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CP1 B9 Lecture No. 2 - Power System Modeling PDF
CP1 B9 Lecture No. 2 - Power System Modeling PDF
Certificate in
Power System Modeling and Analysis
Training Course in
Course Outline
Thevenin’s Theorem
Utility Fault MVA
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
Thevenin’s Theorem
Any linear active network with output terminals AB can
be replaced by a single voltage source Vth in series with
a single impedance Zth
A A
Linear + Zth
Active Vth
Network -
B B
I TPF =
V f
S TPF = V f I TPF =
[V ]f
2
Z1 Z1
Where, Z1 and Z2 are the
equivalent positive-
Z1 =
kV
2
[ ] sequence and
= Z 2 negative-sequence
Fault MVA 3φ impedances of the
utility
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I SLGF =
3V f
S SLGF = V f I SLGF =
[ ]
3Vf
2
Z1 + Z2 + Z0 2Z 1 + Z 0
Z1 = Z2
2Z1 + Z0 =
[ ]
3 Vf
2
Z1 = Z2 =
[kV ] 2
=
[69 ] 2
= 1.3603 Ω
Fault MVA 3 φ 3500
In Per Unit,
Z actual 1.3603
Z1 = Z2 = = = 0.0286 p.u.
Z base 47 . 61
or
100MVA BASE
Z1 = Z2 = = 0.0286 p.u.
3500 MVA FAULT
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2Z 1 + Z 0 =
3Vf [ ]2
=
3[1.0 ]
2
= 0 .1
S SLGF 30
[
Re al {2 Z 1 + Z 0 } = 0.1cos tan -1 (20 ) = 0.004994 ] p.u.
Im ag {2 Z 1 + Z 0 } = 0.1sin [tan -1
(20 )] = 0.099875 p.u.
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+ + +
R1 +jX1
r + R2 +jX2 R0 +jX0
Eg
-
- - -
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
Load Models
Types of Load
Customer Load Curve
Calculating Hourly Demand
Developing Load Models
Types of Load
An illustration:
Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
85%PF
13.2 kVLL
Types of Load
An illustration:
Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
Constant Power (P & Q) 2 MVA, 3Ph
85% pf lag
2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR 13.2 kVLL
Constant Current (I∠θ)
I = 87.4773 ∠ -31.79o A
Types of Load
Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
r r r r 2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = VR + I SR ( Z line ) 0.85 pf, lag
13.2 kVLL
13,200 o
= ∠0 + (87.4773∠ − 31.79o )(1.1034 + j 2.0856)
3
= 7,800∠0.760o V
r
VSLL = 13.510 KVLL
Types of Load
Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
0.85 pf, lag
13.2 kVLL
r r*
3VS I S = 3(7,800∠0.76o )(87.4773∠31.79o )
= 1.7256 MW + j1.1010 MVAR
Types of Load
Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
0.85 pf, lag
13.2 kVLL
Plosses = 1.7256 − 1.7 MW
= 25.6 KW
13.510 − 13.2
VR = × 100%
13.2
= 2.35%
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Types of Load
Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load
2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR
r 1.7 − j1.0536 MVA
I SR =
311.88KV
= 97.1979∠ − 31.79o
r r r r
VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )
11.88 0
= ∠0 + (97.1979∠ − 31.78)(1.1034 + j 2.0856)
3
= 7,057.8∠0.940 V
= 12.224 KV
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Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load
2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR
12.224 − 11.88
VR = × 100%
11.88
= 2.9%
Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load
I = 87.4773 ∠ -31.79o A
r r r r
VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )
11.88 o
= ∠0 + (87.4773∠ − 31.79o )(1.1034 + j 2.0856)
3
= 7,037.8∠0.84o V
= 12.190 KV
Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load
I = 87.4773 ∠ -31.78o A
12.19 − 11.88
VR = × 100%
11.88
= 2.6%
Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load
Z = 87.12 ∠31.79o Ω = 74.0520 + j 45.8948 Ω
r
r r ⎡ Z Load ⎤
VR = VS ⎢ r r ⎥
⎣ Z Load + Z Line ⎦
r r
r r ⎡ Z Load + Z Line ⎤
VS = VR ⎢ r ⎥
⎣ Z Load ⎦
11.88 o ⎡ 87.12∠31.79o + (1.1034 + j 2.0856 ⎤
= ∠0 ⎢ ⎥
3 ⎣ 87 .12 ∠ 31.79 o
⎦
= 7.0199 ∠0.77o KV
r
VSLL = 12.159 KV
U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in
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Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load
Z = 87.12 ∠31.79o Ω = 74.0520 + j 45.8948 Ω
r
r VS
I SR = r r
Z Load + Z Line
7.0199 ∠0.77 o
=
87.12∠31.79o + 1.1034 + j 2.0856
= 78.730 A
Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load
Z = 87.12 ∠31.79o Ω = 74.0520 + j 45.8948 Ω
12.159 − 11.88
VR = × 100%
11.88
= 2.34%
Types of Load
Load VS* VR Ploss
Constant 2 MVA,
Power 0.85 pf 12.224 2.9 % 28.72 kW
lag
Constant
87.48
Current 12.190 2.6 % 25.33 kW
∠-31.78
Constant
87.12
Impedance 12.159 2.34 % 18.84 kW
∠-31.78
* Sending end voltage with a Receiving end voltage
equal to 0.9*13.2 KV
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Types of Load
DemandReA= (PA+ IReA Va + Z -1 Va2 )
ReA
1.0
Demand (Per Unit)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time
300
250
Demand (W)
200
1.2
Area under the curve
1
100 = Customer Energy
nit)
Bill
d(pru
e
0.8
50
m n
a
0.6
dDe
0
lize
0.4
rma
0.2
Daily Energy
Daily Energy
Hourly Demand
⎛ ⎞
Customer
Customer ⎜ ⎟
⎜ pt ⎟
Load
Load Pt = Energy daily 24
⎜ ⎟
Curve
Curve ⎜ ∑ pt ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠
300
250
Demand (W)
200
150
100
50
0
1:00
3:00
5:00
7:00
9:00
11:00
13:00
15:00
17:00
19:00
21:00
23:00
Hourly Real Demand
U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in
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Qt = Pt tan cos pf t ( −1
)
Qt = hourly Reactive Demand (VAR)
Pt = hourly Real Demand (W)
Pft = hourly power factor
Example:
Real Demand (W) = 150.11 W, PF = 0.96 lag
Reactive Demand = P tan (cos-1 pf)
= 150.11 tan (cos-1 0.96)
= 43.78 VAR
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300
Demand (W and VAR)
250
200
150
100
50
0
1:00
3:00
5:00
7:00
9:00
11:00
13:00
15:00
17:00
19:00
21:00
23:00
Hourly Real & Reactive Demand
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Data Requirements
Customer Data;
Billing Cycle Data;
Customer Energy Consumption Data; and
Load Curve Data.
Generator Models
q-axis
d-axis Stator:
Phase b
Phase c distributed three-
winding
winding phase winding
(a, b, c)
Field
Axis of a
winding F
Rotor:
Damper
Damper DC field winding
winding D
winding Q (F) and short-
circuited damper
Phase a
winding
windings (D, Q)
Axis of c
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- b
q-axis
+V
d-axis
ib
b
-
θe
vQ
D
iQ +
iD
-
Q F
D
v
-+
iF a
phase a
F
v
ia
+
+ Va -
ωm
dλ
+V
ic
v = Ri +
- c
phase c
dt
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b-axis
-
Q iQ vQ
+
Rotor coils FDQ
b-
stationary
+V
b ib
Stator coils abc F D
rotating a d-axis
ic
+
ia iF iD
Vc
+ Va - + vF - + vD -
-
c a-axis
ωm
c-axis
-
λ F = LFd i d + LFF i F + LFD i D
vQ
λ D = LDd id + LDF i F + LDD i D
Q
- i +
Q
q
- i
-
vq
+
λQ = LQq iq + LQQ iQ
q
d F D
i i i d-axis
ω + vd + vF + vD
d F D
- -
λ d = L dd i d + L dF i F + L dD i D
m -
λ q = L qq i q + L qQ iQ
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ib q i
q
d-axis d
ic
c-axis ω id d-axis
m ia
θe
a-axis
Note: The d and q windings are pseudo-stationary.
