Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Work Over 1194
Work Over 1194
for Workover
Operations
While every effort was made to ensure accuracy, this manual is intended only as a training aid. Nothing in it should be
construed as approval or disapproval of any specific product or practice. Furthermore, Schlumberger assumes no liability
with respect to the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process in this manual. This manual was developed by
Schlumberger in conjunction with Randy Smith Training Solutions. The manual remains the property of Schlumberger
and is not to be copied, modified, or reproduced without the express written consent of Schlumberger. It is intended for
internal use only. All rights reserved.
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
i
Causes of Kicks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Warning Signs of Kicks and First Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .G-1
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
A. Abbreviations for Chemical Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
B. Summary of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-2
C. Increasing Density in Multiple-Salt Brines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-8
D. Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-10
E. Brine Filtration Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-13
F. IPM Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-14
G. Well Control Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-16
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
iii
iv Well Control for Workover Operations
List of Figures
1-1. Gravel packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
1-2. Excessive gas production in oil wells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
1-3. Water coning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
1-4. Recompletion to a higher zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
1-5. Recompletion to a lower zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
1-6. Zonal isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
1-7. Conventional workover rig and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14
1-8. Concentric workover using coiled tubing unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
1-9. Wireline workover equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
1-10. Pump unit and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17
2-1. Overview of workover well control calculations and indicators . . . . . . . . . 2-3
2-2. SICP and SITP gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
2-3. Tubing/annulus friction pressure distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
2-4. True vertical depth (TVD) and measured depth (MD). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
2-5. Calculating kill fluid weight (balanced and overbalanced) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2-6. Sample conditions for static well analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
2-7. Determining tubing or casing capacity factor and volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
2-8. Determining annular capacity factor and annular volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
2-9. Determining displacement factor and displacement volumes . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
2-10. Conditions for determining circulating bottomhole pressure . . . . . . . . . . 2-35
2-11. Determining cross-sectional area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37
2-12. Determining pressure force on a cross-sectional area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38
2-13. Differential force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39
2-14. Gas expansion according to the gas law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
2-15. Effect of gas migration on bottomhole pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-44
3-1. Pressure profile during bleeding with mechanically induced kick. . . . . . . . 3-8
3-2. Pressure profile during bleeding with light fluid in the hole . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3-3. BPV or check valve in string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3-4. Pressure profile for wait-and-weight method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
3-5. Five steps for completing pressure reduction schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3-6. Well with 10 bbl kick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
3-7. Circulating pump pressure schedule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
3-8. Pressure profiles for constant pump pressure method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
3-9. Well diagram with gas kick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
3-10. Reversing a gas kick: stage 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
3-11. Reversing a gas kick: stage 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
3-12. Reversing a gas kick: stage 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
3-13. Reversing a gas kick: stage 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25
v
3-14. Reversing a gas kick: stage 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
3-15. Pressure profiles for reversing a gas kick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27
3-16. Bullheading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-29
3-17. Bullheading pressure profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32
3-18. Bullheading pressure schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-34
3-19. Plotted bullheading pressure schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-35
3-20. Casing pressure increase during bullheading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-37
3-21. Gas channeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-38
3-22. Volumetric calculations and pressure schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-41
3-23. Well diagram for volume method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-44
3-24. Sample well and volume method lubrication worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-45
3-25. Well diagram and pressure method lubrication worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . 3-46
4-1. Sample trip sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
5-1. Brine density thermal correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
5-2. Hydrometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
5-3. Increasing density in solids-laden fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18
5-4. Decreasing density of solids-laden fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
5-5. Increasing density in single-salt brines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20
5-6. Decreasing density by dilution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
5-7. Temperature correction with a hydrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
6-1. Open-ended completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
6-2. Basic single-zone packer completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
6-3. Packer completion with nipples, sliding sleeve, and SCSSSV. . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
6-4. Multiple-zone, multiple-string completion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
6-5. Sand-control completion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
6-6. Artificial-lift completion—rod-pumped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
6-7. Artificial-lift completion—gas-lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
6-8. Artificial-lift completion—electric submersible pump (ESP) . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
6-9. Retrievable packers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6-10. Permanent packers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6-11. Typical tubing hangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
6-12. Bridge plugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6-13. Typical landing nipples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
6-14. Flow-control device locked into a selective landing nipple . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
6-15. Surface-controlled subsurface safety valve (SCSSSV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
6-16. Typical wellhead and Christmas tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6-17. Wireline surface rig-up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
6-18. Typical surface safety system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22
6-19. Pneumatic surface safety valve and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-23
6-20. Low-pressure fusible plugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
6-21. High-pressure fusible plugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
vii
viii Well Control for Workover Operations
List of Tables
3-1. Typical Kill Rate Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
5-1. Densities of Typical Completion/Workover Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
5-2. Common Additives and Their Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
5-3. Densities of Some Commercially Available Brines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
5-4. Composition and Properties of Sodium Chloride Brine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
5-5. Composition and Properties of Potassium Chloride Brine . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
5-6. Mixing 2% Potassium Chloride Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
5-7. Composition and Properties of Calcium Chloride Brine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16
6-1. Packoff Elements for Annular Preventers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-30
6-2. Typical Ram Preventers Used in Workovers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-34
A-1. Mixing CaBr2/CaCl2 Brine .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-9
ix
x Well Control for Workover Operations
Preface
Written specifically for the well-site supervisor, Well Control for Workover
Operations presents the concepts, procedures, and practices that apply to well
control for workover operations. This text, along with an associated workbook and a
Web-based final exam, comprises an entire self-study course in workover well
control, designed for learning without an instructor.
For the benefit of those with limited experience in workovers, the book begins with
an overview of what workovers are, why they are done, and how they are
categorized by type. The next lesson covers basic well control physical principles
and calculations, illustrated with detailed examples. Well control procedures are
presented next, followed by the causes and warning signs of kicks. Emphasis is
placed on the well kill procedures typically implemented at the start of a workover
and the techniques used to prevent further kicks during the actual workover
operation. Following kick prevention are lessons on workover fluids and surface
and downhole equipment. The lesson entitled “Well Control Complications”
explains methods for dealing with complications that are sometimes encountered in
workover well control. The final lesson covers all aspects of your responsibilities in
supervising the workover—from well control planning and preparation to
execution.
The associated workbook contains review questions for each of the eight lessons. It
is suggested that you read one lesson and then go to the workbook and answer the
related questions for that lesson before reading further. The entire process can be
completed in about five days. After working through all the lessons, you should
access and complete the final exam on the Schlumberger Hub. In addition to the
lessons, you will find the book’s appendix useful; it contains a list of calculations, a
list of chemical name abbreviations, and a metric conversion table. A glossary of
terms provides definitions for the technical terms used in the book.
In specific areas where specialist applications have been used and the general rig
ups, arrangements, and guidelines do not follow the contents of this manual, or
where exemptions to the standards have been required, the operational procedures
for that area must be detailed in the Project Operations Manual for that particular
project.
Preface xi
This manual forms part of a series of training texts for well control within
Schlumberger. Further information, documents, reports, guidelines, and standards
can be found at one of the following Schlumberger Hub locations:
http://www.hub.slb.com/index.cfm?id=id15751
Over time, however, changes occur in the formation, and the completion equipment
itself deteriorates; it becomes necessary to service the well or to work over the well
to maintain or improve efficient fluid flow.
The term well servicing refers to workover operations performed through the
Christmas tree with the production tubing in place. This operation is also known as
“well intervention.” Coiled tubing, small-diameter tubing, wireline, and snubbing
work strings can be used. Many of the operations are similar to those in workovers
but are constrained by the internal diameter (ID) of the existing completion.
Although this manual focuses on workover well control operations, the workover
wellsite supervisor (WSS) will benefit from background information on the reasons
for and different types of workovers. This lesson explains why wells need workover
Lesson 1 1-1
repairs and what benefits usually result from workover operations. It also describes
the general types of workovers and the well control equipment used with each type.
Lesson Objectives
After reading this lesson and completing its workbook assignment, you should be
able to:
• Define the terms well completion, workover, and well servicing.
• Explain the reasons for performing workovers.
• Distinguish between different types of workovers.
Lesson 1 1-3
Near-Wellbore Formation Damage
During the producing life of a well, the permeability of the producing formation
near the wellbore is reduced, affecting production rates. One reason for this near-
wellbore damage is that components of the reservoir rock react with the well fluid.
Examples of formation damage include:
• Swelling of fine formation clays within the reservoir rock pore spaces.
• Blocked pore throats due to the migration of fine particles through the formation
toward the wellbore.
• Emulsion blockage caused by the mixing of two normally separate (immiscible)
fluids such as completion brine and crude oil. The result is a highly viscous
mixture that reduces the relative permeability of the producing formation.
• Reduction of pore throat size due to the precipitation of scale—such as calcium
carbonate or calcium sulfate—from reservoir fluids as a result of temperature or
pressure reduction.
Sand Production
Since many oil reservoirs are located in sand beds, sand production is a naturally
occurring problem. As sand moves through the reservoir and the production string,
it may plug perforations, safety valves, tubing, and surface equipment. It may also
erode Christmas tree components.
The rate of sand production can further increase due to formation breakdown, poor
production practices, poor completions, and equipment failure.
To control this separation during the early stages of production, the crew controls
the pressure at which the well fluids are produced from the reservoir. Maintaining a
certain pressure on the well helps keep the gas in solution with the oil. As the well
fluids are produced, however, this separation is more and more difficult to maintain
and a remedial workover may become necessary. This type of workover involves
cementing the existing perforations and perforating a different zone to allow oil
from below the oil-gas contact point to flow to the surface.
Lesson 1 1-5
Figure 1-2 Excessive gas production in oil wells
As a result, water is produced, bypassing a portion of the oil reserves. Typically the
first attempt to control coning involves reducing the production rate, but when this
fails, a remedial workover may be needed to plug the perforations below the oil-
water contact zone and produce from above the watered-out zone. In many cases,
however, the water eventually covers the entire producing interval and a workover
is performed to totally abandon that zone and, if possible, produce from another
zone.
Lesson 1 1-7
Figure 1-4 Recompletion to a higher zone
In a recompletion from a higher to a lower zone where a plug is not used to isolate
the zone, several squeeze cement jobs may be required to isolate the upper zones
and seal the old perforations.
In most wells, an extra rathole (a space below the perforations) is drilled below the
lowest production zone. A rathole provides clearance to run logging tools, collect
produced formation material, or allow tubing-conveyed perforating guns (TCPs) to
fall below the perforations. In some cases, bridge plugs or wireline plugs cannot be
recovered from the wellbore, so the rathole provides a space for disposing of these
plugs below the lowest-producing level where they will not affect production.
Lesson 1 1-9
Increase Production from an Existing Zone
Production in a damaged or low-producing zone can be increased by one or more of
the following techniques.
Hydraulic Fracturing
In some wells it is necessary to intentionally fracture a formation to provide a
deeper flow path for oil and gas into the wellbore. Fracture (“frac”) fluids include
oil, water, acid, emulsions, foams, or combinations of these. The frac fluids are
pumped downhole under high pressure at a high rate of flow to fracture the
formation. These frac fluids include finely grained particles called proppants.
Proppants are made from sand particles of a controlled size or sintered bauxite
(aluminum ore). The proppant remains in the fracture to help hold the fracture open
after pump pressure is bled off.
An acid fracture job (often called “acid frac”) involves pumping a gelled acid at a
pressure above the formation fracture limit. The gel creates a fracture, and the acid
etches the rock surfaces, creating an irregular pattern. No proppant is used in an acid
frac. When the earth’s forces cause the fracture to close, the uneven surface of the
frac faces will not match and a new conduit for oil and gas is formed.
CO2 injection (or “CO2 flood”) is a process by which carbon dioxide gas is injected
into the reservoir to replenish drive energy and recover additional oil that would
have otherwise been left in the reservoir. CO2 is often present in certain gas
reservoirs in conjunction with hydrocarbon gas. Gas processing plants separate the
CO2 from the hydrocarbon gas and send it to pipelines for transport to the field for
injection. CO2 injection has been used for years in certain mature oilfields such as
the Permian Basin in the southern United States.
Lesson 1 1-11
Another example of a well conversion workover would be to reconfigure a well to
inject produced water down the tubing and into the formation. Special regulators are
installed in the completion string with wireline that control the volume of water
injected to preengineered limits.
Lesson 1 1-13
Conventional Workover
Key Points
1 Well is killed and barriers are installed and tested.
2 Christmas tree is removed.
3 BOP equipment is nippled up and tested. For testing procedures, see “BOP
Equipment Testing” on page 6-49.
4 Pipe or tubing is used as work string.
Key Points
1 Workover is done through Christmas tree and tubing bore.
2 Small tubing or coiled tubing is commonly used.
3 Well may or may not have pressure.
4 BOPs are installed above tree (see “Workover Implementation” on page 8-11).
Lesson 1 1-15
Wireline Workover
Key Points
1 Workover is completed through Christmas tree.
2 Wireline is used instead of work string.
3 Well may or may not have pressure.
4 Lubricator is installed.
Key Points
1 Workover is completed through Christmas tree.
2 Well generally has pressure.
3 Existing tubing is used as work string.
4 Workover unit is used primarily to kill producing wells.
Lesson 1 1-17
1-18 Well Control for Workover Operations
WELL CONTROL PRINCIPLES AND
2
CALCULATIONS
Lesson Overview
During a workover procedure the well-site supervisor (WSS) and crew must contain
the formation fluids within the formation while remedial work is being carried out.
An undesired flow of these fluids into the wellbore is called a kick. If a kick fluid
enters and moves up the wellbore, it has a tendency to expand and unload fluid
above it. This may result in an uncontrolled and potentially dangerous flow of
formation fluids from the wellbore. There are three main goals of well control:
• Prevention of kicks by maintaining wellbore hydrostatic pressure at a level
equal to or slightly greater than formation pressure (primary well control)
• Early detection of kicks that do occur
• Initiation of corrective action to prevent kicks from developing into
uncontrolled flow
In order to accomplish these goals, the WSS first needs a clear understanding of the
basic physical principles of well control and the calculations required to apply these
principles. This knowledge allows the supervisor to relate the data from surface
indicators (e.g., gauge readings, fluid tank levels) to the situation downhole (e.g.,
pressures, volumes, fluid types) and take corrective action.
By applying the appropriate principles and calculations to the well control situation,
the supervisor should be able to:
• Correctly interpret surface indicator data.
Lesson 2 2-1
• Eliminate small problems before they become bigger problems on the surface.
• Determine the controls needed to execute a workover kill operation.
• Choose the appropriate well control procedure for a given situation.
• Diagnose problems during well control procedures and take corrective action.
Lesson Objectives
After reading this lesson and completing its workbook assignment, you should be
able to:
• Describe the basic well control principles commonly used in the oilfield (e.g.,
the U-tube concept, friction pressure distribution in a wellbore, and additive
wellbore hydrostatic pressures).
• Select and correctly use the appropriate well control formulas—given the well
control information found on the rig (e.g., gauge readings, fluid densities, depth
measurements, etc.)—to determine what is occurring in the wellbore.
• Calculate the quantities, volumes, pressures, and rates required to handle well
control operations on the rig.
• Formation • Displacement
pressure volumes
• MASP
The SITP gauge is connected to the bore of the tubing or work string (see Fig. 2-2).
How you use the SITP reading depends on the circulation path that will be used to
control the well. If the circulation is forward (down the tubing and up the annulus),
you will generally control the well over the long term with the tubing gauge. (In
addition to the SITP reading, you will use the SICP reading to assist in initially
Lesson 2 2-3
establishing circulation, which is called “bringing the well on choke.”) You will
also use the SITP reading to estimate pressure at the bottom of the hole and to
calculate the fluid weight needed to balance the well.
The SICP gauge is connected to the annulus (see Fig. 2-2). How you use the SICP
reading also depends on the circulation path that will be used to control the well. If
the circulation path is reverse (down the annulus and up the tubing), you will
generally control the well over the long term with the annulus gauge. (In this
situation, you will use the SITP gauge reading to bring the well on choke.) During
certain specialized well control procedures, the SICP gauge reading is used to
control bottomhole pressure when fluid must be pumped into the top of the well or
bled out of the well (see “Volumetric Method” on page 3-40).
Friction Pressure
Energy is required to move fluid through the wellbore at a certain rate.In order to
move, the fluid must overcome the frictional forces between the particles of the
fluid itself and between the fluid and the surfaces it contacts (tubing wall, annulus
walls, and string restrictions). The pump generates energy to overcome this friction;
this energy is commonly called friction pressure or “pump pressure.”
Friction Principles
1 The total friction pressure (or pump pressure) is sum of the individual frictional
resistances along the fluid flow path. Resistance is found in:
• The surface lines from the pump to the rig floor
• The tubing or work string
• The annulus
• Internal string restrictions such as selective landing nipples and sliding
sleeves (Fig. 6-3 and Fig. 6-14)
In a workover with typical completion geometry, 65–95% of the friction is
generated in the tubing and the remainder in the annulus. This is due to a higher
fluid velocity inside the smaller tubing diameter compared with that in the larger
annulus.
2 The total friction (and hence the pump pressure) does not change with the
circulation path. The total friction is the same forwards or backwards (3+2 =
2+3). The pump pressure will be the same whether forward circulating (down
tubing, up annulus) or reverse circulating (down annulus, up tubing).
3 The frictional pressure applied to points downhole does change with the
circulation path. When the fluid leaves the pump, its energy is progressively
used up. The energy (friction pressure) that has been used cannot exert force on
the wellbore or formation; only the remaining energy can. Said another way, the
pressure exerted on any point in the wellbore is equal to the sum of the frictional
resistances downstream (ahead) of that point. In reverse circulation, the friction
pressure exerted on the formation perfs (just outside the mouth of the tubing)
equals the total downstream resistance (i.e., the tubing friction). This can be a
significant amount of pressure. In forward circulation, the tubing friction
pressure is expended by the time the fluid reaches the end of the tubing; it is not
“felt” by the formation perfs. What is felt is the total downstream friction at that
point, i.e., the annulus friction pressure, which is generally less.
Lesson 2 2-5
Figure 2-3 Tubing/annulus friction pressure distribution
According to the first two principles, the indicated pump pressure is the same for
both forward and reverse circulation (a sum total of 1,000 psi). Notice, however,
that the friction pressure exerted on the formation is considerably different.The
formation is exposed to 750 psi friction pressure in reverse circulation, but only 200
psi in forward circulation. The third principle explains this difference: when the
fluid leaves the pump, friction is lost along its path until it reaches the bottom of the
hole. In forward circulation, 50 psi pump line friction plus 750 psi tubing friction is
lost. This leaves 200 psi, which is the downstream pressure exposed to the
formation, as stated in the third principle above. In reverse circulation, only 250 psi
is lost by the time the fluid reaches bottom, leaving 750 psi downstream pressure at
the mouth of the tubing. The 750 psi is exposed to the formation (550 psi higher
than forward circulation).
The WSS needs to be aware of this invisible effect when choosing the circulation
path. Although the pressure differential cannot be seen on the pump gauge (it reads
Note that the example in Fig. 2-3 is an open well that is being circulated. Shut-in
wells in the circulating condition are covered later in this lesson (see “Dynamic
Pressure Analysis” on page 2-34). The friction pressure principles still apply, but
they are easier to understand in the open well case, which is mathematically
simpler.
Depending on your geographic location, you will hear other terms used to describe
friction pressure—“friction drop,” “pressure drop,” “friction loss,” “dynamic
pressure,” and “ECD.” ECD (equivalent circulating density) is not a correct
synonym for friction pressure, however. ECD is actually the sum of the fluid weight
plus the “equivalent” weight of the friction pressure.
The values used for the friction pressures in the previous example are illustrative
values only, not actual values. At the well site, you should use a computerized
hydraulics program to determine friction pressures for the well, based on the
specific wellbore geometry and fluid properties that you have supplied. (Even
though these calculations can be done manually, it is a tedious process and prone to
math mistakes.)
In the examples that follow, field units (English) will be used. (For metric unit
conversion factors, see “Conversion Factors” on page A-10 in the Appendix.)
Lesson 2 2-7
Hydrostatic Pressure and Pressure Gradient
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid due to its own
weight. The amount of pressure is dependent on the density (weight) of the fluid,
expressed in pounds per gallon (ppg), and the vertical height of the fluid column,
based on true vertical depth (TVD). TVD is the depth of a well measured from the
surface straight to the bottom of the well, as opposed to the length of the wellbore,
or measured depth (MD). All wells have both measurements. In a vertical well,
TVD and MD will be the same, but in a deviated wellbore the two measurements
will not be equal (Fig. 2-4). To determine hydrostatic pressure, always use TVD.
Figure 2-4 True vertical depth (TVD) and measured depth (MD)
Example 1:
Given: A 10,000 ft TVD well contains 10.0 ppg workover fluid.
Find: Hydrostatic pressure
Solution: Hydrostatic Pressure = 10,000 × 10 × 0.052* = 5,200 psi
Example 2:
Given: A deviated well of 8,000 ft TVD and 10,200 ft MD. The well
contains10.2 ppg of workover fluid.
Find: Hydrostatic pressure at bottom of well
Solution: Hydrostatic Pressure = 10.2 × 0.052* × 8,000 = 4,243 psi
*conversion factor to yield psi
A pressure gradient (or simply gradient) is a measure of the pressure exerted by one
foot of a vertical column of fluid. The gradient is expressed in psi/ft. Therefore, if a
fluid had a gradient of 1 psi/ft, then a 10,000-foot column of this fluid would exert
10,000 psi (10,000 × 1 psi/ft). If the fluid had a gradient of 0.5 psi/ft, then a 10,000-
foot column would exert 5,000 psi (10,000 × 0.5), and so on.
Gradient is commonly reported in wellbore data and is the basis for many oilfield
calculations. Formation data, completion data, and workover fluid data are often
reported as gradients as a matter of convenience.The WSS must know how to
manipulate the gradient to perform various calculations.
Lesson 2 2-9
Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) = Fluid Weight (ppg) × 0.052
Fluid Weight (ppg) = Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) ÷ 0.052
Example 1:
Given: Workover fluid with a density of 9.6 ppg
Find: Pressure gradient of the fluid
Solution: Pressure Gradient = 9.6 × 0.052 = 0.499 psi/ft
Example 2:
Given: Workover fluid with a gradient of 0.530 psi/ft
Find: Fluid weight (density)
Solution: Fluid Weight = 0.530 ÷ 0.052 = 10.192 = 10.2 ppg
The fluid weight in Example 2 is rounded to 10.2 ppg. Rounding up to the nearest
tenth is standard practice because fluid densities can be measured only to this level
of accuracy on the rig.
In addition to using pressure gradient to find fluid weight, you can use it to help
determine the hydrostatic pressure of the well fluid. Hydrostatic pressure is
calculated in different ways, depending on the known data—such as the pressure
gradient of the workover fluid and the TVD of the well.
Example:
Given: Workover fluid with a gradient of 0.520 psi/ft at 8,762 ft TVD
Find: Hydrostatic pressure of the fluid
Solution: Hydrostatic Pressure = 0.520 × 8,762 = 4,556.24 = 4,556 psi
After the density has been corrected for temperature, the hydrostatic pressure can be
calculated using the following formula:
141.5
Hydrostatic Pressure = ------------------------------ × .433 × TVD
( 131.5 + API corrected )
For an example of crude oil density and pressure calculations, see Summary of
Equations on page A-2 in the Appendix.
