FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

1.0 ABSTRACT

The experiment was conducted in order to find the time taken to collect 3L of water,
the volumetric flow rates of the water, the pressure difference at all manometer tube
(static head), velocity, dynamic head and also the total head. The combination of venturi
meter complete with manometer tube and hydraulic bench were used.
Bernoulli’s Theorem experiment’s apparatus consists of a classical venturi. A series of
wall tapping allow measurement of the static pressure distribution along the converging
duct, while a total head tube is provided to traverse along the centre line of the test
section. These tapping are connected to a manometer bank incorporating a manifold with
air bleed valve.
During the experiment, water is fed through a hose connector and the flow rate can be
adjusted at the flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test section. The venturi can be
demonstrated as a means of flow measurement and the discharge coefficient can be
determined. The results show the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the
pressure difference increases.

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Bernoulli's Principle is a physical principle formulated that states that "as the
speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases.
Bernoulli's principle is named after the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli who published
his principle in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.
Bernoulli’s Principle can be demonstrated by the Bernoulli equation. The
Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation.
While the Continuity equation relates the speed of a fluid that moving through a pipe to
the cross sectional area of the pipe. It says that as a radius of the pipe decreases the speed
of fluid flow must increase and vice-versa.
However, Bernoulli’s Principle can only be applied under certain conditions. The
conditions to which Bernoulli’s equation applies are the fluid must be frictionless
(inviscid) and of constant density; the flow must be steady, and the relation holds in
general for single streamlines.
In general, frictional effects are always important very close to solid wall
(boundary layers) and directly downstream of bodies (wakes). Thus, the Bernoulli
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside of boundary layers and wakes,
where the fluid motion is governed by the combined effects of pressure and gravity
forces.
Bernoulli's principle can be explained in terms of the law of conservation of
energy. As a fluid moves from a wider pipe into a narrower pipe or a constriction, a
corresponding volume must move a greater distance forward in the narrower pipe and
thus have a greater speed.
At the same time, the work done by corresponding volumes in the wider and
narrower pipes will be expressed by the product of the pressure and the volume. Since
the speed is greater in the narrower pipe, the kinetic energy of that volume is greater.
Then, by the law of conservation of energy, this increase in kinetic energy must be
balanced by a decrease in the pressure-volume product, or, since the volumes are equal,
by a decrease in pressure.
The Bernoulli equation:

kinetic energy + potential energy + flow energy = constant

 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

3.0 THEORY

The well-known Bernoulli equation is derived under the following assumptions:

• The liquid is incompressible.

• The liquid is non-viscous.

• The flow is steady and the velocity of the liquid is less than the critical velocity for the

liquid.

• There is no loss of energy due to friction.

Then, it is expressed with the following equation:

Where (in SI units):

p = fluid static pressure at the cross section in N/m2

ρ = density of the flowing fluid in kg/m3

g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (its value is 9.81 m/s2 = 9810 mm/s2)

v = mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section in m/s

z = elevation head of the center of the cross section with respect to a datum z=0

h* = total (stagnation) head in m

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head

(h) ,velocity head (hv), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is
known as the total head (h*). According to the Bernoulli’s theorem of fluid flow through a
pipe, the total head h* at any cross section is constant (based on the assumptions given).
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

Pressure head is a term used in fluid mechanics to represent the internal energy of a
fluid due to the pressure exerted on its container. It may also be called static pressure head or
simply static head (but not static head pressure). It is mathematically expressed as:

Where:

ψ is pressure head (Length, typically in units of m);

p is fluid pressure (Force per unit Area, often as kPa units); and

γ is the specific weight(Weight per unit volume, typically N·m−3units)

ρ is the density of the fluid (Mass per unit volume, typically kg·m−3)

g is acceleration due to gravity(rate of change of velocity, given in m·s−2)

In this experimental, the centre line of the entire cross sections we are considering lie
on the same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z=0), and thus, all the
‘z’ values are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

4.0 OBJECTIVES

I. To find the time taken to collect 3L of water, the volumetric flow rates of the water,
the pressure difference at all manometer tube (static head), velocity, dynamic head
and also the total head

II. To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow
of water in a tapered duct.
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

5.0 APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENTS

In order to achieve the objectives of the experiment and to complete the

demonstration of Bernoulli’s Theorem, there are several apparatus and also the equipments
that are needed. They are as follows:

4. The Bernoulli’s apparatus test equipment

that consists of 8 vertical tubes.