The O axis is perpendicular to the d and q axes.
U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in
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v
T
odq =v
T
abc [P] T
⎡ LS − MS − MS ⎤
[LSS ] = ⎢⎢− M S LS − M S ⎥⎥
⎢⎣− M S − MS LS ⎥⎦
⎡ cos 2θ e cos(2θ e − 120 ) cos(2θ e + 120 )⎤
+ Lm ⎢⎢cos(2θ e − 120 ) cos(2θ e + 120 ) cos 2θ e ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣cos(2θ e + 120 ) cos 2θ e cos(2θ e − 120 )⎥⎦
where
3 3 3
LdF = LaF LdD = LaD L qQ = L aQ
2 2 2
Finally, we get
λ o = Loo io
λ d = Ldd i d + LdF i F + LdD i D
λ q = Lqq i q + LqQ iQ
Note: All inductances are constant.
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we get
λFDQ = [LSR ] [P] i odq + [LRR ]i FDQ
T −1
3 3 3
L Fd = L aF L Dd = L aD L Qq = L aQ
2 2 2
⎡ LFF LFD 0 ⎤
λ F = LFd id + LFF iF + LFDiD
⎢ ⎥ λ D = LDd id + LDF iF + LDDiD
[LRR] = ⎢LDF LDD 0 ⎥
⎢ 0
⎣ 0 LQQ
⎥
⎦
λ Q = LQqiq + LQQiQ
d ⎧d −1 ⎫
v odq = R a [u 3 ]i odq + [P ][P ] λ odq + [P ]⎨ [P ] ⎬ λ odq
−1
dt ⎩ dt ⎭
dθ e
= ωe = ω m for a two–pole machine
dt
P
= ωm for a P–pole machine
2
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d q F D Q
d ⎡ Ldd LdF LdD ⎤
q ⎢ Lqq LqQ ⎥⎥
⎢
[L] = F ⎢LFd LFF LFD ⎥
D ⎢LDd LDF LDD
⎥
⎢ ⎥ d q F D Q
Q ⎢⎣ LQq LQQ ⎥⎦ d ⎡ − Lqq − LqQ ⎤
q ⎢L L L ⎥
⎢ dd dF dD ⎥
[G] = F ⎢ ⎥
Note: All entries of [L] and
D⎢ ⎥
[G] are constant. ⎢ ⎥
Q ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
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Te = −[i] [G][i] ⎡ 0 ⎤
T
⎢− λ ⎥
⎢ q⎥
⎢ λd ⎥
[
= − io id iq iF iD ]
iQ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥
We get ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Te = −(− λq id + λd iq )
[
= − (Ldd − Lqq ) id iq + LdF iF iq + LdDiDiq − LqQiQid ]
for a 2-pole machine
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Steady–State Equations
At steady–state condition,
1. All transformer voltages are zero.
2. No voltages are induced in the damper windings.
Thus, iD = iQ = 0
Voltage Equations
vo = Ra io
vd = Ra id − ω m Lqq iq
vq = Ra iq + ω m (Ldd id + LdF iF )
v F = R F iF
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Steady–State Equations
Cylindrical-Rotor Machine
If the rotor is cylindrical, then the air gap is
uniform, and Ldd = Lqq.
vq = Raiq − ωm Ls id + ωm LdF iF
Te = LdF iF iq
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Steady–State Equations
For Balanced Three-Phase Operation
ia = 2 I cos (ωt + α )
( )
ib = 2 I cos ωt + α − 120 o
i = 2 I cos (ωt + α + 120 )
c
o
Steady–State Equations
A similar transformation applies to balance three-
phase voltages.