Lesson 2 2-11
Equivalent Fluid Weight (FW)
Pressures, expressed in psi units, are often converted to their fluid weight
“equivalents” (expressed in ppg units) for the convenience of simplifying
comparisons between downhole pressures and the fluid weight required to balance
those pressures. The pressures most commonly converted to an equivalent fluid
weight include gauge pressures, friction pressures, formation pressures, and test
pressures. Pressure gradients (expressed in units of psi/ft) can also be converted to
equivalent fluid weights.
Example 1:
Given: Shut-in tubing pressure (SITP) of 2,600 psi and a well depth of
9,854 ft TVD
Find: Equivalent fluid weight (FW)
Solution: Equivalent FW = 2,600 ÷ 9,854 ÷ 0.052 = 5.07 = 5.1 ppg
Example 2:
Given: Formation pressure gradient of 0.530 psi/ft
Find: Equivalent fluid weight of the formation
Solution: Equivalent FW = 0.530 ÷ 0.052 = 10.19 = 10.2 ppg
Once you have determined the balanced fluid weight of the formation, you can
compare it with the density of the fluid in the wellbore. It may be necessary to
weight up the fluid to that density to balance the formation pressure, which is an
important method of controlling formation fluids. (In the oilfield, the terms kill fluid
weight or simply “kill weight” are often used interchangeably to refer to the
balanced fluid weight. These terms are discussed in more detail in “Kill Fluid
Weight” on page 2-14.)
Example:
Given: Documented formation pressure of 9,800 psi for a well at
14,300 ft TVD
Find: Balanced fluid weight (FW)
Solution: Balanced FW = 9,800 ÷ 14,300 ÷ 0.052 = 13.179 ppg =
13.2 ppg
Lesson 2 2-13
Balanced Fluid Weight (with safety margin)
= ( Safety Margin (psi) + Formation Pressure (psi) ) ÷ TVD (ft) ÷ 0.052
Example:
Given: Documented formation pressure of 9,800 psi for a well at
14,300 ft TVD
Find: Balanced fluid weight (FW) with a 200 psi safety margin
Solution: Balanced FW = (200 + 9,800) ÷ 14,300 ÷ 0.052 = 13.45 =
13.5 ppg
In these examples, the difference between the overbalanced fluid weight and the
balanced fluid weight is 0.3 ppg (13.5 - 13.2 = 0.3), which might be referred to in
the field as 3 “points” of overbalance. A difference of, say, 2.0 ppg would be
referred to as 2 “pounds” of overbalance.
Example 1:
Find: Kill fluid weight at top perfs
Solution: Kill FW = (1,900 ÷10,570 ÷ 0.052)
+ 6.7 = 10.16 ppg = 10.2 ppg*
Example 2:
Find: Kill fluid weight at mid perfs
Solution: Kill FW = (1,900 ÷ 10,670 ÷ 0.052)
+ 6.7 = 10.12 ppg = 10.2 ppg*
Theoretically, the kill fluid weight calculated for the top set of perforations (top
perfs) should be higher than that for the middle set (mid perfs). Comparing
Examples 1 and 2 of the sample calculations above, however, shows that the
difference is insignificant. If the total length of perforations were greater than that in
the example, or if the perforation depth were much shallower, the difference could
be significant. Using the top perforation depth would be more conservative. Client
policy, however, may dictate calculating at certain points.
Lesson 2 2-15
Static Bottomhole Pressure
Static bottomhole pressure (BHP) is the pressure at the bottom of the wellbore when
the well is static (not circulating). In Fig. 2-5, the static BHP is equal to the SITP
plus the hydrostatic pressure of the oil column inside the tubing. If there were
several different fluids in the tubing, the static BHP would be the total of their
hydrostatic pressures plus the SITP. In a shut-in well in communication with the
perforations (that is, where there are no plugs or blocks and the pressure can be
transmitted freely), the static BHP is also equal to the formation pressure.
Calculating bottomhole pressure is important when killing wells. Later lessons will
describe methods for maintaining as well as manipulating bottomhole pressure.
Lesson 2 2-17
Static Well Analysis
The BHP of 5,231 psi pushes up on the annulus. Thus, the SICP represents
the BHP pushing up minus the total hydrostatic pressure in the annulus
pushing down. To calculate SICP, add all the individual pressures in the
annulus and subtract the total from the BHP, as follows:
These static well analysis calculations illustrate some very important principles. In
these examples the SICP is higher than the SITP because the column of fluids in the
annulus is lighter in weight than the fluid column in the tubing; thus, it pushes down
Understanding how the SICP and SITP reflect downhole conditions is essential for
the WSS. In a shut-in well, the total pressure on the tubing side (including the gauge
pressure) must balance the total pressure on the casing side (including the gauge
pressure). Stated another way, the SITP equals the bottomhole pressure minus the
total tubing hydrostatic pressure, and the SICP equals the bottomhole pressure
minus the total annulus hydrostatic pressure. This principle of balanced pressures is
referred to as the U-tube effect. The WSS must understand this principle to diagnose
downhole conditions and control the well. (See the workbook for practice problems
related to the U-tube effect.)
Since U-tube pressures are balanced and equal, you might wonder why all the
formulas above use readings from the tubing side for calculating values for kill fluid
weight, BHP, and so on. The reason is that, in most cases, you know with
reasonable accuracy the nature of the liquid in the tubing and its associated density,
whereas the annulus may be filled with mixtures of contaminated liquids and gas of
unknown quantities and densities and could lead you to err in determining kill fluid
weight and BHP. Generally you should use the tubing side to calculate both of these
measures.
Lesson 2 2-19
In the examples that follow, field units (English) will be used. (For metric unit
conversion factors, see “Conversion Factors” on page A-10 in the Appendix.)
Example:
Given: 10,000 ft of tubing with 2-3/8" OD ×
4.7 pounds per foot (ppf)
Find: Internal volume in bbls
Solution:
Capacity Factor = (1.995)2 ÷ 1029.4 =
0.00387 bbls/ft
Internal volume = 0.00387 × 10,000 =
38.7 bbls
*conversion factor to yield bbl/ft
The formulas used to calculate the capacity factor and volume of a drilled hole are
identical to those above for a workover operation.These drilling calculations would
be needed when deepening or sidetracking the well during a workover.
Example:
Given: 10,000 ft 2-3/8"; 4.7ppf tubing
inside 5-1/2"; 17 ppf casing
Find: Annular volume in bbls
Solution: Annular Capacity Factor =
(4.8922 - 2.3752) ÷ 1029.4 =
0.01777 bbl/ft
Annular Volume = 0.01777 × 10,000
= 178 bbls
Lesson 2 2-21
Displacement Volume
The displacement volume of a tubular is the amount of liquid the tubular displaces
when it is run into the hole. This volume is equal to the volume of steel in the
tubular. If tubing is run into the hole, the steel displaces liquid in an amount equal to
its displacement volume. Conversely, as tubing is pulled out of the hole, the liquid
fills in the void left by the tubing and the fluid level drops in proportion to the
displacement volume. “Closed-end displacement” refers to a situation in which the
tubing is plugged (intentionally or otherwise) when it is run into the hole. Because
fluid is not free to fill the inside of the tubing, the displacement volume increases
significantly.
The term displacement is often used to mean the unit displacement per foot of
tubing (bbl/ft), but it may also mean the total displacement volume in barrels.
Displacement factor is a more precise term for describing the unit displacement, and
displacement volume, or total displacement, for the total displacement volume.
Example 1:
Given: 10,000 ft of tubing 2-3/8" ID; 4.7 ppf
Find: Steel displacement volume in bbls
Displacement Factor = 4.7 ÷ 2750* =
0.00171 bbls/ft
Displacement Volume = 0.00171 × 10,000 =
17.1 bbls
Example 2:
Given: 10,000 ft of tubing 2-3/8" ID; 4.7 ppf
Find: Closed-end displacement in bbls
Displacement Factor = 2.3752 ÷ 1029.4 =
0.00548 bbl/ft
Displacement Volume = 0.00548 × 10,000 =
54.8 bbls
*2750 valid for steel only
**Considers tube only, not coupling
Lesson 2 2-23
Tubing, casing, and annular capacity factors and displacement factors can also be
found in tables in the Schlumberger Cementing Services Manual. It is useful to
know how to calculate these factors, however, if you are using a tubular size that is
not included in the manual or if the manual is not available.
Tank Volume (cubic feet or ft3) = Length (ft) × Width (ft) × Depth (ft)
Example:
Given: Rig tank measuring 20' 10" L × 8' 0" W × 6' 3" H
Find: Tank volume and tank capacity factor
Solution:
Convert dimensions to decimals
20'10" = 20 + 10/12 = 20.83'
8' 0" = 8.0'
6' 3" = 6 + 3/12 = 6.25'
Tank Volume (ft3) = 20.83 × 8.0 × 6.25 = 1,041.5 ft3
Tank Volume (bbls) = 1,041.5 ÷ 5.61 = 185.65 bbls
Tank Capacity Factor = 185.65 ÷ 6.25 ÷ 12 = 2.46 = 2.5 bbl/in
*conversion factor to convert cubic feet to bbl
The tank volume equation above will work for a cube-shaped tank as well; the
length and width would simply be the same number. The equations for calculating
capacity factors and volumes of cylindrical vertical tanks are found in “Summary of
Equations” on page A-2 in the Appendix.
Pump Output
The WSS must be able to determine the pump output (volume per pump stroke) of
the positive displacement pumps on the rig. Although pump manufacturers provide
output information, it may not be available at the rig site or it may no longer be
Lesson 2 2-25
accurate due to pump wear or poor maintenance. If the measured output is 25% less
than the rated output, the integrity of the pump is questionable.
During a well control operation, it is imperative for the WSS to base calculations
and pump rate selection on true pump output and not the manufacturer’s data or a
number believed to be correct by the rig crew. Pump output calculations vary
somewhat, depending on whether the pump is equipped with a stroke counter.
Procedure:
1 Zero the stroke counter.
2 Pump a measurable volume, 5 or 10 bbls, into a calibrated tank.
3 Record the number of strokes pumped.
4 Calculate the output.
Example:
Given: 5 bbls, pumped into a calibrated tank; 71 strokes recorded
Find: Actual pump output in bbl/stroke
Solution: Pump Output = 5 ÷ 71 = 0.070 bbl/stroke
The workover procedure may call for pumping at a certain volume rate in barrels
per minute (bpm). Even if a rig has a stroke counter, you cannot accurately calculate
bpm without knowing that the pump is putting out the correct volume per stroke. To
ensure accuracy, the actual output is used to calculate the required pump speed,
expressed in strokes per minute (spm).
Example:
Given: Workover procedure requiring volume rate of 3.0 bpm; actual
pump output of 0.070 bbl/stroke (see previous example)
Find: Required pump speed in spm
Solution: Required Pump Speed = 3.0 bpm ÷ 0.070 bbl/stroke = 42.9 =
43 spm
Lesson 2 2-27
Actual Pump Rate (bpm) = barrel increase in tank ÷ minutes pumped
Procedure:
1 Align pump to pump from one tank and discharge to another tank that is
calibrated to measure volume.
2 Have the rig contractor operate the pump at the rate he believes it is
operating (e.g., 2 bpm). An experienced contractor’s estimate will usually
be close to the actual rate.
3 Pump at the above rate for an even increment of time (e.g., 1 minute, 5
minutes, etc.).
4 Record barrel increase in discharge tank.
5 Calculate actual pump rate.
Example:
Given: Pump operated at a rate of 2 bpm for 5.0 minutes, with increase of
9.5 bbls
Find: Actual pump rate in bpm
Solution: Actual Pump Rate = 9.5 bbl ÷ 5.0 min = 1.9 bpm
Find: Tank calibration (bbls/in), bbls required, actual pump output, total
strokes, required pump speed, and total minutes
Solution:
1. Tank calibration
Volume (ft3) = 8.0 × 15.0 × 6.5 = 780.0 ft3
Volume (bbls) = 780.0 ÷ 5.61 = 139.04 bbls
Required volume bbls/in = 139.04 ÷ 6.5 ÷ 12 = 1.78 bbls/in
2. Bbls required
Tubing Capacity Factor = 2.9922 ÷ 1029.4 = 0.00870 bbl/ft
Tubing Volume = 0.00870 × 12,200 = 106.1 bbl
Annulus Capacity Factor = (6.9952 - 3.52) ÷ 1029.4 = 0.03563 bbl/ft
Annular Volume = 0.03563 × 12,200 = 434.7 bbl
Total bbls required = 434.7 + 106.1 = 540.8 = 541 bbls
Lesson 2 2-29
Hydrostatic Pressure Loss When Pulling Pipe
The calculations and concepts in this section combine principles for hydrostatic
pressure, displacements, and capacities. It is important to remember that the
hydrostatic pressure in the well drops when the fluid level drops while pulling
production tubing from the hole. You must also be able to quantify (put a number
to) the loss of hydrostatic pressure when the fluid level drops. If you are unaware of
this effect or ignore it for too long, the well can become underbalanced and begin to
flow. You could experience a kick or even a blowout. Fatalities, environmental
damage, well damage, and loss of rigs have occurred because the hydrostatic
pressure drop was not carefully monitored and controlled.
As you pull tubing from a well, you remove steel volume from the liquid in the hole,
and the liquid level drops to fill in this space. A drop in liquid level reduces
hydrostatic pressure and thus bottomhole pressure. If the level drops both inside and
outside the tubing, you are pulling dry pipe. The hydrostatic pressure loss caused by
pulling dry pipe is given below.
Hydrostatic Pressure Loss = Fluid Level Drop (ft) × Fluid Weight (ppg)
× 0.052
Example:
Given: 1,000 ft of tubing with 2-7/8" OD and 6.5 ppf inside casing with
5-1/2" ID and 17 ppf (4.892" ID), 10.2 ppg completion fluid in wellbore
Find: Fluid level drop and loss of hydrostatic pressure
Solution:
( 6.5 ÷ 2750 ) × 1,000
Fluid Level Drop = ---------2-------------
2
---------------------------2--------------
( 4.892 – 2.875 ÷ 1029.4 ) + ( 2.441 ÷ 1029.4 )
0.00236 × 1,000
= ------------------------ = 112.33 ft
0.01522 + 0.00579
As the example shows, if you pull 1,000 feet of tubing without filling the hole, you
lose 60 psi hydrostatic pressure due to fluid level drop. Even more important; you
would lose 60 psi of bottomhole pressure, which might be enough to cause the well
to flow, depending on the well condition.
Lesson 2 2-31
Hydrostatic Pressure Loss (Wet Pipe)
2
( ( Tubing wt/ft ÷ 2750 ) + ( Tubing ID ÷ 1029.4 ) ) × Length Pulled
-----------------------------------2--------------------
2
---------------------------------
( Casing ID – Tubing OD ) ÷ 1029.4
Example:
Given: 1,000 ft of 2-7/8"OD, 6.5 ppf tubing (2.441" ID) inside 5-1/2" ID,
17 ppf casing (4.892" ID), 10.2 ppg completion fluid in wellbore
Find: Fluid level drop and loss of hydrostatic pressure
Solution:
2
( ( 6.5 ÷ 2750 ) + ( 2.441 ÷ 1029.4 ) ) × 1,000
Fluid Level Drop = --------------------2-------------
2
-------------------------
( 4.892 – 2.875 ) ÷ 1029.4
* Compare this hydrostatic pressure loss to that of the dry pipe example. The
tubular sizes and fluid weights are identical, yet the hydrostatic pressure loss is
over four times as great. Since you are pulling the contents of the pipe out of
the hole as well as the metal, the displacement for wet pipe is significantly
higher than that for dry. Therefore the fluid level drop and resulting hydrostatic
pressure loss are proportionally higher.
Sample Regulation: “When coming out of the hole with a work string, the
annulus shall be filled with well control fluid before the change in fluid level
decreases the hydrostatic pressure by 75 psi. The number of stands (or feet)
that may be pulled and the equivalent well control fluid volume shall be
calculated and posted near the driller’s station.”
3.048 × 2750
Equivalent Length = ----------------- = 1, 290ft
6.5
Lesson 2 2-33
Dynamic Pressure Analysis
So far, this lesson has presented only static bottomhole pressure calculations. As
stated earlier, static bottomhole pressure refers to the pressure at the bottom of the
hole (or pressure acting against the formation) with the pumps off. As you learned
earlier, however, friction pressure caused by moving fluid exerts additional pressure
downhole. Therefore, when the pumps are running, as will be the case in most
workover kill procedures, you can expect extra pressure downhole. This pressure, in
addition to the hydrostatic pressure of the workover fluid, will create circulating
bottomhole pressure. As mentioned earlier, the magnitude of the pressure will
depend on the circulation path. Furthermore, the extra frictional pressure downhole
is “invisible” on the surface—it cannot be read on the pump gauge. Understanding
wellbore physics is important if you are to control downhole conditions. Fig. 2-10
and the sample calculation illustrate this concept.
Lesson 2 2-35
Circulating Bottomhole Pressure
Given: Tubing friction = 2,400 psi; annulus friction = 300 psi; hydrostatic
pressure = 5,200 psi (see Fig. 2-10)
Solution:
1. Forward circulation
Circulating BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure + Annulus Friction Loss
Circulating BHP = 5,200 psi + 300 psi = 5,500 psi
Pump Pressure = Total Friction = 300 psi + 2,400 psi = 2,700 psi
2. Reverse circulation
Circulating BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure + Tubing Friction Loss
Circulating BHP = 5,200 psi + 2,400 psi = 7,600 psi
Pump Pressure = Total Friction = 2,400 psi + 300 psi = 2,700 psi
Note that in Fig. 2-10 the surface indicators (pump pressures) are identical but the
bottomhole pressures differ by 2,100 psi (7,600 - 5,500 = 2,100). As discussed in a
later lesson (see “Reverse Circulation Method” on page 3-19), there are valid
reasons for choosing reverse circulation over forward, but you must be aware that
the two paths can produce significant differences in bottomhole pressure.
Reverse circulation does not always yields higher bottomhole pressures. In a well
with large tubing and a relatively small annulus, as in a high-volume gas well
completion, reverse circulation would actually yield a lower bottomhole pressure.
Bottomhole pressure is a function of the relative frictional pressures, not merely the
circulation path.
Pressure Force
The force created by wellbore pressure, often referred to as pressure force, can be a
safety concern to people and equipment. The WSS must know where pressure force
exists, the extent of the force, and how to avoid its effects.
Example:
Given: Plugged pipe with 5" OD
Find: Cross-sectional area (in2)
Solution: Area = 0.7854 × 52 = 19.64 in2
Lesson 2 2-37
Pressure Force (pounds) =
Pressure (psi) × Area (in2)
Example:
Given: Closed-end pipe with area
of 19.64 in2, shut-in BOP under
3,000 psi
Find: Pressure force on pipe
Solution: 3,000 × 19.64 =
58,920 lbs of upward force
The total upward force generated on the pipe in the example above is 58,920
pounds. Because the force is coming from the bottom of the hole toward the surface,
it is trying to eject the pipe from the hole. In fact, the pipe would be ejected from the
hole if the sum of the weight of the pipe and the frictional force of the BOP ram
rubbers totaled less than 58,920 pounds. Although this is a simplified example, it
illustrates why the WSS must be aware of these pressure forces when performing
workover operations.
Differential Force
A differential force (or delta force) exists when the force acting on an object in one
direction is different from that acting in the opposite direction. Fig. 2-13 illustrates
differential force on a plug placed in a tubing bore during a workover. The net force
on the plug is equal to the difference in formation pressure force pushing upward
and the force of the hydrostatic pressure of the tubing fluid pushing downward
(sometimes called delta pressure). In this example the differential force is 22,500
pounds. If the plug were released suddenly, it would be propelled up the hole.
Therefore it is standard practice to equalize the pressure across these plugs before
attempting to release them. A lubricator assembly should also be installed.
Differential force can also exist across downhole packers. The magnitude of this
force on packers can be much larger than that of plugs due to the larger cross-
sectional area of the packers. Differential forces on packers can be hundreds of
thousands of pounds. Sand bridges sometimes occur inside tubing that completely
block the tubing bore, thus isolating the tubing above the bridge from formation
pressure. Tremendous differential forces can build up across these bridges. The
WSS must be aware of this possibility and plan to keep adequate fluid weight on top
of the bridge before it is penetrated to prevent damage to equipment or loss of well
control.
Lesson 2 2-39
The Barrier Concept
While a workover is in progress, physical barriers are necessary to prevent kicks
because the usual controls and conditions that prevent kicks during drilling are not
present. Workover conditions that differ from drilling conditions include the
following:
• Formations are more permeable since they have been perforated, stimulated, or
hydraulically fractured.
• Overbalanced conditions sustained in drilling are difficult to sustain in
workover wellbores that contain open, permeable zones.
• Workovers do not normally use a solids-laden fluid to deposit an impermeable
filter cake, so the formation is more likely to take fluid, resulting in a loss of
hydrostatic column height and possibly a loss of primary well control.
Standard IPM-ST-WCI-012 requires at least two barriers at all times. The WSS
should review this entire standard to ensure compliance with all its conditions. (For
a list of standards applicable to workovers, see “IPM Standards” on page A-14 in
the Appendix.)
where
P1 = initial gas pressure (psi)
V1 = initial gas volume (bbls)
P2 = final gas pressure (psi)
V2 = final gas volume (bbls)
For simplicity, the equation here does not include the effects of compressibility and
temperature.
As the equation shows, gas pressure and gas volume are related:
• If the pressure on the gas decreases, its volume must increase and vice versa.
• If the volume of a gas increases, its pressure must decrease and vice versa.
• If the volume of a gas remains the same, its pressure will remain the same.
Lesson 2 2-41
Example:
Lesson 2 2-43
either. The gas moves up the wellbore at its original pressure. This has a detrimental
effect, increasing the pressure at every point in the wellbore, including the pressure
on the casing, the tubing, the formation, the surface gauges, and the bottomhole
pressure.
Example:
Lesson 2 2-45
2-46 Well Control for Workover Operations
WELL CONTROL PROCEDURES
3
Lesson Overview
A conventional workover usually begins with a well control procedure or a well kill
through the Christmas tree to establish primary well control. Primary well control is
the maintenance of fluid hydrostatic pressure greater than formation pressure. The
well is then secured with mechanical barriers, the Christmas tree is removed, and
the BOPs are installed and tested. The workover then continues with a “quiet” well
under primary well control. Unfortunately, many workover well conditions are not
favorable for primary well control. These workover conditions include the loss of
clear fluid into open perfs, swabbing due to tight mechanical clearances, and the
presence of wellbore gas when clear fluids are in the hole. The gas will migrate
quickly up the hole and expand, making primary well control difficult. Any of these
conditions can lead to well flow, which will require shutting in the well and killing
it a second time before operations can continue.
The kill procedures in this lesson fall into the category of secondary well control.
Secondary well control is applied when primary well control is lost or cannot be
maintained. Secondary well control involves using additional mechanical barriers
such as BOPs and tree valves along with the rig pumps and a high-pressure
circulating system as well as specific procedures to control pressure and reestablish
primary well control.
Lesson 3 3-1
• Avoid additional kicks.
• Reestablish primary well control.
• Avoid excessive surface and downhole pressures.
In drilling, most wells are drilled to total depth (TD) without the need for a well kill.
Workovers, however, present many “opportunities” for a well kill. It is very
important, therefore, that you be familiar with all of the well control procedures
presented in this lesson and to be able to execute them correctly.
