwater without ICCP
From the results it was shown in figure 4.10, for the coated steel the initial
potential was -702mV Cu/CuSO4 and it started shifting immediately after few hours
into the positive direction and this shifting increase with the time until reached -649
mV Cu/CuSO4 after 30 days and these values are farther down the scope of
protection and small cracks in the coating developed and caused coating elimination
shown in figures 4.11(a) and 4.11 (b) .
For the bare sample the potential was initially -643mV Cu/CuSO4 and then
has abruptly shifted into the positive direction with time and very high change in
potential has happened till the potential reached -549 mV Cu/CuSO4. Due to high
velocities of waves the steel could not form oxide layer similar with bare steel in
stagnant freshwater as shown in figure 4.11(c) and 4.11(d). Detail of the potentials
measurement is given in appendix A.
69
Figure 4.10 The Potential measurment on coated and bare samples in Flowing
freshwater without ICCP
a b
c d
(a) Coated Sample (b) Coated Sample (c) Bare Sample (d) Bare Sample
70
Based on figures 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, and 4.15 the relation between the average
corrosion potential (mV) Cu/CuSO4 and the depth of the reference electrode (cm) is
negative linear. The corrosion potential has the maximum average negative potential
at the top of the sample (60 cm below the water) and this potential systematically
decreases in the negative direction when the depth of the reference electrode increase
until the end of the sample (1 meter below the water).
71
Figure 4.18 shows the surface area of specimens before and after the
electrochemical test. Visual inspection is important in order to observe any change
on the surface appearance. It was found that after the test, most of the metal surface
has changed due to the reaction of ions in the electrolyte and metal surface.
a b
Figure 4.18 Specimens (a) before and (b) after electrochemical test.
Table 4.2 shows the potentiodynamic anodic polarization data obtained when
the test was carried out in freshwater at room temperature. The value of icorr is
shown graphically in figure 4.19
75
Parameter Value
E(I=0) (mV) -413.158
icorr (µA) 5.219e+001
Ca. Beta (mV) 409.777
An. Beta (mV) 453.579
Corrosion Rate (mpy) 4.267e+000
Chi-Square 4.70
Fit Range (mV) (-436), (-389)
Density (g/cm³) 7.87
Surface Area (cm²) 3
Equivalent Weight (g) 15
A good agreement was observed for corrosion rate between weight loss
measurement (4.29 mpy) test and electrochemical test (4.27 mpy) for bare steel in
stagnant freshwater.
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Conclusions
The result obtained from the experimental work had successfully fulfilled the
objectives of the project. The conclusions derived from this project are listed as
follows:
3. The potential of steel shifted from less negative values to more negative
until it reached the optimum protection level when ICCP system
applied.
From the study that has been successfully carried out, the following are some
recommendations may be considered for the future work:
2. Further studies should be made to evaluate the effect of the life time of
the anodes on the economy of the whole process.
REFERENCES
1. R. Winston River and Herbert H Uhlig, Corrosion and Corrosion Control; an
Introduction to Corrosion Science and Engineering, 4th edition (2008).
6. Jin-Seok Oh* & Jong-Do Kim. KSME International Journal Vol, 18 No, 4. A new
protection strategy of impressed current cathodic protection in ship (2004).
10. Sanja Martinez, Lidija Valek Z ulj, Frankica Kapor. Corrosion Science 51.
Disbonding of underwater-cured epoxy coating caused by cathodic protection
current (2009).
12. C.F. Dong, A.Q. Fua, X.G. Li , Y.F. Cheng. Electrochimica Acta 54. Localized
EIS characterization of corrosion of steel at coating defect under cathodic
protection (2008).
14. ASTM G5 – 94 Standard Reference Test Method for Making Potentiostatic and
Potentiodynamic Anodic Polarization Measurements (2004).
15. ASTM Standard: G31-72, Standard practice for laboratory Immersion Corrosion
Test of metal (2004).
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
The potential measurement for coated and bare steel in stagnant freshwater
with ICCP.
The potential measurement for coated and bare steel in stagnant freshwater
without ICCP.
0 -689 -702
2 -688 -699
4 -687 -697
6 -686 -697
8 -685 -695
10 -685 -691
12 -685 -690
14 -684 -689
16 -684 -687
18 -684 -685
20 -685 -678
22 -684 -677
24 -683 -674
26 -683 -672
28 -682 -669
30 -682 -663
83
The potential measurement for coated and bare steel in flowing freshwater
with ICCP.
0
Before applying -648 -708
ICCP
2 -842 -845
4 -853 866
6 -853 -865
8 -852 -864
10 -851 -864
12 -849 -862
14 -849 -862
16 -848 -861
18 -848 -861
20 -847 -861
22 -847 -860
24 -845 -860
26 -844 -858
28 -842 -857
30 -841 -857
84
The potential measurement for coated and bare steel in flowing freshwater
without ICCP.
0 643 702
2 640 697
4 636 695
6 632 694
8 622 692
10 612 689
12 603 689
14 589 685
16 577 682
18 574 676
20 568 671
22 568 668
24 566 663
26 564 657
28 560 655
30 549 649
85
APPENDIX B
Metric English
Physical Density 7.872 g/cc 0.2844 lb/in³
Properties
Modulus of 200 GPa 29000 ksi
Mechanical Elasticity
Properties Bulk Modulus 140 GPa 20300 ksi
Poissons Ratio 0.29 0.29
Shear Modulus 80.0 GPa 11600 ksi
Electrical Electrical 0.0000174 ohm-cm 0.0000174 ohm-cm
Properties Resistivity
86
APPENDIX C
88
89
90
91
92