3. The Bernoulli’s apparatus that consist of

venturi meter that function as
manipulated variables

2. The stopwatch that used for the timing to

the flow measurement of the water.

1. The hydraulic bench which allows water

flow by time volume collection to be
measured.
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

6.0 PROCEDURES

6.1 Equipments Set Up

1. The Bernoulli’s equation apparatus is first set up on the hydraulic bench so that the
base is in the horizontal position.
2. The test section is ensured to have the 14- tapered section converging in the direction
of the flow.
3. The rig outflow tube is positioned above the volumetric tank.
4. The rig inlet is connected to the bench flow supply, the bench valve and the apparatus
flow control are closed and then the pump is started.
5. Gradually, the bench valve is opened to fill the test rig with the water.
6. In order to bleed air pressure tapping point and the manometers, both the bench valves
and the rig flow control valves are closed. Then, the air bleed screw is opened and the
cap from the adjacent air valve is removed.
7. A length of small-bore tuning from the air valve is connected to the volumetric tank.
8. The bench valve is opened and allowed to flow through the manometer to purge all air
from them.
9. After that, the air bleed screw is tightened and both the bench valve and rig flow
control valve are partly opened.
10. Next, the air bleed is opened slightly to allow the air to enter the top of the
manometers. The screw is re-tightened when the manometer reach a convenient
height.

6.2 Taking A Set Of Results

1. The h1 – h5 are set to be 50 ml using air bleed screw.

2. After the specific volume of h1 – h5 is reached, the ball valve is closed and the time
taken to accumulate 3L of fluid in the tank is measured.
3. Steps 1 and 2 are repeated with the different level of h1 – h5.
4. Then, the test section is reversed to get the diverging flow.
5. The test section is removed by unscrewing the two coupling and being reversed.
6. The couplings are tightened.
7. Steps 1 until 3 are repeated for diverging section.
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

7.0 RESULTS

7.1 Experiment 1(flow rate: slow)

Volume (L) 3
Average Time (min) 0.82
Flow Rate (LPM) 7.14

Cross Using Bernoulli equation Using Continuity Difference

section equation
# h* = hH hi ViB = Ai = Vic = ViB - Vic
√[2 × 𝑔 × (ℎ∗ − ℎ𝑖 ]
(mm) (mm) 𝐷𝑖 2 𝑄𝑎𝑣 (m/s)
𝜋 𝐴𝑖
4
(m/s)

(m2) (m/s)
A 173 171 0.198 5.31 x 10-4 0.224 -0.026
B 172 170 0.198 3.66 x 10-4 0.325 -0.127
C 171 164 0.371 2.01 x 10-4 0.592 -0.221
D 171 167 0.280 3.14 x 10-4 0.379 -0.099
E 171 169 0.198 3.80 x 10-4 0.313 -0.115
F 171 170 0.140 5.31 x 10-4 0.224 -0.084
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

7.2 Experiment 2(flow rate: medium)

Volume (L) 3
Average Time (min) 0.19
Flow Rate (LPM) 12.00

Cross Using Bernoulli equation Using Continuity Differenc

section equation e
# h* = hH hi ViB = Ai = Vic = ViB - Vic
√[2 × 𝑔 × (ℎ∗ − ℎ𝑖 ]
(mm) (mm) 𝐷𝑖 2 𝑄𝑎𝑣 (m/s)
𝜋 𝐴𝑖
4
(m/s)

(m2) (m/s)
A 207 186 0.642 5.31 x 10-4 0.377 0.265
B 206 178 0.741 3.66 x 10-4 0.546 0.195
C 204 111 1.351 2.01 x 10-4 0.995 0.356
D 199 155 0.929 3.14 x 10-4 0.637 0.292
E 197 165 0.792 3.80 x 10-4 0.526 0.266
F 195 176 0.611 5.31 x 10-4 0.377 0.234
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

7.3 Experiment 3(flow rate: fast)

Volume (L) 3
Average Time (min) 0.13
Flow Rate (LPM) 17.64

Cross Using Bernoulli equation Using Continuity Differenc

section equation e
# h* = hH hi ViB = Ai = Vic = ViB - Vic
√[2 × 𝑔 × (ℎ∗ − ℎ𝑖 ]
(mm) (mm) 𝐷𝑖 2 𝑄𝑎𝑣 (m/s)
𝜋 𝐴𝑖
4
(m/s)