Lesson Objectives
After reading this lesson and completing its workbook assignment, you should be
able to:
• Define the terms primary well control and secondary well control.
• Describe the procedures for recording slow circulating rate pressures (SCRPs)
and understand their purpose.
• Correctly describe how to shut in a well.
• Describe procedures for bleeding trapped pressure from a well.
• Describe the procedure for obtaining SITP with a back-pressure valve or check
valve in the work string.
• Describe applications and procedures and correctly execute calculations for the
following well control methods:
• Wait-and-weight
• Constant pump pressure
• Reverse circulation
• Bullheading
• Describe the following procedures for controlling gas migration:
• Constant tubing pressure method
• Volumetric method
SCRP is defined as the pump pressure at any rate that is less than the normal
circulating rate used to do work on a well when the well is open. Wells are killed at
these slower speeds to improve control when operating the choke, to limit the
amount of friction pressure imposed on the formation, and to slow down the rate at
which wellbore gas loads up the surface handling system.
After the workover crew initially kills the well and replaces the tubing with a work
string, they record a group of three or four SCRPs and their corresponding pump
pressures. The crew also takes the SCRPs when there is a change in fluid density,
viscosity, or type; a change in work string ID, OD, or length; or a change in an
internal restriction. For example, if a milling job will require a bottomhole assembly
(BHA) of a few drill collars and a mill, the geometry of the string would differ from
an open-ended string (which may have been initially run in the hole). In this case,
the crew would need to take additional SCRPs. Or if the crew ran an appreciable
length of wash pipe, the string geometry would be sufficiently different to have a
noticeable effect on circulating pressures and would require additional SCRPs.
Table 3-1 shows an example of recorded SCRPs.
Lesson 3 3-3
Table 3-1 Typical Kill Rate Pressures
SPM BPM PSI
30 1.0 630
40 1.4 1180
50 1.8 1890
Shut-in Procedures
The importance of containing a kick and keeping the influx volume to a minimum
cannot be overemphasized. Large kicks lead to high wellbore and surface pressures
and large volumes of kick fluids that must be handled on the surface. The shut-in, or
containment, procedures can vary, depending on the type of equipment in use and
the operation in progress at the time of the kick, whether on-bottom circulating or
tripping. The shut-in procedures explained below apply to a conventional workover
rig. Due to the limited wellbore volumes available in a completed well or one being
worked over, it is imperative that minimal time be expended in shutting in a well.
The rig crew will carry out these procedures; the WSS must ensure the crew is
competent and prepared to do so. The WSS’s responsibilities are detailed in Lesson
8, “WSS Roles and Responsibilities.”
It should be noted that in the drilling industry, these procedures would be regarded
as “hard” shut-ins (i.e., the choke is in the closed position when BOPs are closed).
In workover well control, however, the terms “hard” and “soft” are not applied to
shut-in procedures, and the procedures do not have names.
*If pipe rams are used, make sure the string is at a height that avoids closing the
pipe ram on a tool joint or tubing connection across the stack. You should know this
height in advance.
Check the well for flow; if it is flowing, use the following steps to shut in the well:
1 Position a connection for stabbing at rig floor.
2 Install open work string safety valve. Close valve with a wrench.
3 Close annular BOP. If there is no annular BOP, use the pipe rams.*
4 If the work string is less than 3,000 feet long, or if there is a packer on the tubing
string, space out the work string and close and lock a pipe ram.**
Lesson 3 3-5
5 Open the choke line valves on the stack to gain access to casing pressure.
6 Notify the WSS that the well is shut in.
7 Read and record SITP, SICP, and pit gain.
*If pipe rams are used, make sure the string is at a height that avoids closing the
pipe ram on a tool joint or tubing connection across the stack. You should know this
height in advance.
**Locking the pipe ram resists the force of the wellbore pressure as it attempts to
eject the string from the well.
Follow these steps before reopening the well for normal workover operations:
1 Check the tubing string pressure gauge by opening its needle valve. If no
pressure registers on the gauge, check for flow past the safety valve.
2 Check the annulus pressure gauge. If no pressure registers, check for annular
flow. Normally you check for flow through the choke manifold.
3 If there is no pressure or flow on either the tubing or the annulus, is it safe to
open the well. If there is pressure or flow, you must kill the well with the
appropriate procedure before proceeding. (Kill procedures will be discussed
later in this lesson.)
Lesson 3 3-7
The following procedures can be used to detect the presence of trapped pressure and
to remedy the situation if any is found. Perform this trapped pressure check only
after surface pressures have stabilized (after an initial period of rapid buildup).
Fig. 3-1 and Fig. 3-2 provide graphic representations of the bleeding process and
accompanying SITP and SICP readings.
Figure 3-1 Pressure profile during bleeding with mechanically induced kick
Figure 3-2 Pressure profile during bleeding with light fluid in the hole
In Fig. 3-2, the SITP did not bleed to 0 psi, presenting clear evidence that the fluid
in the hole is lighter than required. Although rare, this can occur when light fluid is
pumped into the well, creating a reduction in overall hydrostatic pressure and
causing a kick.
Use the following procedure to pump the valve open and determine the SITP:
Lesson 3 3-9
1 Line up the manifold to pump into the tubing and monitor the gauge.
2 Slowly pump into the tubing (e.g., at a rate of 1/4 to 1/2 bpm); the pressure will
increase. When the BPV first opens, the pressure will stop rising momentarily
(the gauge needle “stutters” or hesitates).
3 Record the exact SITP pressure reading when the gauge needle hesitates.
Continued pumping at this point will further increase the pressure and is not useful.
If there is a computer logging service on location, request a plot of pump pressure
versus strokes. It is easy to see the pressure stabilization point on a graph (it looks
very similar to the breakover point in the leak-off test done in drilling).
Wait-and-Weight Method
This well control method had its beginnings in the drilling industry and is widely
used in that arena. Although it is not the predominant kill method in workover well
control, it can be used. For a description of this method in a workover, see “Well
Scenario: Wait-and-Weight Method” on page 3-15.
The name of the method is indicative of what happens—you wait until the fluid is
weighted up to the correct density and then kill the well. Whether the fluid density
should be increased is determined by the stable SITP reading. If the SITP does not
bleed to 0 psi (after a check for trapped pressure), then the fluid density is
insufficient and must be weighted up. The density can become insufficient for the
following reasons:
• Mismanagement of the fluid on the surface, resulting in light fluid being
pumped downhole.
• Formation fluid contamination of the fluid in the tubing.
• Penetration of a zone of higher formation pressure, as when sidetracking or
washing through sand plugs.
Lesson 3 3-11
Additionally, the WSS must generate a circulating “pressure schedule” and use it to
monitor the tubing pressure while displacing the tubing string. Tubing pressure will
gradually decrease as the tubing string is displaced to kill fluid—that is, filled with
kill weight fluid. This decrease in tubing pressure is the result of kill fluid
hydrostatic pressure replacing the original underbalance shown on the tubing gauge.
Wait-and-Weight Procedure
Follow these steps to kill a well with the wait-and-wait method:
1 Calculate and increase the fluid weight to kill value (see Fig. 2-5).
2 Create a tubing pressure reduction schedule (see Fig. 3-5). Monitor the well for
gas migration. Use the choke to maintain tubing pressure within 50–100 psi
above the original SITP.
3 Line up the manifolds and the pump to circulate kill fluid down the tubing and
take returns from the annulus.
4 Bring the pump to the predetermined kill speed (one of the speeds at which
SCRPs were taken) while holding the annulus pressure constant with the choke.
These steps will establish initial circulating pressure (ICP) on the tubing gauge.
If the value observed on the gauge does not agree with the calculated value, use
the observed value. Verify the observed reading by repeating the startup
procedure. If you obtain the same reading a second time, consider it valid. You
will have to modify the tubing pressure schedule so it reflects the new value. Do
not change the pressure gauge reading (with the choke) to fit the pressure
schedule. Change the pressure schedule to fit the observed gauge reading. This
can be done quickly without stopping circulation.
5 Circulate the kill fluid to the end of the tubing following the pressure schedule
from ICP to final circulating pressure (FCP).
6 Once the kill fluid is in the annulus, hold the tubing pressure constant at FCP
until the kill fluid returns to the surface.
7 Shut down the pumps and check for well flow. Close the choke and check for
pressure on the tubing or casing gauge.
Fig. 3-4 shows the pressure profiles for the wait-and-weight method. Note the
sloped portion of the pump pressure line between ICP and FCP. This portion
pertains to the pressure reduction schedule you will create. Also note that FCP is
reached when the kill fluid reaches the end of the tubing. At this point, continue
Wait-and-Weight Calculations
1 Obtain accurate SITP and SICP readings.
2 Calculate tubing or work string volume in barrels or strokes (see Fig. 2-7).
Record this number on the pressure reduction schedule (step 1 on the schedule
in Fig. 3-5).
3 Calculate Kill Fluid Weight. (Use the appropriate equation depending on
information available.)
Kill FW = (SITP ÷ TVD perfs ÷.052) + Tubing Fluid Weight
Kill FW = Formation Pressure (psi) ÷ TVD (ft) ÷.052
Kill FW = [Safety Margin (psi) + Formation Pressure (psi)] ÷ TVD (ft) ÷.052
4 Determine Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP). Record this number on the
pressure reduction schedule (see Fig. 3-5).
Calculated ICP = SITP (psi) + SCRP (psi)
Lesson 3 3-13
Observed ICP: Use the stabilized pump pressure reading after the pump-start
procedure.
5 Calculate Final Circulating Pressure (FCP).
FCP =
SCRP (psi) × Kill (or balance) Fluid Weight (ppg) ÷ Original Tubing Fluid
Weight (ppg)
6 Create Tubing Pressure Reduction Schedule using steps 1 through 5 as shown
on Fig. 3-5.
1 After calculating the total tubing or work string volume in barrels or strokes,
as indicated in the wait-and-weight calculations above, record it on the
pressure reduction schedule.
2 Determine and record the number of strokes or bbls from 0 to Total Strokes
using the formula given in step 2.
3 Record the ICP that was predetermined in the wait-and-weight calculations
above.
4 Record the FCP that was predetermined in the wait-and-weight calculations
above.
5 Determine and record the circulating pressures from ICP to FCP using the
formula in step 5.
Lesson 3 3-15
Figure 3-6 Well with 10 bbl kick
The wellbore hydrostatics and shut-in pressures for this example are as follows:
• Annular hydrostatic pressure = 5,048 psi, yielding SICP of 152 psi
• Work string hydrostatic pressure = 4,940 psi, yielding SITP of 260 psi
• Pump output = 0.070 bbl/stroke
At the beginning of the day, the driller took SCRPs at various pump rates and
recorded the rates and observed pressures with a 10.2 ppg fluid in the well.
The FCP is a known value. It equals the SCRP previously taken before the fluid was
diluted and the kick taken. Therefore, a pumping schedule (Fig. 3-7) can be
generated from the observed ICP and the known pressure at the selected kill speed
of 2 bpm, which was 750 psi with 10.2 ppg fluid.
Lesson 3 3-17
Unlike the wait-and-weight method, this method does not require a pump pressure
reduction schedule, thus the name “constant pump pressure,” which describes what
is to be done with the pump pressure. Using the choke, hold the pump pressure
constant at the observed ICP and circulate the influx from the wellbore. It is prudent
to circulate at least one “bottoms up” (one annulus volume). Circulation can be
longer if desired.
Fig. 3-8 shows the pressure profiles of the constant pump pressure method. Similar
to the wait-and-weight method, the process control is the pump pressure, which is
controlled with the choke.
In reverse circulation, the flow path lineup and the pump-start procedure are quite
different from those of forward circulation. These differences are indicated in the
reverse circulation procedure below.
Lesson 3 3-19
Reverse Circulation Procedures
1 Line up manifold and pump to circulate fluid down annulus and take returns
from tubing.
2 Bring pump to kill speed while holding tubing pressure constant with choke.
This establishes ICP on casing gauge.
3 Continue to circulate, using choke to control casing pressure.
Even when circulating liquids only, additional “invisible” pressure is being exerted
downhole when reversing in most wellbore geometries whereby the tubing bore is
smaller than the annulus. (For a review, see “Friction Pressure” on page 2-4 and
“Dynamic Pressure Analysis” on page 2-34.) If the well has open perforations that
are exposed, whole fluid can be pumped into the formation, causing formation
damage. If the excess pressure is high enough, formation fracture damage can occur
as well. Using a lower pump speed will reduce dynamic bottomhole pressure. If
available, a fluid hydraulics program should be used to validate the choice of pump
speed.
Lesson 3 3-21
58 bbl (tubing volume) have
been pumped. The influx has
expanded based on the
reduction in hydrostatic
pressure above the gas. With
this expansion comes a
reduction in the annular
hydrostatic pressure,
resulting in an increase in
casing pressure.
Lesson 3 3-23
A total volume of 100 bbl has
been pumped. The expanded
influx and decreased annular
hydrostatic pressure has
resulted in a casing pressure
of 848 psi.
Lesson 3 3-25
A total volume of 148 bbl has
been pumped. The influx has
expanded from its initial
volume of 20 bbl to now
occupying 65.08 bbl of space
in the annulus. The casing
pressure of 1,537 psi is the
result of the decrease in
annular hydrostatic pressure
due to this expansion.
Well dead.
By comparison, if the kick is a liquid (oil or water), there will be no severe loss of
tubing hydrostatic pressure because liquids do not expand as gas does; thus they do
not create the dramatic increase in tubing pressure.
Realistically, it is rare to have a liquid hydrocarbon influx enter the well without
some associated gas. Therefore, on the rig always expect some increase in tubing
pressure when reversing. The change just may not be as dramatic as with a full-
blown gas influx.
Lesson 3 3-27
Noncirculating Well Control Procedures
The following procedures are regarded as noncirculating procedures because, even
though a pump is used, there is not a full circulating path for the fluids—that is,
fluid is not pumped completely down the tubing and back up the annulus or vice
versa. These procedures include the bullheading method, the constant tubing
pressure method, the volumetric method, and the two types of the lubricate-and-
bleed method.
Bullheading
Bullheading is a means of killing a producing well in which produced fluids are
pumped back into the producing formation and the tubing is filled with kill fluid at
the same time (Fig. 3-16). It is not a constant bottomhole pressure method; the crew
intentionally exceeds the injectivity limits of the formation while making every
effort not to exceed the fracture limits. It is the simplest of the well kills and
probably the most common worldwide for workover procedures.
Lesson 3 3-29
• Desired overbalance, provided by kill fluid
• Perforation depth, measured and vertical
• Fracture pressure—estimate of the formation fracture strength
• Tubing specifics: ID, length, end of tubing (EOT), burst pressure rating, percent
wear, tubing condition
• Annular fluid backup—the presence or absence of fluid in the annulus and its
density
• Rathole: ID and measured length
• Pump size—liner, stroke, and efficiency data or actual output from test
• Surface pressures: SITP, SICP, and pressure on casing strings (if any)
• Wellhead working pressure
Bullheading Calculations
Complete the following calculations in preparation for the bullheading procedure
(see “Bullheading Scenario” on page 3-32).
• Volume To Pump. This includes both the tubing volume and the annular space
below the packer (if any exists).
• Kill Weight Fluid. The density is based on the formation pressure of the zone to
be killed. Density is generally calculated to include a 100–300 psi overbalance
safety margin (see Fig. 2-14.)
• Fracture Pressure. Formation fracture pressure is used to determine surface
pressure limits throughout the operation.
• Working Tubing Burst. Standard practice is to downgrade to 80% of the
published tubing burst pressure. If corrosion or wear is known to be greater than
20% of the tubing wall thickness, use a lower number. A caliper survey is used
to determine this.
• Maximum Tubing Pressure (mechanical limits). These calculations consider the
tubing burst rating and total hydrostatic pressure in the tubing prior to the
operation and when the operation is completed, both with and without the
presence of backup fluid in the annulus. The equations to calculate these limits
are shown below.
Lesson 3 3-31
mechanical and fracture limits on tubing pressure plotted against strokes or barrels
as the tubing is displaced with kill fluid. Carefully review the bullheading scenario
in the following section to enhance your understanding.
Bullheading Scenario
This scenario uses actual well data to illustrate the required calculations and graph
plotting required in preparation for bullheading.
Well Information
• Depth of formation/perfs: 10,170 ft
• Formation pressure equiv.: 8.8 ppg
• Formation frac equivalent: 13.8 ppg
• Tubing 4 1/2", N80 Vam: 0.01521 bbl/ft to 10,170 ft
• Rathole: 6.538" ID, Length = 80 ft
• Tubing burst (new): 8,430 psi
Lesson 3 3-33
Figure 3-18 Bullheading pressure schedule
Note that in this example, the upper limit on tubing, or pump, pressure is controlled
by tubing burst (the line between 5,730 and 1,932 psi). The frac line is not the
limiting case. Remember, the conservative assumption was made that there is no
hydrostatic backup fluid behind the tubing. In an older well or a well with no
available information, this would be an appropriate assumption. It has the effect of
lowering the maximum pump pressure allowed. If it is known that backup fluid
does exist and its density is known, the calculations change and the graph will take
on a different shape, with the upper limit being the frac line.
It is helpful to plot observed pump pressure directly on the graph as the kill fluid is
being pumped (see the green line in Fig. 3-19). The plotted points show a visual
Bullheading Considerations
When using bullheading to kill a well, make sure you consider the following:
• Hold a pre-job meeting to discuss operational and safety concerns. Conduct risk
analysis and hazards analysis.
• Install a tested safety valve in the work string and connect the pump in line to
the safety valve.
• Protect all pressurized parts of the system by relief valves that have been tested
before the job begins.
• Make sure that the fluid to be used to bullhead is compatible with the formation
and as solids free as possible to prevent pore throat blockage.
Lesson 3 3-35
• Clearly mark pressurized lines and properly secure them. Brief personnel on the
location of these lines and instruct them to stay clear while bullheading is in
progress.
• Be prepared for the well kill to require several attempts. Pressure may not
remain at zero even though a precalculated amount has been pumped.
Additional fluid volume should be available on location.
• Measure and record the amount of fluid pumped.
• If using brines as kill fluid, use the agitators in the rig tanks to stir the fluid
often. This mixing assists in keeping the salt in solution, thus maintaining
density. The same would be true if using mud (e.g., for a zone to be abandoned).
Agitation keeps the barite in suspension.
• If initial casing pressure is extremely high, it may be wise to bullhead the
annulus first or consider simultaneously bullheading the tubing and the annulus.
Gas Channeling
Gas channeling can occur during a bullheading operation in gas wells or oil wells
with a high gas-oil ratio (GOR), especially if the kill fluid lacks sufficient viscosity
and the pump rate is slow. In that case, gas may channel up the tubing faster than it
is being forced down the tubing through pumping (Fig. 3-21). Generally, after
pumping the calculated volume and shutting down the pumps, the tubing pressure is
0 psi and the well is dead. There are times, however, when SITP drops to 0 psi and
the well appears to be dead, but after 30 minutes or so, the SITP starts to increase.
This increase often indicates gas channeling. It is particularly troublesome in highly
deviated wells. One known remedy to this situation is to pump a viscous pill such as
XC polymer ahead of the kill fluid to minimize the gas channeling. As always when
Lesson 3 3-37
considering the use of any fluid, take into account the fluid’s compatibility with the
production zone.
Cold Bullheading
“Cold bullheading” is a term used to describe bullheading when the kill fluid is at a
lower temperature than the wellbore. The temperature difference generates thermal
stresses that would normally result in shortening the tubing. But since the tubing is
locked into the completion and its length cannot change, an upward tensile force is
created in the tubing, which pulls upward on the packer and creates a force that may
unseat it. Using computer software, you can determine the magnitude of this force
and apply a balancing force downward on the packer by pressuring the annulus to
the amount calculated by the computer program.
This procedure can be used to control gas migration while mixing kill fluid or
making other preparations for a circulating kill procedure.
Lesson 3 3-39
3 Using the choke, bleed the annulus until the tubing pressure drops down to the
lower limit. Remember the time lag (see Important Note below).
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3, keeping the tubing pressure between the lower and upper
limits as long as desired or until another procedure is implemented.
Important Note: There is a time lag between opening the choke and seeing the
pressure drop on the tubing gauge. The pressure “signal” must travel down the
annulus and up the tubing to the tubing gauge, which is thousands of feet away.
The recommended procedure is to open the choke until the desired drop is seen
on the casing gauge, then close the choke and wait until the change appears on
the tubing gauge.
In the long term, the casing gauge reading will not stay constant the way the tubing
gauge does (the WSS should not use the choke to make it so!). With successive
bleed cycles, the gas is continually expanding as it rises up the annulus. If you do
not have a full understanding of why the casing pressure must increase in this case,
review “Gas Behavior in the Wellbore” on page 2-41.
Volumetric Method
This procedure accomplishes the same objective as the constant tubing pressure
method in allowing gas expansion, but it uses a different process control. This
method is used when there is no tubing communication. Since tubing pressure
cannot be read, the process must be controlled with the casing pressure and the
volume of fluid bled from the annulus. There must be a calibrated tank on the rig
located downstream of the choke capable of reading in as small as 1/2 bbl
increments. (For a review of tank calibration, see “Fluid Tank Volumes” on
page 2-24.)
Lesson 3 3-41
The question often arises, “How long should this procedure be carried on?”
Remember that the goal is to control gas migration and allow expansion. If the gas
influx reaches the top of the well during the stairstep schedule, the procedure is
over: gas migration has been controlled. (This is evidenced by the sound of gas
flowing across the choke and a stable SICP when the well is closed in.)
Do not open the choke at this point and bleed gas off the well. This will reduce
bottomhole pressure and most likely result in additional influx. It will then be
necessary to create yet another pressure schedule and repeat this rather time-
consuming procedure. Removing gas from the top of a well (at constant BHP)
requires lubricate-and-bleed procedures, which are explained in the next section.
In these procedures, the gas is bled off and replaced with fluid in calculated steps.
Fluid is pumped into the annulus, a waiting period is allowed for the fluid and gas to
separate, bleed calculations are done, and, finally, gas is bled off the annulus,
reducing the casing pressure by the calculated amount. The procedure can be
summarized in four steps: pump, wait, calculate, bleed (then repeat).
Volume Method—Lubricate-and-Bleed
The volume method is so named because pressure is bled off in amounts calculated
from the measured volume of fluid pumped in. Fluid pumped in is measured (from a
calibrated tank), and bleed-off calculations are based on the hydrostatic pressure of
that measured volume (see Fig. 3-23).
Fig. 3-24 shows a sample lubrication problem along with a worksheet to organize
data and calculations.
Lesson 3 3-43
Figure 3-23 Well diagram for volume method
Pressure Method—Lubricate-and-Bleed
The four steps in this method are identical to those in the volume method: pump,
wait, calculate, bleed. The difference is that the pressure method does not require
volume measurements, which changes the calculations. The calculations for the
bleed-down pressure are based on pressure readings, both before pumping and after,
as shown in the following equation:
P3 = P12 ÷ P2
Lesson 3 3-45
Figure 3-25 Well diagram and pressure method lubrication worksheet
A feature of this lubrication method (other than the obvious simplicity of the
calculation) is that if the formation is taking fluid, the calculation of P3 is “self
adjusting.” Remember, the stabilized pressure reading after pumping is used for the
P2 value. If the formation perfs take fluid, the gauge reading will fall until the well
is in equilibrium once again. In the example in Fig. 3-25, for instance, if the
pressure fell off from 1,100 to 1,080 after 10 minutes and stabilized, you would
simply change P2 to 1,080 and redo the calculation.