Given va = 2 V cos(ωt + δ)
(
vb = 2 V cos ωt + δ − 120 ) o
vc = 2 V cos(ωt + δ + 120 ) o
We get vo = 0
vd = 3 V cos δ
vq = 3 V sin δ
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Steady–State Equations
Inverse Transformation
i abc = [P ] i odq
−1
We get
ia =
2
3
[
id cos ωt − iq sin ωt ]
=
2
3
[
id cos ωt + iq cos ωt + 90o ( )]
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Steady–State Equations
Recall the phasor transformation
2 I cos (ω t + θ ) ↔ I∠ θ
Using the transform, we get
Ia =
1
[
id ∠0o + iq ∠90o ]
3
assuming the d and q axes as reference. Simplify
id iq
Ia = + j
3 3
I a = I d + jI q
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Steady–State Equations
Similarly, given vd and vq with vo = 0
va =
2
3
[
vd cos ωt − vq sin ωt ]
=
2
3
[
v d cos ωt + vq cos (ωt + 90 )
o
]
In phasor form, vd vq
Va = + j
3 3
=Vd + jVq
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Steady–State Equations
Steady-State Operation-Cylindrical
Recall at steady-state
vd = Ra id − ω m Ls iq
vq = Ra iq + ω m Ls id + ω m LdF iF
Divide by 3
Vd = Ra I d − ωm Ls I q
1
Vq = Ra I q + ωm Ls I d + ωm LdF iF
3
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Steady–State Equations
Define Xs = ωmLs = synchronous reactance
1
E f = ωm LdFiF = Excitation voltage
3
Phasor Voltage V a
V a = Vd + jVq
= Ra I d − X s I q + j (Ra I q + X s I d + E f )
= Ra (I d + jI q ) + jX s (I d + jI q ) + jE f
V a = Ra I a + jX s I a + E m (motor equation)
Steady–State Equations
For a generator, current flows out of the machine
( )
V a = Ra − I a + jXs − I a + E g ( )
E g = Ra I a + jXs I a + V a
R a + jX s
+ +
Ia
AC
Eg Va
-
-
Equivalent Circuit of Cylindrical Rotor
Synchronous Generator
U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in
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Steady–State Equations
Salient-Pole Machine
If the rotor is not cylindrical, no equivalent circuit can be
drawn. The analysis is based solely on the phasor diagram
describing the machine. Recall the steady-state equations
vd = Raid − ω m Lqqiq
vq = Raiq + ω m Ldd id + ω m LdF iF
Divide through by 3
Vd = Ra I d − X q I q
ω m LdF iF
Vq = R a I q + X d I d +
3
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Steady–State Equations
where
Xd =ωmLdd = direct axis synchronous
reactance
Define:
ωm LdF
Ef = iF = excitation voltage
3
Steady–State Equations
We get Vd = Ra I d − X q I q
Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f
Steady–State Equations
Steady-State Electromagnetic Torque
At steady-state
[
Te = − (Ldd − Lqq ) id iq + LdF iF iq ]
saliency cylindrical
torque torque
The dominant torque is the cylindrical torque which
determines the mode of operation.
For a motor, Te is assumed to be negative. For a generator,
Te is assumed to be positive.
Steady–State Equations
Since the field current iF is always positive,
Steady–State Equations
What about Id?
Assume Iq = 0 . Vd = Ra I d − X q I q
From
Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f
we get Vd = Ra I d
Vq = X d I d + E f
In general, Ra << Xd. We get
V a = V d + jV q
= R a I d + j (X d I d + E f )
≈ j (X d I d + E f )
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Steady–State Equations
If the magnitude of Va is constant,
Vq = X d I d + E f = constant
Recall that
ω m L dF
Ef = iF
3
Thus, the excitation voltage depends only on the
field current since ωm is constant.