(m2) (m/s)
A 251 211 0.886 5.31 x 10-4 0.554 0.332
B 247 196 1.000 3.66 x 10-4 0.803 0.197
C 238 69 1.821 2.01 x 10-4 1.463 0.358
D 235 153 1.268 3.14 x 10-4 0.936 0.332
E 233 172 1.094 3.80 x 10-4 0.774 0.320
F 232 193 0.875 5.31 x 10-4 0.554 0.321
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

8.0 CALCULATIONS

Experiment 1:

7.14 𝐿 1𝑚 0.028317 𝑚3
Flow rate of water = × × = 1.19 × 10−4 𝑚/𝑠
1𝑚 60 𝑠 28.317 𝐿

Sample Calculation (cross section A):

Bernoulli equation:
ViB = √[2 × 𝑔 × (ℎ∗ − ℎ𝑖 ]

ViB = √[2 × 9.81 × (173 × 10−3 − 171 × 10−3 ]

ViB = 0.198 m/s

Continuity equation:
𝐷𝑖 2
Ai = 𝜋 4
(26 ×10−3 )2
Ai = 𝜋 4

Ai = 5.31 x 10-4 m2
𝑄𝑎𝑣
Vic = 𝐴𝑖

1.19 ×10−4
Vic = 5.31 𝑥 10−4

Vic = 0.224 m/s

Therefore, the difference is = ViB - Vic
= 0.198 m/s - 0.224 m/s
= -0.026 m/s
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

Experiment 2:

12.00 𝐿 1𝑚 0.028317 𝑚3
Flow rate of water = × × = 2.00 × 10−4 𝑚/𝑠
1𝑚 60 𝑠 28.317 𝐿

Sample Calculation (cross section A):

Bernoulli equation:
ViB = √[2 × 𝑔 × (ℎ∗ − ℎ𝑖 ]

ViB = √[2 × 9.81 × (207 × 10−3 − 186 × 10−3 ]

ViB = 0.642 m/s

Continuity equation:
𝐷𝑖 2
Ai = 𝜋 4
(26 ×10−3 )2
Ai = 𝜋 4

Ai = 5.31 x 10-4 m2
𝑄𝑎𝑣
Vic = 𝐴𝑖

2.00 ×10−4
Vic = 5.31 𝑥 10−4

Vic = 0.377 m/s

Therefore, the difference is = ViB - Vic
= 0.642 m/s - 0.377 m/s
= 0.265 m/s
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

Experiment 3:

17.64 𝐿 1𝑚 0.028317 𝑚3
Flow rate of water = × × = 2.94 × 10−4 𝑚/𝑠
1𝑚 60 𝑠 28.317 𝐿

Sample Calculation (cross section A):

Bernoulli equation:
ViB = √[2 × 𝑔 × (ℎ∗ − ℎ𝑖 ]

ViB = √[2 × 9.81 × (251/𝑠 × 10−3 − 211 × 10−3 ]

ViB = 0.866 m/s

Continuity equation:
𝐷𝑖 2
Ai = 𝜋 4
(26 ×10−3 )2
Ai = 𝜋 4

Ai = 5.31 x 10-4 m2
𝑄𝑎𝑣
Vic = 𝐴𝑖

2.94 ×10−4
Vic = 5.31 𝑥 10−4

Vic = 0.554 m/s

Therefore, the difference is = ViB - Vic
= 0.866 m/s - 0.554 m/s
= 0.332 m/s
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

9.0 DISCUSSION:

The objectives of this experiment is to investigate the validity of the Bernoulli