1,0002 ÷ 1,080 = 926 psi (the new P3). Bleed to 926 psi rather than 909, as
shown.
At the beginning of the next cycle, pump in again until 1,026 psi is reached. Again,
wait for the pressure to stabilize. If it falls on this cycle, it confirms the formation is
taking fluid and cannot support an additional 100 psi. Consider changing the
pressure increase (the range) to 50 psi and see whether the well will support it. It is
a simple matter to change the numbers on the worksheet.
Important Note: This method is not valid for underbalanced kicks (where kill
fluid must be pumped). The assumptions used to develop the equation
P3 = P12 ÷ P2 are valid only if all the casing pressure is due to the presence of
gas in the annulus and not partially due to fluid underbalance. A test would be
This section will provide guidelines and considerations to assist the WSS in the
selection of appropriate kill methods, both for the initial kill of the live well and for
subsequent kills that become necessary during the workover
Bullheading
Bullheading followed by circulation is by far the most common means of killing a
producing well. During early stages of the workover, this procedure has the
following characteristics:
• It is simple.
• It causes an early pressure reduction on the tubing.
• It forces the contents of the tubing (hydrocarbons from the formation) back into
their source.
• It should not cause reservoir damage, provided fracture limits are respected (see
“Bullheading Scenario” on page 3-32).
Lesson 3 3-47
Later in the workover, depending on the operation, the tubing may contain spent
acid, cuttings, and trash from milling or fishing operations. Bullheading at this stage
would be undesirable.
The lubricate-and-bleed methods are applicable in a well with parted tubing and gas
at surface.
Swabbed Kick
The constant pump pressure method (identical to the first circulation of the widely
known “drillers” well-kill method) is most appropriate for controlling a swabbed
kick. This method can be used with either forward or reverse circulation. Reversing
has the benefit of taking the least time. If the kick were on bottom, “bottoms up”
would involve only the tubing volume.
Lesson 3 3-49
the string. Forward circulation is required in this situation since the check valve
blocks the reverse circulation path.
Underbalanced Kick
A underbalanced kick is not as common in workovers as it is in drilling, but if the
workover program called for deepening or sidetracking a well into a new formation,
the situation may occur. Schlumberger IPM recommends the “drillers” method in
this case since circulation is immediate and the offending influx is removed from
the hole quickly. Following the influx removal, a second circulation with kill weight
fluid will be necessary to kill the well.
This lesson presents the most common causes of kicks during workover operations
as well as kick warning signs and recommended actions for handling a kick if it
does occur.
Lesson Objectives
After reading this lesson and completing its workbook assignment, you should be
able to:
• Describe the most common causes of kicks during workover operations.
• Describe the kick warning signs and the available surface indicators of kicks in
workover operations.
• Describe the actions you should take when you observe a warning sign.
Causes of Kicks
Most kicks can be eliminated safely and effectively if the WSS and crew monitor
operations carefully and understand the necessary actions that should be taken in the
event of a kick. The best option, however, is preventing kicks. Knowing what
Lesson 4 4-1
causes an influx of undesired well fluids into the wellbore is the first step in
preventing kicks. Known causes of kicks include:
• Insufficient fluid density or weight
• Swabbing
• Surging
• Failure to fill hole when pulling tubing
• Failure to monitor and maintain correct hole fill volume during tripping
• Failure to circulate after shut-in periods
• Loss of fluid downhole
• Disabled alarms
Swabbing
Swabbing is defined as pulling formation fluids into the wellbore by mechanical
action, even in the presence of primary well control. The string and what is attached
to the end of it (packers, rod pumps, and squeeze tools) can act like a long pump
plunger and draw formation fluids into the wellbore. Swabbing is likely when:
• Clearances between the string and the wellbore are small. These small
clearances occur when pulling packers on the tubing string or during concentric
workovers when a small tubing work string is pulled out of production tubing.
Small clearances create a high suction pressure on the formation.
• High-viscosity fluids are used in workovers. The higher the viscosity of the
fluid, the more resistant it is to flow. As a result, the fluid resists flow upward
past moving tools or pipe and causes high swab pressures that pull formation
fluids into the wellbore.
• The work string is plugged and the fluid inside the work string cannot flow
through the end of the tubing, so the string acts like a swab.
• The work string or completion string is pulled too fast for the conditions in the
well.
Lesson 4 4-3
Surging
Surging occurs when the downward movement of the work string creates pressure
surges. These surges add to the hydrostatic pressure; the total wellbore pressure may
then cause fluid to be forced into fractures or permeable zones. If enough fluid is
lost so that the column height drops below that needed for primary well control, an
influx can result. Factors that contribute to surging are similar to those for
swabbing:
• Small clearances between the string and the wellbore
• High-viscosity fluids
• A plugged work string, back-pressure valve, or float in string
• Excessive running speed when tripping into the hole
In the interest of reducing trip times and costs, some crews are encouraged to
continue the trip even when the hole fill measurements indicate an unfavorable
trend. However, any time and cost savings are negated quickly when a well kicks
with the string off bottom, necessitating stripping or snubbing to return the string to
bottom.
Lesson 4 4-5
Disabled Alarms
On some workover rigs, there are audible and visual alarms for fluid tank level and
return flow increase. Crews sometimes switch off the alarms because they are noisy
and annoying or because they go off prematurely when they need to be calibrated.
Switching off the alarms takes away a valuable mechanism for the timely detection
of a kick.
In the table, the crew is pulling 60-foot stands of 2-3/8" closed-end tubing. The
closed-end displacement is approximately 0.0055 bbl/ft or 0.30 bbl/stand. Notice
the negative trend on the trip sheet. After 5 stands, the discrepancy was 0.5 bbl. This
increased slowly to 5.0 bbls after 50 stands. The well began to flow sometime after
Lesson 4 4-7
50 stands were pulled and had to be shut in. Yet the negative trend was clearly
apparent much earlier in the trip.
Note: The trip sheet was completed in 5-stand steps for illustrative purposes
only. On the rig, readings should be taken and recorded more frequently,
especially when retrieving large assemblies from the hole.
When a hole does not take the correct hole fill, as seen on the trip sheet, the WSS
should instruct the crew to begin returning the string to bottom while watching for
well flow. If the well flows, the crew should shut in the well with the posted shut-in
procedure. When the string is back on bottom, the well should be circulated, at least
bottoms up, to check for the presence of influx.
The WSS should ensure that the crew clearly understands what constitutes a
negative trend on a trip and what action they should take. If there is any doubt, the
WSS should stay on the rig floor, observe the hole fill trend, and be prepared to
make the decision to stop the trip and return the string to bottom.
When a trip tank system is not available on a rig, hole fill volume must still be
monitored and recorded on a trip sheet. The crew fills the hole manually, records the
number of pump strokes required, and determines the volume pumped in barrels.
This should be recorded on the trip sheet just as if a trip tank were being used.
For example, if a crew runs 3,500 feet of 2-7/8" tubing (6.5 ppf, closed-end), the
displacement would be calculated as follows:
(6.5 ÷ 2750) × 3,500 = 8.3 bbls
If the trip tank records 5.3 barrels returned from the wellbore, the discrepancy is 3.0
barrels (8.3 -5.3). Until proven otherwise, this should be interpreted as an indicator
that 3.0 barrels have been lost to the formation. If the formation is taking fluid,
primary well control can be lost and an influx can result.
When a trend such as this is observed, the string may be surging the well. Slow the
tripping speed and observe the trip tank carefully for improvement in the loss rate.
When a formation takes fluid due to surging, some or all of the fluid will eventually
flow back into the wellbore. In drilling operations, this is called ballooning.
According to a key well control principle, it is impossible for the formation to give
back more workover fluid than it took in during the surge. Any excess amount of
fluid is influx and must be treated as such. The crew should record the amount of
workover fluid lost during a surge so they will know when a kick is beginning.
Many well control incidents have resulted because the crew assumed incorrectly
that the formation was ballooning.
Important Note: When tripping in the hole, the WSS should make sure that the
crew fills the inside of the tubing or work string with fluid as well as the
annulus. Filling the tubing and annulus should be done at regular intervals (e.g.,
every 2 to 5 stands). If the crew fails to fill the tubing, the external pressure of
the annular workover fluid could collapse the tubing string.
If any of these signs are apparent, the driller should pick up the string, turn off the
pumps, and, if the well continues to flow, immediately shut in the well with the
posted procedure (see “Shut-in Procedures” on page 3-4).
Pit Gain
Pit gain is an increase in the average level of mud maintained in the tanks. If no
surface mud transfers have occurred, then a pit gain is a sign that formation fluids
have entered the wellbore. On workover rigs equipped with electronic pit volume
totalizer (PVT) systems, an increase in pit volume will be shown on the system’s
indicating gauge and an alarm will sound.
Lesson 4 4-9
On rigs without PVT systems, pit gain can be visually observed by the crew, who
should be monitoring the fluid returns tank. The familiar “nut on a string” tank
indicator is an effective indicator as long as it is being monitored.
As soon as the crew notices any pit gain, they should notify the driller. The driller
should stop circulating, flow-check the well, and be prepared to shut in the well
with the posted procedure.
There are many documented instances of a crew’s failure to shut in a flowing well
in time to prevent a kick. Some crews have delayed action while they tried to find
other reasons for the flow. In some geographic areas and with some cultures, crews
may be hesitant to shut in a well without consulting the WSS, who may not be on
the rig floor when the problem arises. Make sure your crew understands that it is
imperative not only to shut in the well without delay but also to take responsibility
for making this decision on their own.
Lesson 4 4-11
4-12 Well Control for Workover Operations
COMPLETION AND WORKOVER FLUIDS
5
Lesson Overview
This lesson describes the completion and workover fluids that the WSS must
manage when working over wells. There are a number of fluid types used in wells
that Schlumberger will work over around the world. This lesson describes the
functions, components, and properties of these fluids. This lesson also explains the
responsibilities of the WSS in establishing and maintaining the well control
functions of completion and workover fluids.
Lesson Objectives
After reading this lesson and completing its workbook assignment, you should be
able to:
• Define the terms completion fluid, packer fluid, and workover fluid.
• Briefly describe the functions of these fluids.
• Describe the physical properties and characteristics of workover fluids and how
they are measured.
• Describe the roles and responsibilities of the WSS in managing the well control
functions of completion and workover fluids, including controlling and
maintaining the density of the fluids, measuring both solids-laden and clear
fluids, and preventing any loss of fluid into the formation that would affect
primary well control.
Lesson 5 5-1
Types of Workover and Completion Fluids
A completion fluid is used at the time a well is completed or recompleted. It
provides primary well control during the completion process and is designed to
minimize damage to the producing interval of the reservoir.
A packer fluid is a completion fluid with a specific role. It is placed in the wellbore
above a packer in the annular space between the production tubing and the casing.
Packer fluids provide hydrostatic pressure to resist the well pressure force from
below the packer, helping to hold the packer in place. Packer fluids perform these
additional functions:
• Offset the effect of the internal tubing pressure when the well is on production
(see “Bullheading” on page 3-28).
• Provide a noncorrosive environment for the casing and tubing.
• Provide internal support for the production casing.
Workover fluids are used during operations such as killing the production tubing,
displacing the packer fluid, flushing out tubing scale or debris, and conveying fluid
loss pills to the perfs. Workover fluids provide hydrostatic pressure for primary well
control and help lift and convey cuttings, scale, sand, and contaminants out of the
hole. They may also be used as solvents, dissolving crude oil by-products like wax,
asphaltenes, and paraffins, which restrict the tubing bore and affect production. Like
completion fluids, they are designed to minimize damage to the producing interval
unless the interval is to be abandoned.
Lesson 5 5-3
clear fluids have no solids to build filter cake with, so they must prevent
fluid loss by either their viscosity or by using additives to bridge across the
formation.
• Maintaining stability over time and at varying temperatures. This applies
particularly to packer fluids. The fluid must be formulated to remain stable for
years even at elevated temperatures. If solids separate from the fluid and settle
out on top of the packer, the packer may be impossible to retrieve during a
workover, necessitating an expensive fishing or milling operation. Furthermore,
with the solids separated out, the fluid’s hydrostatic pressure is reduced to that
of its base fluid. This reduces the amount of backup it provides to the internal
flowing tubing pressure.
• Preventing formation damage such as oil wetting of reservoir rock, clay
swelling, scale precipitation, and solids blockage.
• Preventing bacterial action in the fluid itself and in the formation. Naturally
occurring bacterial colonies are sometimes found in the base fluids used to make
up the completion or workover fluid. If the fluid contains a polymer, the bacteria
will attack it, degrading the fluid and rendering it useless. Bacterial infestations
may occur not only in the fluid but downhole, and these must be controlled as
well.
• Preventing corrosion to tubing, casing, and completion components.
Density
Density is the measure of the weight of a fluid per unit volume (ppg) or a ratio of the
fluids weight to the weight of fresh water, known as its specific gravity (s.g.). A
related measure of oil density is API gravity, expressed in degrees. An API gravity
of 10 is equivalent to an s.g. of 1, which means the oil has the density of fresh water.
Table 5-1 shows the density ranges of various workover fluids. (For a glossary of
chemical compound abbreviations, see “Abbreviations for Chemical Compounds”
on page A-1 in the Appendix.)
The density of completion brines (inorganic salts and water) changes with
temperature and must be corrected so that the brine will have the sufficient density
downhole to balance the formation pressure at a specific depth. The calculations to
determine a brine density thermal correction are shown in Fig. 5-1.
Lesson 5 5-5
PPGRequired = [(BHT - Surface Temp) × Thermal Factor] + PPGFormation
+ PPGOverbalance
Thermal Factor = Value from table below (based on brine density range)
Example:
Given: Surface Temp = 90°F, BHT = 205°F, Formation = 13.2 ppg
Find: Required density at surface (with 0.2 ppg safety margin)
Solution:
Thermal Factor for 13.2 = 0.0033
PPGRequired = (205-90) × 0.0033) + 13.2 + 0.2
= 0.379 + 13.2 + 0.2
= 13.78 = 13.8 ppg
The density of brines (and oils) is measured with a hydrometer (Fig. 5-2). A
hydrometer measures specific gravity (not ppg). An attached thermometer and a
temperature correction chart on the back of the hydrometer make it possible to
Solids-laden drilling fluids (modified for completion and workover needs) can be
weighed in ppg with the familiar rig mud balance or pressurized mud scale.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow. Different fluids have different
viscosities. For example, tar has a higher viscosity than water; 40W motor oil has a
higher viscosity than 10W. Completion and workover fluids normally have low
viscosities. When required, viscosity is increased with various additives. Increasing
viscosity enhances the ability of the fluid to carry or suspend solid particles. It also
helps prevent the fluid from flowing into the perfs.
The workover crew takes two measurements of the fluid’s viscosity. The crew
measures funnel viscosity by pouring 1,500 ml of fluid into a Marsh funnel and
recording the time (in seconds) that the fluid takes to flow out of the funnel. The
fluids engineer uses a device called a rheometer to measure the plastic viscosity in
Lesson 5 5-7
centipoises (cp). Both measurements are important. Funnel viscosity can be used by
the personnel mixing the fluid to determine when the proper value has been reached
and to monitor viscosity changes during the workover procedure. A more detailed
analysis done by the fluids engineer using the rheometer determines the cause of the
change in viscosity or monitors the results of fluid conditioning or chemical
treatments.
Turbidity
Turbidity is related to the cleanliness of the fluid. This property is important when
workovers are done in damage-sensitive formations that require clear, solids-free
fluids. If a fluid contains undesirable particles of silt, clay, algae, and the like, it
scatters light and appears turbid or cloudy. If a fluid is particle free, it appears clear,
the opposite of turbid. Turbidity is measured by a turbidity meter, and the
measurement is commonly reported in nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs).
pH
The pH of a fluid is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. The pH scale ranges from
1 to 14, with 1 being the most acidic. The fluids engineer measures pH with a pH
meter or litmus paper. He monitors the pH and controls it to limit corrosion
downhole, inhibit scale formation, limit formation clay swelling, and ensure that the
components of a completion and workover fluid function together properly.
Crystallization Temperature
If the temperature of the fluid falls below a certain point, brine completion or
workover fluids containing dissolved salts will crystallize (freeze) or lose density as
their salts fall out of solution. When crystallization occurs, crystals give the brine
the appearance of slush. The viscosity of the fluid may increase to the point where
the crystals plug the lines and the fluid becomes unpumpable.
The crew needs to know at what point this crystallization takes place. The fluids
engineer or project engineer performs a test using the LCTD (Last Crystal to
Dissolve) method. In this test, the brine is stirred constantly as it is cooled below the
point where the first crystals appear. Then the fluid is warmed until the last crystal
dissolves, which indicates its crystallization temperature, or LCTD. At the
The fluids engineer specifies a brine formula that takes into account the fluid’s
crystallization tendencies and the temperatures likely to be encountered in the
workover operation.
Base Fluid
Fluids have two basic components: a liquid or gas (the base fluid) and solids to
condition the base fluid to meet the requirements of the well. Workover crews may
use oil, water, gas, or clear brine as the base fluid. Water is the easiest to use and is
less expensive than oil-based fluids or gas, but it is not always suitable for a
particular formation.
Lesson 5 5-9
Water
The water in a water-based fluid may come from a variety of sources including
produced water (lease saltwater), fresh water, potable water, drinking-quality water,
treated brackish water from marshes, or treated seawater.
Oil
Crude oil, diesel, mineral oil, or synthetic vegetable-based oil may be used as a
base.
Gas
For gas-based systems, nitrogen gas is combined with water and a chemical called a
surfactant to create stable foam. Foams are used in workovers on wells that have
very low formation pressures and therefore will not support the weight of a column
of liquid. Nitrogen densities range from 1 to 5 ppg.
Clear Brine
Clear brine is a fluid made up mainly of chemical salts, such as sodium, chloride,
calcium, or potassium chloride. This base contains little or no clay or other solid
material and is virtually clear. It is used frequently because it minimizes formation
damage.
Weighting Material
The weighting material in the fluid can be barite (barium sulfate), limestone
(calcium carbonate), or inorganic salts such as zinc bromide, calcium chloride,
sodium chloride, or potassium chloride.
Additives
Additives are used to condition the fluid to meet the well requirements. The most
common fluid additives and their basic uses are listed in Table 5-2.
Water-Based Fluids
Conventional water-based drilling fluids can be used for workovers when a zone is
to be abandoned and the inherent solids damage to the formation is not an issue.
They may also be used in wells perforated with an intentional underbalance. These
wells are immediately flowed through the perfs and put on production, thus
reducing the possibility of solids damage to the formation.
The physics of familiar water-based drilling muds are not within the scope of this
manual. For information on their components and properties, consult the M-I
Drilling Fluids Manual.
Clay-free fluids use sized particles of organic salts or calcium carbonate to provide
density and to bridge across pore spaces, preventing fluid loss to the formation. The
particles in these muds, unlike clay minerals, can be dissolved in an appropriate
solvent (water or acid), eliminating permanent formation damage.
Oil-Based Fluids
An oil-in-water emulsion is a fluid of about 40% oil in a salt brine. It is used while
gun perforating.
Lesson 5 5-11
workover use, the true oil-based muds are generally preferred as they are less
damaging to the formation.
Brine fluids can be prepared on the rig or obtained premixed from fluid
manufacturers. The crew must treat the heavy brines to reduce their corrosive
tendencies and take care not to precipitate out the salt. The risks to personnel and
the environment are significant.
Brines are made from a water base (either drinking water, treated potable water, or
treated lease water), one or more salts selected for the required density, and, if
required, viscosifiers, pH control agents, and corrosion control agents.
Sodium Chloride
Statistically, sodium chloride (NaCl) is the most commonly used brine. It can be
mixed in densities from 8.4 to 9.8 ppg. Many brine charts show the upper limit of
NaCl brine as 10.0 ppg, but 10.0 ppg is difficult to achieve in the field. That number
is based on laboratory conditions—using distilled water and chemically pure salt
and stirring with a high-speed blender. The crystallization temperature range is
31°F for 8.4 ppg down to -5°F for 9.8 ppg.
Table 5-4 indicates the quantities for mixing NaCl brine to different densities and
also shows their corresponding crystallization points.
Lesson 5 5-13
Table 5-4 Composition and Properties of Sodium Chloride Brine
Brine Density To Make 1 bbl (42 gal) Cryst. Point
(60 degrees F) Water (bbl) 100% NaCl (lbs) (degrees F)
8.4 0.998 4 +31
8.5 0.993 9 +29
8.6 0.986 16 +27
8.7 0.981 22 +26
8.8 0.976 28 +24
8.9 0.969 35 +22
9.0 0.962 41 +19
9.1 0.955 47 +17
9.2 0.948 54 +14
9.3 0.940 61 +11
9.4 0.933 68 +9
9.5 0.926 74 +6
9.6 0.919 81 +3
9.7 0.910 88 -1
9.8 0.902 95 -5
Potassium Chloride
Potassium chloride (KCl) can be mixed in densities from 8.4 to 9.7 ppg. The
crystallization temperature range is 31°F for 8.4 ppg to 60°F for 9.7 ppg. Table 5-5
gives quantities for mixing KCl brine to different densities and the corresponding
crystallization points. A 2% KCl solution, which requires NaCl, is so commonly
used (for clay inhibition) that a mixing table is included for reference (see Table
5-6).
Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) can be mixed in densities from 8.4 to 11.6 ppg, so it
provides a large density range. The crystallization temperature range is 31°F for 8.4
ppg to 44°F for 11.6 ppg. Dry calcium chloride is available in two grades: 77% and
94%. The 94% grade is preferred since it contains fewer unidentified solids.
Lesson 5 5-15
For economic reasons, solutions of NaCl/CaCl2 are sometimes used instead of
CaCl2 only. Mixing CaCl2 produces an exothermic (heat-generating) reaction, so
the WSS should ensure that personnel take precautions to avoid burns.
Table 5-7 gives quantities for mixing CaCl2 brine to different densities and the
corresponding crystallization points.
Solids-Laden Fluids
The equation in Fig. 5-3 is used to determine the amount of weight material
required to change the density of a solids-based fluid in which the solid does not
dissolve in the base fluid (e.g., barite, calcium carbonate). Note that there are
separate equations for brines.
Lesson 5 5-17
Weight of Material Required (lbs per bbl base fluid) =
ppb solid × fw2 - fw1 ÷ (ppg solid - fw2)
ppg solid = pounds per gallon (ppg) of weight material (barite = 35)
Example:
Given: 500 bbl weighted barite-based fluid with a density of 9.6 ppg
Find: Pounds of barite required to increase density to 10.2 ppg
Solution:
Pounds per barrel = 1,470 × (10.2 - 9.6) ÷ (35 - 10.2)
= 1,470 × 0.6 ÷ (24.8) = 35.56 ppb
Total pounds required = 35.56 × 500 = 17,178 lbs
To decrease the density of a solids-laden fluid by adding water, use the equation in
Fig. 5-4.
where:
W1 = Original fluid density (ppg)
W2 = Desired reduced fluid density (ppg)
Dw = Density of liquid used to dilute (ppg)
Example:
Given: 100 bbls of 14.0 ppg oil-based fluid; diesel with density 7.0 ppg
Find: Barrels of diesel to dilute fluid to 12.0 ppg
Solution:
100 × ( 14.0 – 12.0 ) 200
Liquid Required = ------------------------- = ---- = 40 bbls diesel
( 12.0 – 7.0 ) 5.0
Single-Salt Brines
Building a single-salt brine to a specified density is a simple procedure that involves
using commonly available brine tables (see Table 5-4 through Table 5-7). The
tables show the required salt and water volumes to build one barrel of the required
density. Multiply those numbers by the desired total volume to determine the total
salt and total water required.