Steady–State Equations
Operating Modes
q-axis
Over-excited Under-excited
Motor Motor
Id < 0, Iq > 0 Id > 0, Iq > 0
d-axis
Id < 0, Iq < 0 Id > 0, Iq < 0
Over-excited Under-excited
Generator Generator
Steady–State Equations
Steady–State Equations
Drawing Phasor Diagrams
A phasor diagram showing Va and Ia can be drawn
if the currents Id and Iq are known. Recall
I a = I d + jI q
V a = Vd + jVq
V a = Ra I a − X q I q + jX d I d + jE f
V a = jE f − X q I q + jX d I d + Ra I a
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Steady–State Equations
Over-excited Motor q-axis
− X q Iq
Ra I a
Id < 0 jEf
Iq > 0
Va jXd Id
δ
Ia jIq
φ
Id d-axis
Steady–State Equations
Under-excited Motor
Ra I a q-axis
Id > 0 Va
Iq > 0 jX d I d
− XqIq jEf
δ
Ia
jIq φ
Id d-axis
Steady–State Equations
Over-excited Generator q-axis
− XqIq
jEf jXd Id
Id < 0
Iq < 0 Ra I a
δ
Va
φ Actual Current
Id
jIq d-axis
Steady–State Equations
Under-excited Generator
Ra I a
Id > 0
jXd Id
Iq < 0 Va
jEf − Xq Iq
φ δ
Actual
Current Id
d-axis
jIq
Leading Power Factor Ia
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Steady–State Equations
Observations
1. The excitation voltage jEf lies along the
quadrature axis.
Steady–State Equations
4. For a generator, the actual current flows out of
the machine. Thus Id, Iq and I a are negative.
jEf = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id − Xq Iq
5. Let
jE f = E m for a motor
jE f = E g for a generator
Steady–State Equations
The generator equation becomes
E g = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id − X q Iq
For a motor, the equation is
V a = Em + Ra I a + jXd Id − Xq Iq
Steady–State Equations
Example 1: A 25 MVA, 13.8 kV, 3600 RPM, Y-connected
cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator has a synchronous
reactance of 4.5 ohms per phase. The armature resistance
is negligible. Find the excitation voltage Eg when the
machine is supplying rated MVA at rated voltage and 0.8
power factor. jXs
Single-phase + +
equivalent circuit Ia
Eg AC
Va
-
Va = 13.8 kV line-to-line -
= 7.97 kV line-to-neutral
Steady–State Equations
Pa = 25(0.8) = 20 MW, three-phase
= 6.67 MW/phase
Qa = Pa tan θ = 15 MVar, three-phase
=5 MVar/phase
Steady–State Equations
We get Ia = 837 − j628 A
= 1,046∠ − 36.87o A
Apply KVL,
Eg = jXS I a + V a
(
= j 4.5 1,046∠ − 36.87o + 7,970∠0o )
= 10,791 + j3,766
= 11,429∠19.24o V
Eg = 11,429 volts, line-to-neutral
= 19,732 volts, line-to-line
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Steady–State Equations
Example 2: A 100 MVA, 20 kV, 3-phase synchronous
generator has a synchronous reactance of 2.4 ohms. The
armature resistance is negligible. The machine supplies
power to a wye-connected resistive load, 4Ω per phase, at a
terminal voltage of 20 kV line-to-line.
(a) Find the excitation voltage
X S = 2.4Ω
+ +
Ia
Eg AC
Va R = 4Ω
- Va(L-L) = 20,000 volts
-
Va(L-N) = 11,547 volts
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Steady–State Equations
V a = 11,547∠0o V, the reference
Let
V a 11,547 o
Ia = = = 2,887∠0 Amps
R 4
Applying KVL, E g = jXS I a + V a
= j 2.4(2,887) + 11,547
= 11,547 + j 6,928
= 13,466∠30.96o V line − to − neutral
E g = 3 (13,466 ) = 23,324 V
= 23 .32 kV, line − to − line
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Steady–State Equations
(b) Assume that the field current is held constant. A second
identical resistive load is connected across the machine
terminal. Find the terminal voltage, Va.