equation when applied to the steady flow of water in a tapered duct and to measure the flow
rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent and divergent tube
of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates. This experiment is based on the
Bernoulli’s principle which relates between velocities with the pressure for an inviscid flow.
To achieve the objectives of this experiment, Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration
apparatus along with the hydraulic bench were used. This instrument was combined with a
venturi meter and the pad of manometer tubes which indicate the pressure of h1
until h8 but for this experiment only the pressure in manometer h1 until h6 being measured.
A venturi is basically a converging-diverging section (like an hourglass), typically
placed between tube or duct sections with fixed cross-sectional area. The flow rates through
the venturi meter can be related to pressure measurements by using Bernoulli’s equation.
From the result obtained through this experiment, it is been observed that when
the pressure difference increase, the flow rates of the water increase and thus the velocities
also increase for both convergent and divergent flow. The result show a rise at each
manometer tubes when the pressure difference increases. As fluid flows from a wider pipe to
a narrower one, the velocity of the flowing fluid increases. This is shown in all the results
tables, where the velocity of water that flows in the tapered duct increases as the duct area
decreases, regardless of the pressure difference and type of flow of each result taken.
From the analysis of the results, it can be concluded that the velocity of water
decrease as the water flow rate decrease. For slow flow rate, the velocity difference at cross
section A for water flow rate is (-0.026 m/s), B (-0.127m/s), C (-0.221 m/s), D (-0.099 m/s),
E (-0.115 m/s), F (-0.084 m/s). Also for medium flow rate, the velocity difference at cross
section A for water flow rate is (0.265 m/s), B (0.195m/s), C (0.356 m/s), D (0.292 m/s), E
(0.266 m/s), F (0.234 m/s). At the same time, for fast flow rate, the velocity difference at
cross section A for water flow rate is (0.332m/s), B (0.197m/s), C (0.358 m/s), D (0.332m/s),
E (0.320m/s), F (0.321m/s). So,it can be concluded that the diameter of the tube will affect
the differences in velocity as a bigger tube will cause the differences in velocity become
bigger while the smaller tube cause the velocity differences between ViB and Vic to be smaller.
The flow rate of the difference flow also different. From the result, we can see that the flow
rate of slow condition is 7.14, then for medium flow rate is 12.00 and lastly for the fast rate is
17.64. So we can conclude that the fast flow rate is higher than slow flow rate.
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

There must be some parallax and zero error occurs when taking the measurement of
each data. The observer must have not read the level of static head properly. Moreover, the
eyes are not perpendicular to the water level on the manometer. Therefore, there are some
minor effects on the calculations due to the errors and this can be seen from the result
obtained which there is few value calculated get negative values for ViB -Vic.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the Bernoulli’s equation is valid when applied to
steady flow of water in tapered duct and absolute velocity values increase along the same
channel. Although the experiment proof that the Bernoulli’s equation is valid for both flow
but the values obtain might be slightly differ from the actual value. This is because there is
some error maybe happen during the experiment is done. While taking the reading of the
manometer, there might be possibility that the eye position of the readers is not parallel to the
scale.
Thus, this error will contribute to the different in the values obtained. Other than that,
the readers must take the accurate reading from the manometers. In order to get the accurate
value, the water level must be let to be really stable. Thus, a patient is needed in order to run
this experiment successfully because sometimes the way the experiment is conduct may
influence the result of the experiment.
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

10.0 CONCLUSION

The results show the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the pressure
difference increases. From the result obtained, we can conclude that the Bernoulli’s equation
is valid for convergent and divergent flow as both of it does obey the equation. For both flow,
as the pressure difference increase, the time taken for 3L water collected increase and the
flow rates of the water also increase. Thus, as the velocity of the same channel increase, the
total head pressure also increase for both convergent and divergent flow.

11.0 RECOMMENDATION

I. Make sure the trap bubbles must be removing first before start running the
experiment.
II. Repeat the experiment for several times to get the average values in order to
get more accurate results.
III. The valve must be control carefully to maintain the constant values of the pressure
difference as it is quite difficult to control.
IV. The eye position of the observer must be parallel to the water meniscus
when taking the reading at the manometers to avoid parallax error.
V. The time keeper must be alert with the rising of water volume to avoid error
and must be only a person who taking the time.
VI. The leakage of water in the instrument must be avoided
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

12.0 REFERENCES

I. Bernoulli experiment, 27 August 2010 at

http://www.scribd.com/doc/23125607/Bernoulli-Experiment
II. Bernoulli’s principle, 27 August 2010,
at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_principle
III. Bernoulli Lab Report, 27 August 2010,
athttp://www.scribd.com/doc/23106099/Bernoulli-Lab-Report
IV. Bernoulli's theorem, 27 August 2010, at http://www.transtutors.com/physics-
homework-help/fluid-mechanics/Bernoullis-theorem.aspx
V. Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration, 27 August 2010, at
http://www.solution.com.my/pdf/FM24(A4).pdf
VI. http://www.one-
school.net/Malaysia/UniversityandCollege/SPM/revisioncard/physics/forceandpressur
e/bernoulliprinciple.html#3
VII. http://library.thinkquest.org/27948/bernoulli.html
VIII.
 FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012

APPENDIX
FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 9, 2012