The density of an existing brine can be increased by adding salt, using the brine
tables along with the equation in Fig. 5-5.
Lesson 5 5-19
Pounds of Salt Required (per bbl existing brine) = Wi × Sf ÷ Wf - Si
Example:
Given: 200 bbl of 10.4 ppg CaCl2 brine
Find: Pounds CaCl2 to increase density to 11.0 ppg and final volume
Solution:
From Table 5-7: Wi = 0.909, Wf = 0.879, Si = 119.0, Sf = 155.0
Added salt per bbl = 0.909 × 155.0 ÷ 0.879 - 119.0 = 41.29 lbs/bbl
Total salt required = 41.29 × 200 = 8,258 lbs
Final volume = 200 × 0.909 ÷ 0.879 = 206.82 bbl
Example:
Given: 150 barrels of 9.9 ppg NaCl brine
Find: Barrels of water to dilute to 9.4 ppg
Solution:
Di = 9.9 ppg, Df = 9.4 ppg, Da = 8.33 ppg
Water required per barrel = (9.9 - 9.4) ÷ (9.4 - 8.33) = 0.467 bbl per bbl
Total water required = 0.467 × 150 = 70.05 bbl
Decreasing brine density will change the crystallization temperature (as shown in
Table 5-4 through Table 5-7), so the brine may freeze at a higher temperature.
Always check the appropriate brine table for the fluid you are using. Look up the
crystallization temperature at the final density. If the ambient temperature in the
mixing and storage area is likely to be lower than that, take precautions. If the
mixing and storage area is enclosed, use space heaters to raise and maintain the
brine temperature above the crystallization temperature before changing the density.
Multiple-Salt Brines
Two- and three-salt brines are needed to achieve the higher densities required to
control higher formation pressures. Some of these brines can be mixed to 19.2 ppg
density (see Table 5-3). However, changing these brine weights in the field must be
done carefully to avoid salt precipitation. Water additions and exact salt proportions
are required when increasing density, or the least soluble salt(s) can precipitate out.
Equations for calculating salt and water additions are more complex than for single
Lesson 5 5-21
salts. When working with these heavyweight fluids in the field, experienced fluid
personnel are required on location to maintain correct fluid properties.
Brines can be ordered in “summer” or “winter” blends, which allows for seasonal
temperature ranges.
When weighing a brine on the rig, use a brine hydrometer instead of a mud balance,
which can produce an error of up to 0.5 ppg. The hydrometer’s temperature
correction capability was discussed earlier (see “Density” on page 5-5). The
equation for correcting temperature with a hydrometer is shown in Fig. 5-7.
Example:
Given: Air temperature = 92°F,
s.g. = 1.2; temperature conversion
table value = 1.110.
Find: Brine weight in ppg, corrected
for standard temperature
Solution:
Corrected Brine Density =
1.2 × 8.33 × 1.110 = 11.095 = 11.1 ppg
Remember that the density of the crude oil in the hole is also temperature sensitive.
If a mud balance is used to weigh the oil, the actual downhole density will be less
and must be corrected with the appropriate equations (see “Crude Oil Hydrostatic
Pressure” on page 2-11). If a hydrometer is used to measure the density of the oil, a
temperature correction for the oil can also be calculated with the equation in
Fig. 5-7.
Lesson 5 5-23
Control of Fluid Loss
There are two ways to prevent the loss of fluid downhole:
• Treat the entire fluid system with fluid loss agents.
• Treat a portion of the fluid and pump it into place adjacent to the zone exhibiting
the loss. This method is called a pumping a kill pill.
In a borderline situation like the one described above, the decision to continue with
clean fluids may hinge on the WSS’s ability to constantly supervise the operation as
well as the experience and skills of the contractor crew and their supervisors.
Constant vigilance is required—the crews must constantly monitor and fill the hole
and run or pull tubing at the correct speed to avoid swab and surge pressures. A well
at near-balanced conditions “drinks” clear fluid and must be observed constantly. A
slight swab or surge will cause the well to flow. A few bubbles migrating to the
surface will expand and unload enough fluid to cause the well to flow. On daylight
rigs a new well kill may be required each morning when the well is reopened. If the
crews are inexperienced or the toolpusher has not demonstrated competency, the
WSS may consider the use of drilling mud.
Remember that the client normally hires the crew to do workovers with a goal in
mind of restored or improved production. Make every effort to ensure that the fluid
is selected and maintained in a way that does not detract from that goal.
Lesson 5 5-25
5-26 Well Control for Workover Operations
SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE EQUIPMENT
6
Lesson Overview
This lesson describes the equipment that is typically involved in workover
operations. Included in this group are downhole completion equipment, the
Christmas tree, the wellhead, wireline, and conventional BOP equipment.
Lesson Objectives
After reading this lesson and completing its workbook assignment, you should be
able to:
• Identify and describe downhole equipment configurations in the common
completion types, including flowing wells and those requiring artificial lift.
• Describe the basic types and functions of packers, landing nipples, side-pocket
mandrels, sliding sleeves, blast joints, flow couplings, and downhole safety
valves.
• Identify and describe the “A,” “B,” and “C” sections of a wellhead.
• Describe the function of the various Christmas tree components.
• Explain wireline surface equipment used for pressure control.
• Describe the function and purpose of the surface safety system.
Lesson 6 6-1
• Describe the types, functions, and uses of conventional BOP equipment,
including annular preventers, ram preventers, safety valves, chokes, BOP
control systems, accumulators, and back-pressure valves.
• Determine accumulator volume requirements for a workover rig in accord with
Schlumberger policy.
• Understand and describe testing requirements for conventional, slick wireline,
and braided wireline BOPE.
Typical Completions
This section shows typical completions used in various geographic areas (see
Fig. 6-1 through Fig. 6-8). The typical completion components for each type are
illustrated along with key points relating to well control, safety, and other issues. A
description of the individual components follows this section.
Key Points
• Circulating well-kill capability
• No control of annular fluid level
• Exposure to corrosion
Key Points
Figure 6-3 Packer completion with nipples, sliding sleeve, and SCSSSV
Lesson 6 6-3
Key Points
• Allows independent production
through two tubing strings and
from multiple zones
• Circulating capability to annuli
via sliding sleeves
• Complex configuration may
complicate well control
operations because of numerous
possibilities for leak paths and
cross-communication between
zones of differing reservoir
pressures
Key Points
• Using special service tools and
procedures, gravel is placed in
and around perfs to control sand
production
• Gravel pack equipment easily
damaged when running,
requiring special care
Lesson 6 6-5
Key Points
• Gas lift used in 90% of offshore
wells that are artificially lifted.
• Oil is lifted by injecting a
stream of gas into it, which
expands as it rises, increasing
the fluid velocity while reducing
its effective density.
• Gas injection volume, pressure,
and number of injection points
are a function of tubing
diameter, tubing volume,
formation pressure, liquid
density, and depth.
• Frequent workovers required to
service gas-lift valves.
• Gas hydrates can form in
completion string and surface
equipment, complicating well
control operations.
• Casing is exposed to high gas-
injection pressures.
Lesson 6 6-7
• Tubing Hangers
• Bridge Plugs
Production Packers
Although the makes, models, and types of completion packers vary significantly,
they have one thing in common: they enable efficient flow from the producing
formation to the tubing string(s) without restricting production capability. They
have the following basic functions:
• Annulus isolation
Packers seal the annulus between the tubing string(s) and the casing or liner.
This creates improved flow up the tubing for production and also allows the
annulus to be used as a separate conduit when gas lift is required (see Fig. 6-7).
• Downhole anchor
Many packers provide a downhole anchor point for the tubing string.
• Casing string protection
The sealed annulus created by the packer protects the casing string or liner from
formation pressure and from corrosive conditions.
• Zone isolation
Packers isolate different producing zones in the same wellbore. Isolation of
zones may be required to meet regulatory requirements in some areas. Isolating
zones also serves to prevent crossflow of reservoir fluid between high- and low-
pressure zones.
There are several ways of categorizing the multitude of packer types used in the
industry. Two major categories are retrievable packers and permanent packers.
Retrievable Packers
Retrievable packers (Fig. 6-9) can be disengaged and brought to the surface with
the completion string. This type of packer is generally preferred when the
completion life is relatively short, the downhole environment is not hostile,
multiple-zone completions are planned, or frequent workovers are required. They
are further categorized by the way they are set.
Lesson 6 6-9
Figure 6-9 Retrievable packers
Permanent Packers
Permanent packers (Fig. 6-10) are designed to be installed and left in the hole. If
removal is necessary, they have to be milled out or drilled out. These packers are
generally used when completion life expectancy is long or when wellbore
conditions are hostile (e.g., high pressure, high temperature, high packer loading, or
high H2S content). They are used when it is likely that future workovers will only
require retrieving the tubing. One commonly used type of permanent packer is
called a seal bore packer. It can be configured to allow for the shortening and
lengthening of the tubing string that results from thermal effects in the well, as
shown in Fig. 6-10.
During workovers, trapped pressure below these packers can have serious well
control consequences (see “Trapped Pressure below Packers” on page 7-23).
Tubing Hangers
The tubing hanger anchors the production tubing to the Christmas tree. It resides in
the tubing bowl in the “B” section of the wellhead (Fig. 6-16) and is held in place,
in part, by the weight of the tubing and hold-down pins, which are part of the tubing
bowl. Once the hanger is landed, the hold-down pins are run in and tightened.
Elastomeric seals seal off the top of the annulus (see Fig. 6-11). Most tubing
hangers contain internal threads or a machined profile for the installation of a back-
pressure valve (Fig. 6-42).
Lesson 6 6-11
The tubing hanger can also be a point of attachment for a hydraulic control line that
operates surface-controlled subsurface safety valves (Fig. 6-15).
Lesson 6 6-13
Completion Accessories
Besides the production tubing and packer, the completion string may include a
variety of accessories. These accessories serve as landing points for retrievable
tools, well shut-in devices, annular access points, and other equipment and are
described in the following sections.
Landing Nipples
The production string must serve as a receptacle for many kinds of retrievable
internal tools, such as downhole chokes, regulators, plugs, and instrument packages.
These tools are generally categorized as flow-control devices. In order to
accommodate these tools, the string is configured with various devices called
landing nipples. These nipples provide:
• a space to locate the tool
• a means to pressure-seal around the tool
• a way to lock the tool into place
Landing nipples have an internal sealing surface and a locking recess that mates
with a lock that is run with the tool itself.
Although there are design variations between manufacturers, landing nipples can be
placed in two general categories: “no-go” nipples and selective nipples.
• “No-go” nipples (Fig. 6-13) have a restricted ID on which downhole tools
locate. A locating shoulder on the tool assembly is larger than the ID of the
shoulder inside the nipple, so the tool cannot go past that point, hence the name
“no-go.” There is a sealing section and a lock recess on the nipple as well. A no-
go nipple may be run alone as a single nipple in a string or as the bottom nipple
below a series of selective landing nipples. An entire series of no-go nipples
may be run in a completion string with decreasing IDs from top to bottom.
• Selective nipples (Fig. 6-13) do not use a locating shoulder to serve as a landing
place for flow-control devices. The locks run with the flow-control tools have
retractable dogs that spring outward and engage a lock recess in the nipple.
Without the interference of a locating shoulder, the tools can be run through a
number of nipples and then set in the desired nipple by the wireline operator.
Fig. 6-14 shows a tool assembly locked into place in a selective landing nipple.
Lesson 6 6-15
Figure 6-14 Flow-control device locked into a selective landing nipple
It is imperative that the WSS document the actual depth and description of nipples
that have been run with a completion. The well will eventually be worked over
again, and the documentation will be critical for wireline operations at that time.
Side-Pocket Mandrels
These landing devices are offset from the tubing centerline in order to house tools
while still providing an unrestricted flow path up the tubing. Tools such as gas-lift
valves, chemical injection valves, and circulating valves can be landed in side-
pocket mandrels (see Fig. 6-7).
Flow Couplings
Flow couplings are sections of heavy-walled tubing installed above and below
completion equipment, like nipples, that cause turbulent fluid flow. The heavy wall
resists the erosive effects of the flow.
Blast Joints
Blast joints are heavy-walled tubing joints that are hardened, heat-treated, and often
covered with resilient material. Blast joints are installed in the completion string
adjacent to producing zones to withstand the scouring action of fluid flowing from
the perforations.
Lesson 6 6-17
Figure 6-15 Surface-controlled subsurface safety valve (SCSSSV)
The “A” section consists of the lower wellhead section, which is connected to the
outermost cemented casing string with a threaded or slip-on weld connection. This
section supports the weight of the BOPs while drilling and the weight of the rest of
the wellhead during production by transferring the load to the cemented surface
casing. Also included in the “A” section is a tapered bowl to accept the hanger and
primary seal for the next casing string to be installed. This may be the intermediate
casing or the production casing. The “A” section normally has one or two casing
Lesson 6 6-19
outlets to allow communication with the surface casing annulus for pressure
monitoring, for the injection of inhibitors, or for killing or cementing in the event of
dangerous pressure conditions. An example of a dangerous pressure situation would
be a ruptured casing string caused by inadvertently applying bullheading kill
pressure to the casing via a hole or breach in the tubing string. The casing valves
provide a conduit through which kill fluid can be introduced into the annular space
and gas bled off. This procedure was explained in “Procedures for Removing Gas
from a Wellbore (Lubricate-and-Bleed Procedures)” on page 3-42.
The “B” section, which is flanged to the top of the “A” section, includes a
secondary seal at the top of the production string. The secondary seal is used as a
backup in case the primary seal of the “A” section fails. The “B” section includes a
tapered bowl that holds the tubing hanger and the primary seal for the tubing. Two
outlets are provided in the “B” section body. On at least one of them, a valve and a
pressure gauge is installed for monitoring pressure in the tubing/casing annulus.
The “C” section is flanged to the top of the “B” section. It includes the tubing head,
which terminates the tubing string, and the familiar assembly of valves called the
Christmas tree.
At the bottom of the tree are one or more master valves (in a multiple-string
completion, there will be a master valve for each string). The master valve is the
main surface-control point for access to the tubulars. It is always fully open when
the well is producing or when a workover is in progress. The working pressure of
the master valve is sufficient to handle full wellhead pressure, and it can be used to
close the well in and allow work on a tree valve or a fitting above it without killing
the well. Above the master valve is a flow fitting, which may be a tee or a cross. The
wing valve and a choke (not shown in Fig. 6-16) will be attached to one or both
sides of the flow fitting and production flows through the fitting. On top of the flow
fitting there is often a crown valve or swab valve (not shown) fitted with an adapter
for attaching a lubricator for wireline work. A lubricator is a pressure-rated tube
that allows a tool string to be lowered into the well while the well is flowing or
under pressure. One end of the lubricator is attached to the swab valve; the other
end contains a seal assembly that seals against the wireline used to run the tool (see
Fig. 6-17).
The spool pieces of each wellhead section have alignment screws for aligning the
appropriate tubular in the center of the spool. Alignment of the tubular is critical
since the bolt-hole alignment for each flange connection depends on the previous
tubular being in the center of the spool below it.
Lesson 6 6-21
valves, while a separator on location supplies the required pneumatic pressure.
Emergency shutdown valves are located in strategic locations, such as boat landings
(offshore installations), location entrance and exit, helicopter pad, and upper decks.
Lesson 6 6-23
Figure 6-20 Low-pressure fusible plugs
High-pressure fusible plugs (Fig. 6-21) are sometimes installed on the hydraulic
control line of the surface-controlled subsurface safety valve. In the presence of
excessive temperatures, the eutectic material in the plug melts and hydraulic fluid is
vented from the control line, closing the subsurface safety valve.
Lesson 6 6-25
Figure 6-23 Typical wireline-cutting surface safety valve
Whenever a manual gate valve is operated, the crew should count the turns required
to open or close the valve. If the turns are insufficient, the valve may not be fully
actuated due to an obstruction across the valve gate.
BOP Equipment
BOP equipment, which is used to control the well in the event of a kick, includes the
following:
• Annular preventers
• Ram preventers
• String safety valves
• Chokes
• BOP control systems
• Back-pressure valves
Lesson 6 6-27
Annular Preventers
The annular preventer, when closed, seals the annular space between the pipe or
tubing and the wellbore. Circular, one-piece resilient sealing elements of various
designs are used to make the seal (see Fig. 6-25). Annular preventers are often
called “annular BOPs” or simply “annular.”
Lesson 6 6-29
Table 6-1 Packoff Elements for Annular Preventers
Color Supplier Manufacturer s
Elastomer Band Code Recommended Use
Hydril Natural Rubber Black R Water-based fluids with less than 5%
oil and operating temperatures greater
than -30°F; suitable for H2S service.
Shaffer Natural Rubber Red 1 or 2 Low-temperature operations and
water-based fluids.
Hydril Nitrile Red S Oil-based muds with aniline points
between 165°F and 245°F; suitable
for H2S service and operating
temperatures greater than 20°F.
Shaffer Nitrile Blue 5 or 6 Oil- and water-based muds; suitable
for H2S service.
Cameron Nitrile Black n/a Oil- and water-based fluid; suitable
for H2S service.
Temperature range from -30°F to
250°F.
Hydril Neoprene Green N Oil-based muds with operating
temperatures between 20°F and
-30°F; suitable for H2S service.
Ram Preventers
Ram preventers (Fig. 6-26)—also called “ram BOPs” or simply “rams”—use two
opposing pistons (or manual screws) to move two opposing ram blocks into the
wellbore. Depending on the geometry and seal arrangement of the ram blocks (see
Fig. 6-27), the rams can be used for the following purposes:
• Seal around a pipe or tubing of a particular size (pipe rams)
• Seal around two tubing strings simultaneously (dual or offset rams)
• Seal around wireline
• Seal around sucker rods (production rams)
• Cut tubing or pipe (shear rams)
• Cut tubing or pipe and then seal the wellbore above the cut (blind/shear rams)
• Seal an open wellbore (blind rams)
Rams may hold a small amount of pressure from above, but they are primarily
designed to hold pressure from below. Rams are shorter in profile than annular
preventers, and for this reason, they may be the only type of preventers installed on
a well due to headroom restrictions from the rig substructure. In general, rams close
more quickly than annulars and require less hydraulic fluid. They should not be
closed on pipe tool joints or tubing upset areas; otherwise seal damage will result.
Most rams used in workovers have a provision for manually locking them in the
closed position, which is desirable during well control operations or when shutting
in for the night. Types of ram blocks used in BOPE during workover operations are
shown in Fig. 6-27. Several rams used in workover operations are illustrated in
Fig. 6-28. Available rams in the sizes typically used in workovers are listed in Table
6-2.
Lesson 6 6-31
Figure 6-27 Types of ram blocks
Lesson 6 6-33
Table 6-2 Typical Ram Preventers Used in Workovers
Nominal Size
4-1/16" 7-1/16" 9" 11"
3,000 psi Shaffer LWP Shaffer LWP Shaffer LWS
Cameron U Cameron U
5,000 psi Shaffer LWS Shaffer LWS Shaffer LWS Shaffer LWS
Working Cameron G-2 Cameron U Cameron U
Pressure 10,000 psi Shaffer LWS Shaffer SL Cameron U
Cameron G-2 Cameron U
Cameron QRC Hydril Sentinel
15,000 psi Cameron QRC Shaffer SL Cameron U
Cameron U
Hydril Sentinel
Lesson 6 6-35
Figure 6-29 Full-opening safety valves
Gray IBOP
The most common type of IBOP is the Gray IBOP, or “Gray valve” (Fig. 6-30).
When stripping is required, the crew installs the IBOP above a full-opening safety
valve. The full-opening valve can then be opened and both valves stripped into the
hole. The IBOP will hold back the wellbore pressure and allow circulation through
the completion string.
Lesson 6 6-37
Figure 6-31 Drop-in check valve
Chokes
Chokes are used to control back pressure in the well during well control operations.
They are available in both manual (hand-adjustable) and hydraulic remote control
types in various pressure ratings.
Manual chokes (Fig. 6-33) typically have a tapered stem and a beveled seat that
together form an orifice for controlling fluid flow and pressure. Fluid is allowed to
flow through the orifice while the amount of back pressure is controlled by by
turning the handwheel to adjust the amount of stem that is forced into the seat. The
stem and seat are normally made of tungsten carbide, which resists the abrasive
effect of the fluids flowing past them under turbulent flow conditions.
Lesson 6 6-39
Hydraulically operated remote chokes (Fig. 6-33) are normally located in the choke
and kill manifold, but they are operated from a remote control panel on the rig floor
(Fig. 6-34). This enables the choke operator to better communicate with the driller
during the kill procedure. Remotely operated choke systems have additional
features not found on manual chokes:
• Variable-speed control of choke
• Both casing and tubing pressure gauges on panel
• Pump stroke counters on panel
• Hand-pump operation in emergency
Production chokes (Fig. 6-35) are normally attached to the Christmas tree’s wing
valve (shown in Fig. 6-16). They serve a purpose similar to their drilling and
workover counterparts in that they restrict flow. Production flow can be restricted
when the production string has a volume limitation or there is an excessive amount
of abrasive solids.
Production chokes are of two types: positive and adjustable. Positive chokes use an
insert of a desired size to achieve the restriction. Several styles of adjustable
production chokes use mechanisms such as dart and seat, needle and seat, and gate
and seat to achieve restriction. Fig. 6-35 shows two models by Cameron, a positive
choke and an adjustable choke.
Lesson 6 6-41
Figure 6-35 Positive and adjustable production chokes
Accumulators
Accumulator are bottle-shaped steel cylinders that are often mounted on the same
skid as the BOP closing unit (see Fig. 6-36). Offshore they can be installed
elsewhere on the rig and connected to the closing unit. Accumulators store energy in
the form of pressurized BOP control fluid, which is used to open and close BOPs
Lesson 6 6-43
and valves when required. The closing unit pumps BOP control fluid into the
bottles, which contain a nitrogen gas precharge. This action compresses the gas,
increases its pressure, and traps energy in the control fluid to be used later.
The volume of control fluid inside the bottles between the maximum system
pressure and a pressure 200 psi above the precharge is called the “useable” volume
(see Fig. 6-40). The Schlumberger Well Control Manual requires that the rig’s
closing unit supply a significant amount of useable volume and that a test be carried
out to verify that this amount is actually being supplied (see “Accumulator Tests”
on page 6-51). Because of the 200 psi safety margin, the useable fluid volume is
less than the actual fluid volume inside the accumulators.
Figure 6-37 Data needed for calculating useable accumulator volume—BOP stack
As shown in Fig. 6-40, useable volume can be calculated with a simplified equation
based on the gas law presented earlier (see “The Barrier Concept” on page 2-40).
The sample calculation is based on the crew’s implementation of the following
Schlumberger procedure, as specified in the Schlumberger Well Control Manual
(p. 87).