Va 1 o
Ia = = Va∠0
Req 2
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Steady–State Equations
Apply KVL, E g = jX s I a + V a
⎛1 ⎞
= j 2.4⎜ Va ⎟ + Va
⎝2 ⎠
= Va + j1.2Va
We get Eg = Va + (1.2Va )
2 2 2
13 , 466 = 2 . 44 V a
2 2
Steady–State Equations
(c) Assume that the field current iF is increased so that the
terminal voltage remains at 20 kV line-to-line after the
addition of the new resistive load. Find Eg.
V a = 11 , 547 ∠ 0 o V , line − to − neutral
V a 11,547
Ia = = = 5,774 ∠ 0 o Amps
Req 2
E g = j 2.4(5774 ) + 11,547
= 11,547 + j13,856
= 18,037 ∠50 .19 o V line − to − neutral
E g = 3 (18 , 037 ) = 31, 241 V
= 31 .24 kV line − to − line
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a
Ia
Za R a + jX s
Ea
Eb + Ia +
Ec Ib
Eg Va
Zb Zc b -
Ic -
c
Three-Phase Equivalent Single-Phase Equivalent
Sequence Impedance of
Power System Components
From Symmetrical Components, the Sequence
Networks for Unbalanced Three-Phase Analysis
+ + +
Ia1 Ia2 Ia0
Z1 Z2 Z0
Va1 Va2 Va0
+
E
- - -
V a1 = E – I a1 Z 1 V a2 = - I a2 Z 2 V ao = - I ao Z o
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence
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F1 F2 F0
jZ1
r + jZ2 jZ0
Eg
-
N1 N2 N0
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
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Transformer Models
Two-Winding Transformer
Ideal Transformer
The voltage drop from the polarity-
marked terminal to the non-polarity-
marked terminal of the H winding is
in phase with the voltage drop from
the polarity-marked terminal to the
non-polarity-marked terminal of the
X winding. N N H X
Voltage Equation:
r + r r +
r IH IX r
VH NH VH
r = VX
VX NX _ _
Two-Winding Transformer
NH N X
+ r r +
r r Current Equation:
VH
IH IX
VX r r
_ _ NH IH = N X IX
Two-Winding Transformer
Referred Values
From therTransformation Ratio,
VH r r
a= r V H = aV X
VX
r r
IX r IX
a= r IH =
IH a
Dividing VH by IH,
r r
VH 2 VX
r =a r ZH = a2 Z X
IH IX
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Two-Winding Transformer
Practical Transformer
1. The H and X coils have a small resistance.
2. There are leakage fluxes in the H and X coils.
3. There is resistance loss in the iron core.
4. The permeability of the iron is not infinite.
iH φm iX
+ +
vH eH eX vX
- NH NX -
iron
core
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Two-Winding Transformer
Equivalent Circuit
v
RH + jX H I ex N H N X R X + jX X
+ r + + r +
r IH R v v IX r
VH c jX m EH EX VX
- - - -
H winding Ideal X winding
Two-Winding Transformer
Referring secondary quantities at the primary side,
RH + jX H a 2 R X + ja 2 X X NH N X
v
+ r I ex
r + + +
r IH R IX r v v
VH c jX m aV X EH EX
a
- - - -
RH + jX H a 2 R X + ja 2 X X
v
I ex
+ r r +
r IH R IX r
VH c jX m aV X
a
- -
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Two-Winding Transformer
The transformer equivalent circuit can be
approximated by
Req + jX eq
v R eq = R H + a 2 R X
r +
+ r Iex
X eq = X H + a 2 X X
1
r IH R a IX r
VH c jX m aV X
- - Req + jX eq
v
+
r Iex r +
1
r IH a IX r
V H Rc jX m aV X
- -
Two-Winding Transformer
R eq + jX eq jX eq
+ r r + + r r +
r I H = a1 I X r r I H = a1 I X r
VH aV X VH aV X
- - - -
Two-Winding Transformer
Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1
q r
1
s p y pq
a
Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Short-Circuit Test
Conducted to determine series impedance
With the secondary (Low-voltage side) short-
circuited, apply a primary voltage (usually 2 to
12% of rated value) so that full load current
flows. H1 x1
A
W
H2 x2
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Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Short-Circuit Test
Req + jX eq
Ie
+ I SC I1 Ie ≈ 0
VSC Rc jX m I sc = I 1
-
PSC VSC
Req = 2 Z eq = X eq = Z − R 2
eq
2
eq
I SC I SC
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Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Open-Circuit Test
Conducted to determine shunt impedance
With the secondary (High-voltage side) open-
circuited, apply rated voltage to the primary.