With the charging pump off, have sufficient fluid volume to accomplish the
following (with accumulator pressure at least 200 psi above precharge remaining):
1 Close annular.
2 Close rams (except blind rams).
3 Open all HCRs.
Lesson 6 6-45
4 Reopen annular.
5 Reopen rams.
6 Close all HCRs.
7 Close annular.
8 Open HCR for choke line.
Given:
Useable volume equation (see step 2 below)
BOP stack (from Fig. 6-37)
Closing unit below (from Fig. 6-38)
Table of open/close volumes (from Fig. 6-39)
Lesson 6 6-47
Control Panels
Control panels such as the one shown in Fig. 6-41 allow the BOPs to be operated
away from the closing unit itself. The one shown below is located on the rig floor.
On land rigs, similar panels are often placed a safe distance from the rig floor. On
offshore locations, additional remote panels are sometimes placed in the
toolpusher’s office. Remote panels have a master control that must be activated and
held in position while operating the BOPs.
Another device, a two-way check valve, seals pressure from above or below. A
BPV is replaced with the two-way check valve in order to test the BOPs. The design
of the two-way check valve allows for bleeding of any trapped pressure from below
the valve.
A long rod called a dry rod is used to install and remove either the BPVs or the two-
way check valves. The dry rod has right-handed threads on one end to engage valve
threads on valves with a similar ID. The OD threads on the valves are left-handed
(see Fig. 6-42). Consequently, when removing the valves, the rod is turned to the
right until it bottoms out (this action also unseats the check inside the valve and
releases any trapped pressure below the valve). Continued turning to the right backs
the left-handed OD threads on the BPV out of the tubing hanger. Because pressure
may be released during this operation, a lubricator should be used. Injuries and
fatalities have occurred when lubricators were not used. Only trained personnel are
allowed to install and remove these valves.
Lesson 6 6-49
Initial BOP System Pressure Test
Upon installation of BOP equipment on a well, the crew should pressure-test the
following components:
• BOP stack
• Choke manifold
• Kill line and valves
• Floor safety valves
For all these components, a low-pressure test (200-300 psi) should be carried out
first, followed by a high-pressure test. The pressure for the high-pressure test should
not exceed the lowest of the following:
• Maximum anticipated surface pressure
• Wellhead working pressure
• 70% of the minimum internal yield pressure of the casing
If the casing has been de-rated due to wear or damage, this de-rated value should
not be exceeded. Check the well records for information about casing and wellhead
pressure ratings. Annulars should be tested to 50% of their rating on the high-
pressure test in accordance with the Schlumberger Well Control Manual.
High-pressure tests should be held for 10 minutes with no visible leaks and no loss
of pressure once it has stabilized. Low-pressure tests should be held for 5 minutes.
The test procedure should specify whether a chart recorder is to be used to record
pressures and make a permanent test record. In some areas using a recorder and
maintaining a permanent test record is mandatory (e.g., in U.S. government waters).
If a recorder is required, make sure it has been calibrated and is certified as accurate.
It should also have a one-hour or a four-hour clock to ensure that the line drawn by
the recorder’s pen is long enough to interpret a 5- or 10-minute test.
The precharge can be checked offline by rig personnel before the BOPs are nippled
up.
Accumulator Tests
The accumulator test (see Schlumberger Well Control Manual) checks the condition
of the bottles in the accumulator system. The test verifies the useable volume
capacity and the capability of the closing unit’s charging pumps. The test procedure
is as follows:
1 Check accumulator pressure gauge for a full charge. (This will be 1,500 psi,
2,000 psi, or 3,000 psi, depending on the unit.)
2 Isolate the charging pump(s) from the accumulator.
3 Position the work string in the stack for a close-in (that is, make sure the tool
joint is clear of all rams).
4 Close the annular preventer.
5 Sequentially close each pipe ram (not blind or blind/shear rams).
6 Open all HCR valves.
7 Open the annular preventer.
8 Open each pipe ram.
9 Close all HCR valves.
10 Open the HCR valve on the choke line.
Lesson 6 6-51
11 Record the accumulator pressure. It should be at least 200 psi above the
precharge. A low final pressure may indicate damaged accumulator bladders, a
low precharge, improper regulator settings, or a system with insufficient
accumulator volume to meet the Schlumberger requirements (see accumulator
volume calculations in Fig. 6-40). You must obtain an exemption to operate
with a lower total accumulator volume than the standard.
12 Engage the accumulator pump(s). Record recharge time, which should be less
than 15 minutes.
The time recorded should be less than 2 minutes. If not, the crew should check for
restrictions in opening and closing lines, plugged fluid strainers, regulator
malfunctions, or pump condition.
This test need not be repeated during the workover unless the correct hydraulic
operating pressure becomes difficult to maintain—for example, if the system is
continually leaking off and the pumps are kicking in.
Periodic Testing
The Schlumberger Well Control Manual specifies a pressure test interval for BOPE
of 14 days, not to exceed 21 days. A more frequent interval is advisable for
workovers. The U.S. government requires a 7-day interval for workover BOPE but
allows the 14-day interval for drilling BOPE for federal lands and offshore. The
well control incident rate and equipment failure rate are statistically higher in
workover operations where well kills are much more frequent. Furthermore, erosive
fluids, sand, scale, and debris are often circulated through the system for extended
periods of time and can damage the equipment.
If any component in the BOP stack or the choke manifold, the choke or kill line, the
floor safety valves, or the control unit has been repaired or replaced or if it is not
functioning consistently, it should be thoroughly pressure-tested and function-tested
before it is put back in service.
Consider a daily function test, verifying the mechanical condition and operation of
the following components:
• All preventers (do not close the blind rams if there is tubing in the BOP stack)
• Choke and kill stack valves
Lesson 6 6-53
• Choke and kill manifold valves
Shop Tests
The service company should shop-test (i.e., not on the well) both slickline and
braided line lubricator assemblies to 1.5 times the working pressure of the
equipment every six months. In the shop, the lubricator is assembled with the
control head, wireline BOPs, riser sections, and tree connection and then pressure-
tested as a functional unit. Check the documentation of the test and match the serial
numbers in the documents with those on the actual equipment provided.
Vacuum Degasser
The vacuum degasser (Fig. 6-43) uses vacuum pressure to extract gas from drilling
or completion fluid. The degassed fluid is returned to a pit and the gas is vented.
Fig. 6-44 illustrates the degassing operation. Gas-cut fluid enters the vessel through
the inlet line. The fluid spills out over the baffle plate and the gas is extracted with
assistance from the internal vacuum. Degassed fluid exits the vessel and returns to
the tanks while the extracted gas flows up and out of the vent line. The vent line is
run to a safe area on the location, typically up the rig’s derrick. The float valve
controls the liquid level inside the vessel at the optimum level.
Lesson 6 6-55
Figure 6-44 Degassing operation
Echometer
This device is used to determine the top of the liquid level and the number of tubing
collars (connections) to that point. The most commonly used version is
manufactured by the Echometer company. The proper name of the instrument is the
acoustic liquid level strip chart recorder. In the oilfield, however, it is simply called
an echometer.
The operator counts the number of collar reflections to the liquid level and
multiplies by the average length of the tubing joints to determine the distance to the
liquid level.
Lesson 6 6-57
6-58 Well Control for Workover Operations
WELL CONTROL COMPLICATIONS
7
Lesson Overview
This lesson covers the complications that can arise during workover well control
operations. It also describes the tools and proven techniques that workover
professionals use to solve these problems or minimize their impact.
Lesson Objectives
After reading this lesson and completing its workbook assignment, you should be
able to:
• Describe the tools and procedures used to locate and seal undesired holes in
tubing.
• Describe the tools and methods used to gain tubing-to-casing communication:
• Shifting a sliding sleeve
• Pulling a gas-lift dummy valve
• Perforating the tubing
• Calculate the differential pressure before gaining tubing-to-casing
communication.
• Explain the need for surface pressure stabilization after gaining tubing-to-casing
communication.
Lesson 7 7-1
• Describe the potential problems that can arise when reversing gas kicks,
including the following:
• Equipment failures
• Choke operation problems
• Gas handling
• Explain the problems that can occur on the choke or work string while
circulating.
• Describe the requirements for handling unexpected changes in gauge readings.
• Describe consequences of trapped pressure below packers when doing a
workover and the techniques for remediating this problem.
• Describe situations requiring a pump-through string check valve.
Holes in Tubing
Holes in the tubing string create undesirable communication, or leaks, between the
tubing and casing, which complicates well control operations. Even a relatively
simple operation like bullheading can become difficult if leaks have developed
between the strings. One of the best ways to seal or pack off the leak is to install a
pack-off assembly, which can be conveyed and set by means of either wireline or
coiled tubing.
The first step in packing off the holes is to locate the area of communication by
using a collar stop running tool and a ponytail. The collar stop running tool
(Fig. 7-1) is used to install a stop in 8-round tubing (8 rounded threads per inch) to
keep wireline and other tools from falling out the end of the tubing if they are
inadvertently dropped. The stop is essential with any side-pocket gas-lift work
because it prevents the loss of a dropped gas-lift dummy or valve.
A ponytail (Fig. 7-1) is a piece of shredded fabric, softline, or similar material that
is attached to the collar stop running tool and then run into the well at a fairly slow
rate while pressure is gradually bled from the casing. When the shredded material
passes one or more holes in the tubing, it gets sucked into the holes, momentarily
slowing the tool string or stopping it altogether, depending on the size of the holes.
As the WSS, you can record the depth or depths at which the running tool
If the procedure is successful, the holes will be packed off, allowing fluid to be
pumped down the spacer pipe while isolating the tubing and casing from each other.
Lesson 7 7-3
Figure 7-2 Pack-off assembly
As Fig. 7-2 shows, the upper and lower pack-offs provide a seal above and below
the hole in the tubing. The upper end of the spacer pipe is screwed into the upper
pack-off, and the lower portion of the spacer is “stung in” to the lower pack-off. The
lower pack-off has a polished-bore receptacle that receives the lower end of the
spacer pipe, which is equipped with seals. The pack-off can be tested by bleeding
pressure from the casing. If the casing pressure bleeds down and does not build
back up, the pack-off is holding pressure.
Tubing-to-Casing Communication
In some workover cases, it is preferable to use a circulating kill technique instead of
a noncirculating one. A circulating kill technique requires communication, or flow,
between the tubing and the casing. The workover crew can establish communication
between the two strings with one of the following methods:
Regardless of the method used, the crew establishes the communication with
wireline tools conveyed either by wireline or coiled tubing.
Before attempting to establish communication with one of these methods, the WSS
and crew must determine whether there is any differential pressure between tubing
and casing at the depth of the desired communication. For more information on
differential pressure calculations and the impact of this differential on gaining
communication at a specific depth, see “Determining Differential Pressure” on
page 7-10.
There are two types of sliding sleeves. One type is shifted up to open while the other
type is shifted down to open. The WSS should verify the type of sliding sleeve and
advise the wireline company so that the appropriate shifting tool will be provided.
Lesson 7 7-5
Figure 7-3 Shifting sliding sleeve to open position
Once the valves are in place, gas is injected in the casing, entering the mandrel
through the gas ports. These ports align with other ports on the gas-lift valve. The
gas moves through these ports to enter the tubing string. The gas then lightens the
Workover crews can also use the ports on side-pocket mandrels to establish
communication from tubing to casing when needed. The crew orients a special
kickover tool to latch onto and pull the gas dummy or valve from its location in the
side pocket (see Fig. 7-5). Once the valve or dummy is out of the pocket, the ports
in the pocket are exposed, providing communication from tubing to casing.
Lesson 7 7-7
Figure 7-5 Extracting dummy valve from side-pocket mandrel
Lesson 7 7-9
Determining Differential Pressure
Whatever the method used to gain communication from tubing to casing, it is
important that you first determine whether any casing-to-tubing pressure
differential exists at the depth of the desired communication.
If there is a positive differential (i.e., total annular pressure is greater than total
tubing pressure at the depth of interest) from casing to tubing, the wireline tool
string could get blown up the hole or the coiled tubing could be forced into
sinusoidial buckling, possibly requiring a fishing job. If there is a negative
differential (i.e., total tubing pressure at the depth of interest is greater than total
annular pressure), it could make shifting a sleeve or pulling a gas-lift dummy
difficult or impossible. Furthermore, pulling a gas-lift dummy could result in
damage to the fishing neck (a special male connection on the dummy valve that
mates with a female connection on a running/retrieving tool). This damage would
not only make the dummy impossible to remove in the future but also restrict well
production when gas lift is required at a later stage in the life of the well.
Calculations of total pressure at the depth of interest are required for both the tubing
and the casing. That is, to determine whether any pressure differential exists,
calculate total pressure down to the vertical depth of interest in both the annulus and
the tubing and then compare the two numbers. Fig. 7-8 illustrates these calculations.
Fig. 7-8 also gives the calculations to be performed before opening the sliding
sleeve to allow the well to be circulated dead prior to the workover.
Lesson 7 7-11
Differential Pressure (psi) =
Total Annular Pressure (psi) - Total Tubing Pressure (psi)
Example:
Given: Well information from Fig. 7-7
Find: Tubing-to-annulus pressure differential
1 Calculate Total Annular Pressure.
Total Annular Pressure = SICP + (0.052 × Fluid Weightppg × Depthvertical)
Total Annular Pressure = 0 psi + (0.052 × 11.1 × 11,518) = 6,648 psi
2 Calculate Total Tubular Hydrostatic Pressure.
Part A: Gas Hydrostatic
Gas Hydrostatic = Gas Gradient × Lengthvertical
Gas Hydrostatic = 0.115 × 4,754 = 546.7
Part B: Oil Hydrostatic
Compensate for temperature:
(Observed Temp - 60)
Observed Density – ------------------------------ = API corrected
10
(112 - 60)
32.5 – ------------ = 27.3 API corrected
10
141.5
---------------- × 0.433 × ( 11,518 – 4,754 ) = 2,609.7 = 2,610 psi
131.5 + 27.3
In either case, some effort should be made to equalize or at least minimize the
differential that may be present before attempting to establish communication
between the tubing and the casing.
Surface pressures are affected by other factors, such as unknown fluid density in
both the tubing and casing, especially in a workover. Over time, the brine in the
packer fluid can settle out of solution and find its way to the packer. This settled
brine can pack around the sleeve and prevent fluid from flowing through it (see A in
Fig. 7-9), making it initially impossible to gain string-to-string communication,
even though a communication window has been opened via sliding sleeve, gas-lift
equipment, or perforation. This settling may also change the density of the fluid in
the annulus and create another unknown factor affecting stabilization.
The exact density of the fluids in the tubing may not be known, and if there is a
differential from casing to tubing, a U-tube pattern of flow is always a possibility
until a pressure equilibrium is established (see B in Fig. 7-9). A U-tube flow can
cause gauge readings to change. Moreover, if the well is not shut in, flow occurs
Lesson 7 7-13
from the casing to the tubing instead of from the formation. Accurately interpreting
surface pressure indicators becomes very difficult.
Figure 7-9 Effect of settled salt and U-tube flow on tubing-to-casing communication
Lesson 7 7-15
Figure 7-10 Types of backup safety valves
All lines used to direct flow from the tubing to the choke manifold should be clearly
marked and roped off. Personnel should remain clear of the area until the well is
dead and the kill operation has been completed.
Chokes
The chokes, both manual and remotely controlled, are other sources of potential
problems during reverse circulation. Remotely controlled chokes, pneumatic or
hydraulic, are not known for operating at very fast rates. And manual chokes, which
can be somewhat difficult to operate with no pressure on them, can be extremely
slow and arduous to operate while under pressure. As shown in the graph of reverse
circulation in Fig. 7-12, a fast-acting choke is a must. If the choke cannot be
manipulated in a timely fashion, the wellbore may become overpressured or more
influx may enter the well, prolonging the kill operation.
While reversing out a gas kick, the tubing back pressure must increase at a fairly
rapid rate to compensate for the severe loss of hydrostatic pressure from the
expanding gas. If the choke cannot keep up (i.e., maintain adequate back pressure),
bottomhole pressure will decrease and another kick can occur, making an already
serious situation even worse.
Lesson 7 7-17
After the gas has arrived at the surface and is being bled from the well, the annular
hydrostatic pressure begins to increase at a rapid rate. As a consequence, the
required back pressure must decrease relative to the increasing hydrostatic pressure.
If the choke cannot be opened fast enough, the bottomhole pressure will begin to
increase, maybe to dangerous levels.
In addition, the velocity of both liquids and gases passing through the choke can be
quite rapid due to the generally reduced internal diameter of the chicksan lines
connecting the work string to the choke manifold. This rapid flow rate can increase
the likelihood that the choke will wash out or cut out.
In contrast, if the kick is a liquid (oil or water), many of the potential problems
described above are not applicable. There will be no severe loss of hydrostatic
pressure because liquids do not expand as gas does. Instead of constantly increasing
surface pressure, the surface pressure would steadily decline.
Realistically, though, a liquid hydrocarbon influx rarely enters the well without
some associated gas. So in these cases there will probably be some increase in
surface pressure, but not nearly as much as there is with a primarily gas influx.
Atmospheric Degasser
If used during reverse circulation, the atmospheric degasser (Fig. 7-13), more
commonly known as the “gas buster,” can be a potential problem. The degasser
contains baffles arranged in a spiral configuration. As fluid enters the vessel and
flows over the baffles, it begins to spin. The heavier fluids gather toward the wall of
the vessel while the gas breaks out, rises to the top, and exits through the vent line.
The baffles increase the area over which the fluid flows, thus making it easier for
the gas to break out of the liquid.
The degasser’s efficiency is limited by its working pressure. The working pressure
is determined by the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the vessel and the back
pressure created by the diameter and length of the vent line.
The degasser will be most efficient with an adequate liquid seal and a short vent line
of a large internal diameter. If flow through the degasser is such that the back
Lesson 7 7-19
pressure exceeds the working pressure, however, the vessel will empty through the
dump line, which can create a potential hazard by dispersing gas around equipment
and personnel. Should the degasser “blow dry” and disperse the gas, the crew
should immediately close the choke and the stop the pump, then refill the vessel.
The well can then be brought back on choke but at a slower rate.
The degasser should be inspected and verified to be in proper working order before
attempting kill operations. It should also be properly sized for the upcoming
operation. Refer to the Schlumberger Well Control Manual for sizing requirements
and guidelines.
Choke Washout
A choke that is washing out or cutting out can be initially difficult to detect, but an
alert crew will notice certain warning signs. The first indication that the choke has
washed out is its failure to seal when fully closed. Another indication, though not as
noticeable, is a pattern of frequent choke adjustments during a stage of the kill
operation when such adjustments are not usually required. The solution is simple:
change to another choke after isolating the faulty choke using upstream and
downstream valves on the choke manifold. After the well is dead, the faulty choke
should be repaired, tested, and returned to service. If there is no other choke
available, you may have to replace the washed-out choke before proceeding with
the kill operation.
Plugged Choke
An increase in casing pressure followed by an increase in pump pressure can
indicate a plugged choke. Both pressures may rise sharply, and this sharp increase
can be very detrimental to the well. Another indicator of a plugged choke is a loss of
returns in conjunction with the sharp increase in pressures. Therefore, if the crew
notices that the choke has become plugged, they should immediately shut down the
pump.
Once the well is dead, the plugged choke should be cleaned out. This can be quite
hazardous, and in some cases, it would be advisable to turn this operation over to
specialists who are equipped to deal with the quantity of solids that may be trapped
in the choke body and the resulting high pressure. Any sudden release of pressure or
trapped solids could seriously injure or kill personnel nearby.
Lesson 7 7-21
Work-String Washout
Like the washed-out choke, a washed-out work string can be somewhat hard to
detect at first. In theory, as the string begins to wash out, pump pressure will
decline. However, the decline is so gradual that it often goes unnoticed. The hole
will continue enlarging until the tubing fails.
Another indication of a string washout is the premature return of kill weight fluid if
a lighter fluid is being replaced by a heavier one.
The floorhands should be made aware that most washouts occur at connections or in
slip areas and should watch for any of the telltale signs by inspecting each joint. At
the first sign of a washout, the joint in question should be removed from the work
string, laid aside, and painted with conspicuous red paint so it is not inadvertently
picked up and used again.
If pumping up the pressure does not remove the obstruction, then begin volumetric
well control and plan to perforate the work string to reestablish conventional well
control. For a review of this scenario, see “Volumetric Method” on page 3-40.
You should ensure that the packer’s bypass ports have been functioned prior to
unseating the packer. Doing this relieves trapped pressure by equalizing it above
and below the packer.
In addition, verify that you have sufficient hydrostatic pressure above the packer to
ensure primary well control prior to unseating the packer.
To avoid this uncontrolled flow, you should run a pump-through string check valve
into the hole. The check valve sealing assembly can be a plunger type or a flapper
type similar to a drilling float. Both seat in landing subs installed in the work string.
Lesson 7 7-23
7-24 Well Control for Workover Operations
WSS ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
8
Lesson Overview
As the WSS, you have many responsibilities and roles during a workover. You will
work primarily through a contractor and service companies that physically perform
the work while you manage the operation. You will have financial, administrative,
safety, logistics, documentation, and reporting functions as well as everyday
decision-making responsibilities. As with most jobs, workovers are done in two
phases: a planning phase and an implementation phase. This lesson will explain
your responsibilities in each area, with the primary focus on well control. Well
control documentation and reporting will also be discussed.
Lesson Objectives
After reading this lesson and completing its workbook assignment, you should be
able to:
• Read and understand a written workover procedure, including typical
abbreviations and wellbore schematics.
• Understand your well control responsibilities in planning and implementing a
workover.
• Document pertinent well control information during and after a workover.
Lesson 8 8-1
Planning and Preparation
Planning and preparing for a workover operation entails a variety of activities:
• Reviewing and understanding the workover procedure
• Interpreting correlation logs
• Coordinating with the production department
• Communicating with the wireline provider
• Checking the Christmas tree
• Reviewing simultaneous operations (SIMOPS)
• Reviewing the workover procedure with rig personnel
• Calculating tankage requirements
• Verifying well control training of contractor personnel
• Complying with the H2S standard
• Reviewing BOP test and shut-in procedures
Lesson 8 8-3
• Presence of any obstructions (such as doglegs).
• Inspection and testing requirements for wireline equipment.
• Special safety instructions related to simultaneous operations. Operations such
as drilling and workover or workover and production take place simultaneously
in some areas, both offshore and land.
• Lubricator and wireline BOP requirements.
Lesson 8 8-5
Verifying Well Control Training
You should verify that the rig contractor’s personnel (at least the supervisor and
driller) have received formal workover well control training and possess valid
certificates. There are two widely accepted certificates for workover well control
training:
• Completion/Workover Well Control, Supervisory Level Certificate. This
certificate is issued by the International Association of Drilling Contractors
(IADC) under the organization’s WellCAP program and is printed with the
familiar IADC logo.
• Completion and Workover Supervisor Certificate. This certificate was issued by
the U.S. Minerals Management Service (MMS) prior to 15 October 2002. The
MMS no longer issues this certificate.
Each type of certificate is valid for two years. Its expiration date should be checked.
A third certifying agency, the International Well Control Forum (IWCF), issues
drilling and well intervention well control certificates, but it does not issue
workover well control certificates at this time. IWCF well intervention training
covers wireline, coiled tubing, and snubbing operations. If these operations are part
of the workover, you may require that the wireline, coiled tubing, or snubbing
operators possess the appropriate certificate. IADC also issues these certificates,
and MMS issued them prior to 15 October 2002.
After a drill debrief the crew, pointing out the positive aspects of their performance
first and then discussing areas for improvement. Make sure that they understand
your expectations. Drills are normally conducted weekly unless poor performance
demands a greater frequency. If the rig operates around the clock, drills should be
Lesson 8 8-7
carried out with all crews. Reasonable drill procedures can be adapted from the
drilling well control procedures provided in the Schlumberger Well Control
Manual. These procedures consist of the following:
While circulating
1 WSS initiates drill by signaling crew that it has begun. Record start time.
2 Driller stops rotation (if applicable) and picks up string to predetermined
elevation.
3 Driller stops pumps and conducts flow check.
4 WSS says to driller, “The well is flowing.”
5 Driller sounds alarm to crew (observe whether crew responds to alarm).
6 Drillers simulates annular closure (observe whether driller knows to use master
air valve before and during functioning “annular close”).
7 Record finish time.
In general, a proficient crew should be able to carry out these steps in two minutes
or less. Make sure that the drill results are logged in the daily report.
BOP Stack
• Stack properly installed and braced.
• BOP bodies installed right side up (choke and kill outlets below centerline).
• Stack and hydraulic lines free of visible leaks.
• Hydraulic lines adequately protected.
• Safe and accessible remote location for operating BOPs.
• Manual handwheels available for operating ram preventers.
• Adequate scaffolding available for safe nippling up and down of BOPs,
installation of flowline, and similar tasks.
• Operating manual for rams and annulars available with manufacturer’s
information, such as recommended annular closing pressure for stripping,
location of ram weepholes, and normal operating pressures.
• Weepholes on Shaffer ram BOPs not plugged (see “Recommendations for the
Installation and Use of Ram Preventers” on page 6-34).
• BOP test tool (if required) available and inspected.
• Annular preventer element made of correct chemical compound as indicated by
color code (see Table 6-1).
Lesson 8 8-9
• Correct accumulator precharge in all bottles.
• Accumulator bottles not isolated from closing unit with closed valves.
Choke Manifold
• Lines properly anchored to resist vibration and whip.
• Gauges in good condition and positioned to be visible to choke operator.
• Equipment free of signs of leaks.
• All valve wheels or handles in place.
• Chokes accessible.
• Valves lubricated and capable of one-man operation.
• Valve position correct (open or closed).
• Bypass line (also called the “blow-down line”) lined up to flare pit.
Other
• Inside BOP and work string safety valve with proper connections available on
floor.
• Wrenches to close safety valves available and easily accessible.
• Pump relief valve calibrated and at correct level for control system rating.
• Pump relief valve vent line anchored securely.
• Pump stroke counter (if installed) functional.
• PVT system and flowmeter (if installed) functional.
Establishing Communication
It is your responsibility to establish and maintain positive communication with the
contractor and other well-site personnel. Your attitude and conduct will be seen and
noticed by the crews and will in turn affect their attitude and performance. Take the
necessary time to inform contract personnel what is expected of them. Establish an
open-door policy with those under your authority. Be objective, precise, consistent,
receptive, and fair in your decisions. Above all, be sure all the crew members fully
understand their job assignments.
Lesson 8 8-11
line and observe the well for flow through the tree wing valve. Also open the
appropriate valve on the casing head and check for annulus flow. If you observe
flow:
• Shut the casing head valve(s).
• Shut in the well.
• Monitor the pressure(s).
• Consider increasing the fluid density and rekilling the well.
3 Monitor fluid level.
If fluid level drops steadily, consider the following options:
• Refill and keep hole fill with kill pump.
• Consider decreasing fluid weight (only to the point of near balance). If the
initial kill fluid is, say, 200 psi overbalanced, reduce it to 50 psi and try
again.
• Mix and spot a fluid loss pill across the loss zone and continue to monitor
(see “Mixing and Spotting a Kill Pill” on page 5-24).
• Set back the pressure valves and nipple down the tree while filling the hole
and accepting the losses.
4 Install the back-pressure valves.
Some BPVs are set with wireline inside the tubing in landing nipples already in
the completion. Another style of BPV is set mechanically in the tubing head just
below the tree. These mechanical barriers must be in place before you nipple
down the tree in step 5. If a wireline BPV is being used, follow this procedure:
• Install the wireline rams and lubricator on top of the tree while monitoring
the well.
• Pressure-test the wireline rams and lubricator assembly.
• Install the BPV with wireline. Client policy may dictate setting more than
one valve.
5 Nipple down the tree and nipple up the BOP.
Make sure that the wellhead service technician is on hand to inspect and service
the tree as required. Have additional studs and nuts available in case any of the
Lesson 8 8-13
10 Reinstall the wireline set plugs or BPVs.
11 Nipple down the BOPs.
12 Reinstall the Christmas tree.
Witness a new ring gasket being installed in the tubing head adapter flange. The
ring groove should be wiped clean and dry before the gasket is installed. Verify
that undamaged studs and nuts are used in the connection and that the nuts are
tightened evenly and gradually to avoid loading one side of the connection and
damaging the ring gasket. If a BPV was used, retrieve it and replace it with a
two-way check valve to allow pressure testing.
13 Pressure-test the Christmas tree and flanges.
If you are working in an area requiring test documentation, signed chart
recordings will be required, as in step 7.
14 Retrieve wireline plugs or BPVs.
The well is now ready to be turned back over to production.
Important Note: When it is necessary to change operational steps outlined in an
approved workover program or procedure, IT IS MANDATORY THAT YOU
FOLLOW A MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE PROCESS as per Schlumberger
IPM standards (see “IPM Standards” on page A-14 in the Appendix).
Daily Information
Daily information is required to make sound well control decisions, to manage
change, and provide a handover aid for your relief on 24-hour rigs. Daily
information includes the following:
• Volume and density of kill fluid used.
• Description of kill procedures, including method used, pressure history, time
breakdown, volumes pumped, and any complications such as equipment failure
or lost circulation.
End-of-Job Information
Remember that the well you just worked over will most likely be worked over again
(the average interval in land areas of the United States is about five years). For well
control planning purposes on future workovers, it is essential to document the
following on the well report:
• Formation pressure at each known point.
• Presence of H2S and concentration.
• Location and description of fish left in the hole.
• Any known casing deratings or other pressure limitations.
• Wellbore configuration.
• All casing and tubing strings, including their TVDs, measured depths, nominal
sizes, weight per foot, and grade.
• TVD, measured depth, and description of nipples, gas-lift valves, flow control
devices, and chemical injection ports.
Lesson 8 8-15
• Location and description of downhole or surface safety valves.
• Location and description of control lines and/or chemical injection lines.
• Location and description of downhole pumping devices in artificial-lift wells.
• Location of each producing zone, including perf intervals, packer depths, and
descriptions.
• Location of any abandoned zones, including depths and details of cement plugs
and bridge plugs.
• Description of packer fluid and density.
• All lengths, IDs, ODs, fishing neck sizes and lengths, and all connection types
throughout the completion.
Objective: Clean out well to the dual packer at 10310'. Squeeze off the I-3 and J-4
sands.
Recomplete well as a single in the H-2 sand (non-gravel-packed) with perforations
from 8651' to 8673', 8678'-8684', 8696'-8702', shot at 12 SPF with DP charges.
Current Status: Well shut in waiting on rig. SITP: LS-125 psi; SS-1700 psi
H-2 Sand
1. Have a rig move package with pipeline map and site clearance letter on board
prior to moving off present location. Shut in wells. Move rig onto location from the
northwest. Jack up and skid rig to the H-5 slot and make rig operational.
2. Kill well with 9.6 ppg NaCl water. Set BPVs in long and short string. Use CIW
2" Type H back-pressure valves. Tubing hangers have 2-3/8' EUE 8rd connections
on top. Lock open SCSSSV. Nipple down tree.
3. Nipple up BOPs. Install blind rams in middle ram. Install 2-3/8' - 3-1/2' VBR in
bottom ram. Install 2-3/8" dual rams in top ram. Test BOPE to 3,500 /5,000 psi.
4. Rig up line and make gauge run to set a magna range plug. Run magna range plug
and set in SWS nipple at 10,714'. Test plug to 1,000 psi. Dump 25' of cement on top.
5. Rig up E-line and lubricator on short string. Make jet cut in short string at
10,285'. Rig up on long string and cut tubing at 10,295'.
Lesson 8 8-17
6. Rig up dual slips and elevators and POOH until both SCSSSVs have been laid
down. Hang long string off in slips and continue POOH with short string standing
back Use 2-3/8' tubing as work string. Have solid protectors and duct tape onboard.
If tubing is not good enough for work string use, lay it down. Have it checked for
Norm at the dock prior to unloading it from the boat.
7. Change out top rams to 2-7/8" pipe rams and test to 5,000 psi.
8. Make bit and scraper run to top of tubing using the 2-3/8" BTS-8 tubing as a work
string.
9. Pick up a 7-5/8", 39-ppf cement retainer on 2-3/8" tubing and TIH to top of the
tubing stub at 10,285'. Set retainer and test to 1,000 psi. Squeeze off the J-4 and I-3
sands with 150 cubic feet of 16.2 ppg cement. If possible, squeeze to 1,000 psi over
injection pressure. Dump 50' of cement on top of retainer. Reverse out at top of
cement plug.
11. Pick up a 7-5/8", 39 ppf Model D packer on the work string and RIH to 8,300'.
Set packer and test to 1,000 psi.
12. POOH laying down work string. Seal connections with solid protectors and duct
tape.
13. Rig up tubing longs. Tubing is 2-7/8", 6.5 ppf, L-8O, ABC Mod. Run 2-7/8"
tubing as per completion diagram. Tubing will not be torq-turned or internally
tested. Seal assembly will be tested at the shop to 5,000 psi and will have its test
chart. It will have a 6' pup joint installed for internally testing the top connection.
Tri City Tools will supply the 2-7/8" SCSSSV. Tubing hanger will also have a 6'
pup installed and will have been tested. Hanger running thread is a 2-7/8" ABC
Mod connection. Have enough tubing or proper crossovers onboard to land tubing
string. Sting in and test seals to 1,000 psi. Space out. Pick up and displace annulus
with corrosion inhibitor and land tubing string and test annulus to 1,000 psi.
(If well is taking fluid, reverse in inhibitor. Discuss final completion fluid weight
with office before reversing in inhibitor.)
16. Nipple down BOP's and nipple up tree. Pull BPV and install two-way check.
Test tree to 5,000 psi. Pull two-way check.
17. Rig up E-line and lubricator with grease injector. Test lubricator to 3,000 psi.
Pick up 2" hollow carrier perf guns loaded with 6 SPF of DP charges to perforate
the H-2 sand from 8,651 to 8,673' and 8,678' - 8,684' and 8,696' - 8,702' @ 12 SPF.
Discuss the use of an underbalance with the office prior to rigging up E-line.
19. Shut in at SCSSSV and X-mas tree. Hand over the paperwork (5 documents) for
the tree and SCSSSV to production operations. Make sure they get it.
Lesson 8 8-19
• Water Depth: 158'
• Original KBE:111'
• Original KBE to THF:
49'
• Rig: Deep Driller 3
• Tree: 2-1/16" 5M x
2-1/16" 5M Dual (CIW)
• Tbg Hgr Conn (Top):
2-3/8" EUE 8rd
• Tbg Hgr Conn (Btm):
2-3/8" 4.7 ppf, BTS-8
• Tubing: 2-3/8", 4.7 ppf,
L-80, BTS-8 with Ceram
Kote in top 4,650' of
tubing
• Completion Fluid:
10.5 ppg CaCl
Lesson 8 8-21
Abbreviations and Terminology
The following list contains explanations for the abbreviations and terms used in the
sample workover procedure. These explanations will help you understand this
sample procedure as well as other workover procedures you will be exposed to in
the field.
LS Long string
SS Short string
MASP from MASP in this case stands for maximum allowable surface
MW-0.5ppg-PFG pressure. PFG stands for the fracture gradient of the
formation. What is calculated is the maximum allowed casing
pressure that, when added to the pressure of the annular fluid,
would exert a pressure on the formation equal to its fracture
strength (less a 0.5 ppg equivalent). This calculation is
required by regulatory authorities for drilling operations but is
not applicable in workovers.
MMCFPD Millions of cubic feet (of gas) per day. (In other procedures,
you may see the term MMSCFD, millions of standard cubic
feet per day.) A standard cubic foot is a cubic foot of gas at
60°F and 14.7 psi.
Jet Cut or Jet Cutter A device used to cut tubing using explosive charges
ABC Mod L-80 ABC Mod is a tubing coupling modified with an internal
machined groove fitted with a Teflon seal.
Torq Turned A process using a torquing device that makes up the tubing
connection to a selected, specific torque and records the
torque applied to each connection.
Lesson 8 8-23
Swab Unit A self-contained unit used to swab the fluids from the inside
of the tubing and create an intentional underbalance in order
to initiate production. Swab cups are pulled up the inside of
the tubing with braided line attached to a hoist similar to a
drawworks.
KBE to THF A measurement from the rig floor (kelly bushing estimated) to
the tubing hanger flange (THF).
The sample workover procedure provides you with basic instructions, job steps, and
a certain level of detail to work from. The following information, however, is
noticeably missing:
1 The well kill procedure to be used.
2 Desired workover fluid properties, additives, allowable solids, and turbidity
limits.
Glossary G-1
Bactericide An additive that kills bacteria. Bactericides are commonly used in water muds
containing natural starches and gums that are especially vulnerable to bacterial
attack. Bactericide choices are limited; they must be effective and yet approved by
governments and by company policy.
Balanced fluid The fluid weight equivalent of the formation pressure for a particular well.
weight
Ballooning The loss of whole fluid into preexisting formation fractures while circulating. When
circulation stops, the fluid flows back into the wellbore, giving the appearance of a
kick.
Barrier Any impervious material or device that temporarily or permanently prevents the
flow of wellbore and reservoir fluids.
Blast joint A section of heavy-walled tubing that is placed across any perforated interval
through which the production tubing must pass, such as may be required in
multiple-zone completions. In addition to being heavier than normal completion
components, the wall of a blast joint is often treated to resist the jetting action that
may result in the proximity of the perforations.
Blind ram A thick, heavy steel component of a conventional ram blowout preventer. In a
normal pipe ram, the two blocks of steel that meet in the center of the wellbore to
seal the well have a hole (one-half of the hole on each piece) through which the pipe
fits. The blind ram has no space for pipe and is instead blanked off in order to be
able to close over a well that does not contain a drill string. See also Blowout
preventer (BOP).
Blowout A large valve at the top of a well that can be closed if the crew loses control of
preventer formation fluids. By closing this valve (usually operated remotely via hydraulic
(BOP) actuators), the crew can usually initiate procedures to increase the mud density until
it is possible to open the BOP and retain control of the formation. BOPs come in a
variety of styles, sizes, and pressure ratings. Most BOP stacks contain at least one
annular BOP at the top of the BOP stack, and one or more ram BOPs below. The
sealing element of an annular BOP resembles a large rubber doughnut that is
mechanically squeezed inward to seal either pipe (drill collars, drillpipe, casing, or
tubing) or the open hole. A ram BOP consists of two halves of a cover for the well
that are split down the middle. Large-diameter hydraulic cylinders, normally
retracted, force the two halves of the cover together in the middle to seal the
wellbore. Other designs have a circular cutout in the middle that corresponds to the
pipe diameter so they can seal the well when pipe is in the hole. Annular BOPs can
seal a variety of pipe sizes whereas ram BOPs are effective in sealing a more limited
range.
Glossary G-3
conditions. Some designs are less tolerant of debris, while others may obstruct the
bore of the conduit or tubing in which the check valve is fitted.
Chicksan A flexible coupling or swivel joint used in high-pressure lines.
Choke A device with an orifice installed in a line to restrict the flow rate of fluids or
downstream system pressure. Surface chokes are part of the Christmas tree on a
well. Chokes are also used to control the rate of flow of the drilling mud out of the
hole when the well is closed in with the blowout preventer and a kick is being
circulated out of the hole. Adjustable chokes enable the fluid flow and pressure
parameters to be changed to suit process or production requirements. Chokes can be
manually operated or hydraulically operated from the remote control panel.
Choke washout See Washout.
Circulating See Bottomhole pressure.
bottomhole
pressure
Circulating A procedure using the fluid circulating system and having a return path for the fluid.
well control
procedure
Christmas tree An assembly of valves, spools, pressure gauges, and chokes fitted to the wellhead of
a completed well to control production. Christmas trees are available in a wide
range of sizes and configurations—such as low- or high-pressure capacity and
single- or multiple-completion capacity, depending on the type of well and its
production characteristics. The Christmas tree provides primary and backup control
facilities for normal production and wellbore shut-in. It also incorporates facilities
to enable safe access for well intervention operations such as slickline, electric
wireline, or coiled tubing.
Closing unit A generic term given to the hydraulic power pack and accumulators used to control
the blowout preventers on a drilling or workover rig.
Coiled tubing 1. A long, continuous length of flexible steel tubing wound onto a reel. The pipe is
straightened prior to pushing it into a wellbore and recoiled to spool it back onto the
transport and storage spool. Depending on the tubing diameter (1 in. to 4 1/2 in.)
and the spool size, coiled tubing can range from 2,000 ft to 15,000 ft or more in
length. 2. A generic term relating to the use of a coiled tubing string and associated
equipment. As a well-intervention method, coiled tubing techniques offer several
key benefits. The ability to work safely under live well conditions, with a
continuous string, enables fluids to be pumped at any time regardless of the position
or direction of travel. Installing an electrical conductor or hydraulic conduit further
Glossary G-5
Density The mass or weight of a substance per unit of volume. With drilling fluids, density
is typically reported in pounds per barrel. See also API gravity.
Density cut A reduction in the density of the wellbore fluid caused by the invasion of formation
fluid.
Differential See Delta force.
force
Differential In general, a measurement of fluid force per unit area (measured in units such as
pressure pounds per square in.) subtracted from a higher measurement of fluid force per unit
area. This comparison could be made between pressures outside and inside a pipe, a
pressure vessel, before and after an obstruction in a flow path, or simply between two
points along any fluid path, such as two points along the inside of a pipe or across a
packer.
Dilution The process of adding liquid in order to reduce the solids content and maintain the
properties of the fluid in the active system.
Displacement The act of removing one fluid (usually liquid) from a wellbore and replacing it with
another. This is accomplished by pumping a spacer fluid that is benign to both the
first and second fluid, followed by the new fluid, down the drill string and out the
bottom of the drill string or bit. While the spacer and second fluid are pumped into
the top of the wellbore, the first fluid is forced out of the annulus between the drill
string and the wellbore or casing. In some cases, this general procedure may be
reversed by pumping in the top of the annulus and taking fluid back from the drill
string. Since this is the reverse of the normal circulation path, this is referred to as
“reversing out” or “reverse circulation.”[
Displacement The volume of wellbore fluid that a foot of tubular displaces or pushes out of the
factor way.
Displacement The total volume that a tubular string displaces.
volume
Glossary G-7
Fishing tool Any special mechanical device used to aid the recovery of equipment lost
downhole.
Flow check A test performed to ensure stable well conditions or the integrity of a plug, valve, or
flow-control device. In most cases, the flow check involves observing stable fluid
levels or conditions for a prescribed period.
Flow-control A category of completion string accessories used to direct, control, or regulate the
device flow of reservoir fluids (e.g., a plug choke, a selective nipple, a downhole
regulator).
Flow coupling A relatively short, heavy-walled completion component installed in areas where
turbulence is anticipated. The additional wall thickness prevents early failures due
to erosion in the turbulent flow area. Flow couplings are typically installed above
and below completion components, such as landing nipples, that may affect the
flow.
Fluid pill A relatively small volume of specially prepared fluid placed or circulated in the
wellbore. Fluid pills are commonly prepared for a variety of special functions, such
as a sweep pill prepared at high viscosity to circulate around the wellbore and pick
up debris or wellbore fill. In counteracting lost-circulation problems, a lost-
circulation pill prepared with flaked or fibrous material is designed to plug the
perforations or formation interval losing the fluid.
Formation The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir, normally hydrostatic pressure,
pressure or the pressure exerted by a column of water from the formation’s depth to sea
level.
Forward Circulation down the tubing and up the annulus.
circulation
Friction loss A reduction in the pressure of a fluid caused by its motion against an enclosed
surface (such as a pipe). The faster the fluid moves, the greater the loss.
Friction See Dynamic pressure.
pressure
Full-opening A string safety valve installed by the rig crew that has an unrestricted through bore
safety valve when the valve is in the open position.
Funnel See Viscosity.
viscosity
Fusible cap A threaded cap that screws onto a valve bonnet and holds the valve in the open
position. In the event of fire, material in the cap will melt and allow the valve stem
to move outward, thus closing the valve.
Glossary G-9
Gas migration The movement of gas up a closed-in wellbore where it cannot expand. If the gas
does not expand, its volume does not change, and therefore its pressure does not
change. Gas migration causes an undesirable increase in wellbore pressure.
Gelled pill A fluid treated with viscosifiers (thickening agents). The “pill” is displaced across
problem zones downhole to reduce fluid losses.
Gravel packing A sand-control method used to prevent production of formation sand. In gravel
packing a steel screen is placed in the wellbore and the surrounding annulus packed
with prepared gravel of a specific size designed to prevent the passage of formation
sand. The primary objective is to stabilize the formation while causing minimal
impairment to well productivity.
High- An interval or unit of rock that exhibits a higher loss rate than the surrounding
permeability rocks, such as a vugular zone or a naturally fractured zone. See also Low-
zone permeability zone, Permeability.
Hookwall See Mechanically set packer.
packer
QHSE Abbreviation for “quality, health, safety, and environmental.” These four issues are
of paramount importance to the petroleum industry. Adherence to QHSE guidelines
is a requirement for operators worldwide and is also dictated by internal policies of
most corporations.
HCR valve A hydraulically actuated valve located on a BOP side outlet. The valve’s High
Closing Ratio means that a small amount of hydraulic pressure will create a large
valve-closing force.
Hydraulic A skid-mounted assembly of accumulators, fluid pumps, control valves, regulators,
control unit pipe work, and gauges used to operate the blowout preventers.
Hydraulically See Choke.
operated
remote choke
Hydraulically A packer set without mechanical manipulation of the tubing string. See also Packer.
set packer
Hydraulic-set A setting or operating method that uses hydraulic force applied through the tubing
or running string to activate a downhole tool. In many cases a drop ball, which lands
in a profiled seat, will be used to shift the setting or activation mechanism at
predetermined pressures.
Hydrostatic The action of a downhole force created by hydrostatic pressure. See also
effect Hydrostatic pressure.
Glossary G-11
Kickover tool A special tool with an offset, or off-center, section used to run or retrieve devices
from side-pocket mandrels.
Kill To stop a well from flowing or having the ability to flow into the wellbore. Kill
procedures typically involve circulating reservoir fluids out of the wellbore or
pumping higher density mud into the wellbore, or both. In the case of an induced
kick, where the mud density is sufficient to kill the well but the reservoir has flowed
as a result of pipe movement, the driller must circulate the influx out of the
wellbore. In the case of an underbalanced kick, the driller must circulate the influx
out and increase the density of the drilling fluid. In the case of a producing well, a
kill fluid with sufficient density to overcome production of formation fluid is
pumped into the well to stop the flow of reservoir fluids.
Kill fluid weight A fluid weight, or density, that will provide hydrostatic pressure equal to or greater
than formation pressure. Also called “kill weight.”
Kill pill A high-density pill spotted downhole to provide additional hydrostatic pressure. See
also Fluid pill.
Kill rate See Slow circulating rate pressure.
pressure
Kill-weight fluid A mud whose density is high enough to produce a hydrostatic pressure at the point
of influx in a wellbore and shut off flow into the well. Kill-weight mud, when
needed, must be available quickly to avoid loss of control of the well or a blowout.
Landing nipple A completion component fabricated as a short section of heavy-wall tubular with a
machined internal surface that provides a seal area and a locking profile. Landing
nipples are included in most completions at predetermined intervals to enable the
installation of flow-control devices, such as plugs and chokes. Three basic types of
landing nipple are commonly used: no-go nipples, selective-landing nipples, and
ported or safety-valve nipples.
Last crystal to A method for determining the crystallization temperature of a brine. See also
dissolve Crystallization temperature.
(LCTD)
Lost circulation A lack of mud returning to the surface after being pumped down a well. Lost
circulation occurs when the drill bit encounters natural fissures, fractures or
caverns, and mud flows into the newly available space. Lost circulation may also be
caused by applying more mud pressure (that is, drilling overbalanced) on the
formation than it is strong enough to withstand, thereby opening up a fracture into
which mud flows.
Glossary G-13
Natural Damage to a producing well other than mechanical damage to the completion
damage equipment. Natural damage includes such problems as gas or water coning,
emulsion blockage, and pore-throat plugging.
Nipple up To put together, connect parts and plumbing, or otherwise make ready for use. This
term is usually reserved for the installation of a blowout preventer stack.
“No-go” nipple See Landing nipple.
Overbalance The amount of pressure (or force per unit area) in the wellbore that exceeds the
pressure of fluids in the formation. This excess pressure is needed to prevent
reservoir fluids (oil, gas, water) from entering the wellbore. However, excessive
overbalance can dramatically slow the drilling process by effectively strengthening
the near-wellbore rock and limiting removal of drilled cuttings under the bit. In
addition, high overbalance pressures coupled with poor mud properties can cause
differential sticking problems. Because reservoir pressures vary from one formation
to another, while the mud is relatively constant density, overbalance varies from one
zone to another.
Packer A downhole device used to isolate the annulus from the production conduit,
enabling controlled production, injection, or treatment. A typical packer assembly
incorporates a means of securing the packer against the casing or liner wall, such as
a slip arrangement, and a means of creating a reliable hydraulic seal to isolate the
annulus, typically by means of an expandable elastomeric element. Packers are
classified by application, setting method, and possible retrievability.
Packer fluid A fluid that is left in the annular region of a well between tubing and outer casing
above a packer. The main functions of a packer fluid are (1) to provide hydrostatic
pressure in order to lower differential pressure across the sealing element, (2) to
lower differential pressure on the wellbore and casing to prevent collapse, and (3) to
protect metals and elastomers from corrosion.
Pack off To effect hydraulic isolation, either with a sealing device, such as a packer, or with
a specialized plastic or fluid, such as a sealing compound.
Pack-off In general, a sealing device (usually made of elastomeric materials) that seals the
assembly annular space between one piece of downhole equipment and another.
Perforating gun See Perforator.
Perforation The communication tunnel created from the casing or liner into the reservoir
formation, through which oil or gas is produced. The most common method uses jet
perforating guns equipped with shaped explosive charges. However, other
perforating methods include bullet perforating, abrasive jetting or high-pressure
fluid jetting.
Glossary G-15
water), or 10.516 kPa/m. Deviations from normal pressure are described as high or
low pressure.
Pressure The differential pressure that drives fluids from the reservoir into the wellbore. The
drawdown drawdown, and therefore the production rate, of a producing interval is typically
controlled by surface chokes. Reservoir conditions, such as the tendency to produce
sand, may limit the drawdown that may be safely applied during production before
damage or unwanted sand production occurs.
Pressure drop A loss of pressure that results from friction sustained by a fluid passing through a
line, valve, fitting, or other device.
Pressure force A force created by pressure acting upon an area.
Pressure loss See Friction loss.
Pressure A lubricate-and-bleed procedure using indicated gauge pressure as a process control
method as opposed to the volume of fluid. Compare Volume method. See also Lubricate-
and-bleed procedure.
Primary The first stage of oil production in which natural reservoir drives are used to recover
recovery oil, although some form of artificial lift may be required to exploit declining
reservoir drives. Compare Secondary recovery.
Primary well See Well control.
control
Production ram A ram preventer that seals around sucker rods used in rod-pumped wells. See also
Blowout preventer (BOP).
Proppant Sized particles mixed with fracturing fluid to hold fractures open after a hydraulic
fracturing treatment. In addition to naturally occurring sand grains, man-made or
specially engineered proppants (such as resin-coated sand or high-strength ceramic
materials like sintered bauxite) may also be used. Proppant materials are carefully
sorted for size and sphericity to provide an efficient conduit for production of fluid
from the reservoir to the wellbore.
Ram preventer See Blowout preventer (BOP).
Rathole An extra hole drilled at the end of the well (beyond the last zone of interest), usually
of a smaller diameter than the main hole. It ensures that the zone of interest can be
fully evaluated, allows for junk, hole fill-in, and other conditions that may reduce
the effective depth of the well, and provides space to leave expendable completion
equipment, such as the carriers for perforating gun charges.
Recompletion The action and techniques of reentering the well and redoing or repairing the
original completion to restore the well’s productivity. See also Completion.
Glossary G-17
Secondary well See Well control.
control
Selective See Landing nipple.
nipple
Shear ram A blowout preventer (BOP) closing element fitted with hardened-tool steel blades
designed to cut the drillpipe when the BOP is closed. A shear ram is normally used
as a last resort to regain pressure control of a well that is flowing. Once the drillpipe
is cut (or sheared) by the shear rams, it is usually left hanging in the BOP stack, and
kill operations become more difficult. The joint of drillpipe is destroyed in the
process, but the rest of the drill string is unharmed by the operation of shear rams.
See also Blowout preventer (BOP).
Shifting tool A downhole tool used to adjust the position of sliding sleeves or similar production
and completion equipment. Shifting tools are typically run on slickline, although
they may be used with coiled tubing in deviated or horizontal wellbores. Shifting
tools are generally prepared or dressed for use with a specific model and size of
sliding sleeve.
Shut-in The force per unit area exerted at the bottom of a wellbore when it is closed at either
bottomhole the Christmas tree or the BOP stack. The SIBP is generated by a combination of the
pressure hydrostatic pressure from the weight of the liquid in the well and any additional
(SIBHP)
applied pressure. The applied pressure component may be from the formation or
from an external source at the surface.
Shut-in casing The pressure of the annular fluid on the casing at the surface when the well is shut
pressure in.
(SICP)
Shut-in The surface force per unit area exerted at the top of a wellbore when it is closed at
pressure (SIP) either the Christmas tree or the BOP stack. The pressure may be from the formation
or an external and intentional source. The SIP may be zero, indicating that any open
formations are effectively balanced by the hydrostatic column of fluid in the well. If
the pressure is zero, the well is considered to be dead, and can normally be opened
safely to the atmosphere. See also Shut-in casing pressure, Shut-in tubing pressure.
Shut-in tubing The indicated pressure on the tubing gauge in the static condition.
pressure (SITP)
Side-pocket See Gas-lift mandrel.
mandrel
Simultaneous A term used mainly on offshore platforms, or installations with multiple wellheads,
operation where more than one wellbore is being accessed, such as where a drilling rig,
(SIMOP) slickline unit, or coiled tubing unit may be operating at the same time. Simultaneous
Glossary G-19
localized treatment often require accurate placement. Correctly calculating and
pumping the appropriate volume of displacement fluid while taking account of well
production, wellbore returns, and fluid-density variations are key factors in
achieving accurate placement of fluids.
Stabbing valve A valve that is connected to the work string in the event that the well starts to flow
when running or retrieving the string. A stabbing valve is generally kept on the rig
floor as a contingency against unexpected well flow. On snubbing operations, a
stabbing valve, or safety valve, is kept in the workbasket to protect against tubing
plug or back-pressure valve failure.
Static See Bottomhole pressure.
bottomhole
pressure
Static well A analysis of wellbore pressures with the well in the static (nonflowing or
analysis nonpumping) condition.
Stop A device that prevents another device from passing that point.
Storm choke See Subsurface-controlled subsurface safety valve.
String safety A safety valve made up in the tubing string or work string.
valve
Stripping The running or retrieving of a tubing string in a well under pressure, using a stripper
or similar sealing device to contain well pressure and fluids. Coiled tubing,
snubbing, and some specialized workover rig operations can be conducted on live
wells using special sealing equipment to safely and reliably contain wellbore
pressure and fluids.
Subsurface- See Subsurface safety valve (SSSV).
controlled
safety valve
Subsurface A safety device installed in the upper wellbore to provide emergency closure of the
safety valve producing conduits in the event of an emergency. Two types of subsurface safety
(SSSV) valve are available: surface-controlled and subsurface-controlled. In each case, the
safety-valve system is designed to be fail-safe, so that the wellbore is isolated in the
event of any system failure or damage to the surface production-control facilities.
Surface- See Subsurface safety valve (SSSV).
controlled
subsurface
safety valve
Glossary G-21
Underbalance The amount of pressure (or force per unit area) exerted on a formation exposed in a
wellbore below the internal fluid pressure of that formation. If sufficient porosity
and permeability exist, formation fluids enter the wellbore.
Usable volume The volume of BOP control fluid in an accumulator in the pressure range between
the maximum pressure and the minimum pressure.
U-tube effect In a U-tube manometer, the height of one leg of fluid changed by altering the
density of some of the fluid in the other leg. In a well with tubing in the hole, the
string of tubing is one leg and the annulus between the tubing and the wellbore is
the other. If a denser fluid goes into the tubing, fluid flows up the annulus, and vice
versa. The practice of putting a dense slugging pill in the tubing in order to pull a
dry string makes use of the U-tube effect.
Variable-bore A ram preventer that seals around a specific range of tubing sizes. See also Blowout
ram preventer (BOP).
Viscosifier A thickening agent used in completion and workover fluids.
Viscosity A property of fluids and slurries that indicates their resistance to flow. The viscosity
of a workover fluid can be measured in two ways: funnel viscosity and plastic
viscosity. Funnel viscosity, which is measured by the Marsh funnel, is based on the
number of seconds it takes for 1,500 ml of the fluid to flow through the funnel.
Plastic viscosity, measured with a rheometer, is based on the ratio of shear stress to
shear rate and is measured in centipoises (cp).
Volume method A lubricate-and-bleed well control procedure whereby the volume pumped into the
top of the wellbore is recorded. From this recorded volume, the fluid’s hydrostatic
pressure is calculated. A portion of the pressure bled off the well is based on this
calculated hydrostatic pressure. Compare Pressure method. See also Lubricate-and-
bleed procedures.
Volumetric A means of controlling gas migration in a well that cannot be circulated. Gas is
method allowed to expand by bleeding calculated volumes of workover fluid through the
choke as the gas moves upward toward the surface.
Vugular A rock formation that contains cavities or vugs, such as limestone and other rocks
formation prone to groundwater leaching. Also known as a “vuggy” formation.
Wait-and- A well control method that involves shutting in the well and raising the mud weight
weight method to the amount required to kill the well. The heavy mud is then circulated into the
well while the kick fluids are simultaneously circulated out. A tubing pressure
schedule is used to control the process.
Washout A hole in the tubing or work string made larger by the erosive effects of high-
velocity fluid passing through it.
Glossary G-23
Wireline- A type of safety valve that is installed and removed using wireline tools. Compare
retrievable Tubing-retrievable safety valves.
safety valve
Work string A generic term describing a tubing string used to convey a treatment or for well
service activities. Both coiled and jointed tubing strings are referred to as work
strings.
Workover The process of performing major maintenance or remedial treatments on an oil or
gas well. In many cases, workover implies the removal and replacement of the
production tubing string after the well has been killed and a workover rig has been
placed on location. Through-tubing workover operations, using coiled tubing,
snubbing, or slickline equipment, are routinely conducted to complete treatments or
well service activities that avoid a full workover where the tubing is removed. This
operation saves considerable time and expense.
Workover fluid A well-control fluid, typically a brine, that is used during workover operations.
Since the wellbore is in contact with the reservoir during most workover operations,
workover fluids should be clean and chemically compatible with the reservoir fluids
and formation matrix.
Zero point The datum or base line for wireline measurements.
Sources
Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary. Ed. Gretchen Gillis. June 2002.
www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com.
A Dictionary for the Petroleum Industry. 2nd ed. Austin: Petroleum Extension
Service, Division of Continuing Education, University of Texas at Austin, 1997.
A P P E N D I X A
Appendix A-1
A P P E N D I X B
Summary of Equations
Balanced Fluid Weight (with safety margin) = [Safety Margin (psi) + Formation
Pressure (psi)] ÷ TVD (ft) ÷ 0.052
Bullheading Calculations
Maximum Tubing Pressure (mechanical limits):
Maximum Initial Tubing Pressure (no backup fluid)
= Working Burst Pressure − Tubing Hydrostatic Pressure
= Working Burst Pressure − (Formation Pressure − SITP)
Maximum Final Tubing Pressure (no backup fluid)
= Working Burst Pressure − Kill Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure
Maximum Initial Tubing Pressure (with backup fluid)
= (Working Burst Pressure − Formation Pressure) + Backup Hydrostatic
Pressure
Maximum Final Tubing Pressure (with backup fluid)
= (Working Burst Pressure − Kill Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure) + Backup
Hydrostatic Pressure
Maximum Tubing Pressure (formation limits):
With Formation Fluid in Tubing (before bullheading)
= [Formation Fracture Strength (ppg) − Initial Fluid Weight in Tubing
(ppg)] × Formation TVD × 0.052)
Appendix A-3
Circular Cross-Sectional Area (in2) = 0.7854 × Outside Diameter2
141.5
Hydrostatic Pressure = ------------------------------ × .433 × TVD
( 131.5 + API corrected )
Displacement Calculations
Displacement Factor (bbls/ft) = Pipe wt/ft ÷ 2,750 (for steel pipe or tubing)
Displacement Factor (bbls/ft) = [Tubing OD (in2) − Tubing ID (in2)] ÷ 1029.4
Displacement Volume (bbls) = Displacement Factor (bbls/ft) × Length (ft)
Closed-end Displacement Factor (bbls/ft) = OD (in2) ÷ 1029.4
Appendix A-5
Hydrostatic Pressure Loss Calculations (Pulling Wet Pipe or Tubing)
Fluid Level Drop (ft) = (Tubing Closed-End Displacement Factor × Length
Pulled) ÷ Annular Capacity Factor
Fluid Level Drop (ft) = [(Tubing wt/ft ÷ 2750) × Length Pulled] ÷ Tubing OD2
÷ 1029.4
Hydrostatic Pressure Loss = Fluid Level Drop (ft) × Fluid Weight (ppg) × 0.052
Initial Circulating Pressure (for Weight and Wait, Constant Pump Pressure
methods)
Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP) = SITP (psi) + SCRP (psi)
Kill Fluid Weight (balanced) = (SITP ÷ TVD perfs ÷ 0.052) + Tubing Fluid
Weight (ppg)
Kill Fluid Weight (overbalanced) = ((Safety Margin (psi) + SITP) ÷ TVD perfs ÷
0.052) + Tubing Fluid Weight (ppg)
Pump Calculations
Actual Pump Output (bbl/stroke) = barrels pumped ÷ strokes recorded
Required Pump Speed (spm) = Required Volume Rate (bpm) ÷ Actual
PumpOutput (bbl/stroke)
Actual Pump Rate (bpm) = barrel increase in tank ÷ minutes pumped
Appendix A-7
A P P E N D I X C
Where:
Vi = Initial Brine Volume (bbls)
Di = Initial Brine Density (ppg)
Df = Desired Brine Density (ppg)
Si1 = Salt 1 (CaBr2), initial pounds per barrel*
Si2 = Salt 2 (CaCl2), initial pounds per barrel*
Sf1 = Salt 1 (CaBr2), final pounds per barrel*
Si2 = Salt 2 (CaCl2), final pounds per barrel*
Wi = Initial water volume per barrel*
Wf = Final water volume per barrel*
*From Table A-1
Example:
Given: 400 barrels of 12.5 ppg CaBr2/CaCl2 brine
Find: Pounds of salt and barrels of water to increase density to 14.0 ppg
and final volume
Solution (from Table A-1):
Si1 = 71.08 pounds CaBr2 at 12.5 ppg
Si2 = 179.86 pounds CaCl2 at 12.5 ppg
Sf1 = 189.58 pounds CaBr2 at 14.0ppg
Sf2 = 149.29 pounds CaCl2 at 14.0 ppg
Wi = 0.784 barrels at 12.5 ppg
Wf = 0.712 barrels at 14.0 ppg
Added Water = 400 × [(179.86 × 0.712) ÷ 149.29] − 0.784 = 29.52 bbls
Added Salt (CaBr2) = 400 × [(179.86 × 189.58) ÷ 149.29] − 71.08 =
62,928 lbs
Final Volume = 400 × (179.86 ÷ 149.29) = 482 bbls
Appendix A-9
A P P E N D I X D
Conversion Factors
Appendix A-11
Note: Gallons are US gallons.
Appendix A-13
A P P E N D I X F
IPM Standards
Appendix A-15
A P P E N D I X G
Index I-1
differential force 2-39 Choke washout 7-21
differential pressure (tubing to annulus) 7-12 Chokes 6-39
displacement 2-23 during reverse circulation 7-17
equivalent fluid weight 2-12 plugged 7-21
fluid required to decrease brine density 5-21 washed-out 7-21
for well and workover fluid volumes 2-19 Christmas tree
hydrostatic pressure 2-9, 2-10 checking 8-4
hydrostatic pressure (temperature corrected) components 6-19
2-11 Circulating problems 7-21
hydrostatic pressure effect 2-33 Circulating well control procedures 3-19
hydrostatic pressure loss (dry pipe) 2-31 constant pump pressure 3-17
hydrostatic pressure loss (wet pipe) 2-32 overview 3-10
internal volume 2-20 wait-and-weight 3-11
kill fluid weight 2-15 Circulation
liquid required to reduce density of solids- and well flow 4-9
laden fluid 5-19 when reopening daylight rigs 4-5
pressure force 2-38 Clear brine 5-10, 5-12
pressure gradient 2-10 Closing unit pump capability test 6-52
pump output 2-26 Communication
required pump speed 2-27 with well-site personnel 8-10
salt required to increase density of single-salt with wireline provider 8-3
brine 5-20 Completion accessories 6-14
static bottomhole pressure 2-16 Completion fluids
static well analysis 2-18 components 5-9
tank capacity factor 2-25 function 5-2
tank volume 2-25 properties 5-4
temperature correction for density 2-11 types 5-2
volume of expanding gas 2-42 Completion string components 6-7
wait-and-weight 3-13 Concentric workover 1-15
weight of material required to increase density Conditioners in fluids 5-10
of solids-laden fluid 5-18 Coning
well and formation pressure 2-7 gas 1-5
Capacity factor 2-20 water 1-6
Carbon dioxide injection 1-11 Constant pump pressure
Casing capacity 2-20 method 3-17
Casing pressure increase 3-36 procedures 3-18
Check valves Constant tubing pressure
two-way 6-48 method 3-39
work-string 7-23 procedure 3-39
Chicksan leak points 7-16 Conventional rig workover 8-11
Choke manifold, inspecting 8-10 Conventional workover 1-14
Index I-3
Fracturing, hydraulic 1-10 Hydrostatic pressure
Friction pressure 2-4 and pressure gradient 2-8
Friction principles 2-5 loss when pulling pipe 2-30
Full-opening safety valves of crude oil 2-11
backup 7-15 Hydrostatic pressure effect 2-33
overview 6-35
Fusible plugs and caps 6-23 I
Implementation, workover 8-11
G Increasing production 1-10
Gas Injection
as base fluid 5-10 carbon dioxide 1-11
at surface 3-50, 4-10 steam 1-11
Gas behavior 2-41 waterflood 1-11
expansion in open wellbore 2-41 Injection wells 1-11
expansion in wellbore being killed 2-43 Inside blowout preventers 6-36
migration in closed wellbore 2-43
Gas channeling 3-37 K
Gas kick Kick
pressure profiles when reversing 3-27 swabbed 3-49
reversing 3-20, 7-15 underbalanced 3-50
Gas law 2-41 with check valve in work string 3-49
Gas migration with work string out of hole 3-50
controlling 3-38 See also Gas kick, Kicks
in closed wellbore 2-43 Kicks
Gas production, excessive 1-5 causes 4-1
Gauge readings, unexpected changes in 7-22 warning signs 4-6
Gradient, pressure 2-9 Kill fluid weight 2-14
Gray IBOP 6-36 Kill pill, mixing and spotting 5-24
H L
H2S standard 8-6 Landing nipples 6-14
Hangers, tubing 6-11 LCTD method 5-8
Hole fill Long-way circulation
during a trip 4-4 selection guidelines 3-48
monitoring volume during a trip 4-4 Lubricate-and-bleed
monitoring while pulling 4-7 pressure method 3-45
Holes in tubing 7-2 procedures 3-42
Hydraulic control units 6-42 selection guidelines 3-49
Hydraulic fracturing 1-10
Hydrometer, use of 5-6
Index I-5
S Surface safety systems 6-21
Safety systems, surface 6-21 Surfactant 5-10
Safety valves Surging 4-4
full-opening 6-35 Swabbed kick 3-49
pneumatic surface 6-22 Swabbing 4-3
string 6-35
subsurface-controlled subsurface 6-18 T
surface-controlled subsurface 6-17 Tankage requirements, calculating 8-5
Sample workover procedure 8-16 Terminology in workover procedures 8-22
Sand production 1-4 Training, well control 8-6
Secondary well control 3-1 Trapped pressure 3-7
Shut-in casing pressure (SICP) 2-3 Tree gate valves 6-26
Shut-in procedures Trip tank system 4-7
for conventional workover rig (on-bottom Tubing
circulating) 3-4 leaks 7-2
for conventional workover rig (tripping) 3-5 perforating 7-9
for daylight rigs 3-6 pulling 4-4, 4-7
overview 3-4 running 4-5
Shut-in tubing pressure (SITP) 2-3 Tubing capacity 2-20
reading with back-pressure valve 3-9 Tubing hangers 6-11
Side-pocket mandrels 6-16 Tubing plugs, wireline-set 6-38
Simultaneous operations 8-4 Tubing-to-casing communication 7-4
Single-salt brines 5-19 Turbidity 5-8
Sliding sleeves 6-17, 7-5 Two-way check valves 6-48
Slow circulating rate pressure 3-3
Sodium chloride 5-13
Solids-laden fluids 5-17
U
Solvent stimulation 1-10 Underbalanced kick 3-50
Specific gravity 5-5 U-tube effect 2-19
Stabilization of surface pressure 7-13
Static bottomhole pressure 2-16 V
Static well analysis 2-16 Vacuum degasser 6-55
Steam injection 1-11 Viscosity 5-7
Stimulation, acid or solvent 1-10 Volume method (lubricate-and-bleed) 3-43
String safety valves 6-35 Volumetric method 3-40
Subsurface safety valves
subsurface-controlled 6-18 W
surface-controlled 6-17
Wait-and-weight
Surface indicators of pressure 2-3
method 3-11
Surface oil or gas 4-10
procedure 3-12
Surface pressure stabilization 7-13
Index I-7
I-8 Well Control for Workover Operations