x1 H1
A
W
x2 H2
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Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Open-Circuit Test
Req + jX eq
Ie
+ I OC
VOC Rc jX m I OC = I e
-
2
V 2
1 ⎡ I OC ⎤ 1
Rc = OC
= ⎢ ⎥ − 2
POC Xm ⎣VOC ⎦ Rc
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Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Example:
50 kVA, 2400/240V, single-phase transformer
Short-Circuit Test: HV side energized
VSC = 48 volts I SC = 20.8 amps PSC = 617 watts
Open-Circuit Test: LV side energized
VOC = 240 volts I OC = 5.41 amps POC = 186 watts
Determine the Series and Shunt Impedance of the
transformer. What is %Z and X/R of the
transformer?
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Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Solution:
From the short-circuit test 617
R eq ,H = = 1 .42 o hm
48 (20 .8 )2
Z eq ,H = = 2.31 ohm 2
20.8 X eq ,H = 2.31 − 1.42 = 1.82 ohm
2
Rcq ,L =
(240 )
2
= 310 ohm
186
2 2
1 ⎡ 5.41 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ X m ,L = 45 ohm
= ⎢ ⎥ − ⎢ 310 ⎥
Xm ⎣ 240 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Referred to the HV side
Rc ,H = a 2 Rc ,L = 30 ,968 ohm
X m ,H = a 2 X m ,L = 4 ,482 ohm
%Z and X/R
Z BASE =
[2.4 ]2 = 115.2 ohm
50 / 1000
⎛ 2.31 ⎞ 1.82
%Z = ⎜ ⎟ x100 = 2% X /R= = 1.28
⎝ 115.2 ⎠ 1.42
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Three-Winding Transformer
NX
NH r +
r
+ r IX VX
r IH _
VH +
_
r r
NY IY VY
_
r r r
VH NH VH NH VX NX
r = r = r =
VX NX VY NY VY NY
r r r
NH IH = N X IX + N Y IY
Three-Winding Transformer
From 3 short-circuit tests with third winding open, get
ZHX=impedance measured at the H side when the
X winding is short-circuited and the Y winding
is open-circuited
ZHY=impedance measured at the H side when the
Y winding is short-circuited and the X winding
is open-circuited
ZXY=impedance measured at the X side when the
Y winding is short-circuited and the H winding
is open-circuited
Note: When expressed in ohms, the impedances
must be referred to the same side.
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Three-Winding Transformer
ZX
ZH +
+
r
r VX
VH ZY r
+
- VY -
-
Z HX = Z H + Z X
Z XY = Z X + Z Y
Z HY = Z H + Z Y
or Z H = 12 ( Z HX + Z HY − Z XY )
Z X = 21 ( Z HX − Z HY + Z XY )
Z Y = 12 ( − Z HX + Z HY + Z XY )
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Three-Winding Transformer
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer
has the following nameplate rating:
H: 30 MVA 140 kV
X: 30 MVA 48 kV
Y: 10.5 MVA 4.8 kV
Short circuit tests yield the following impedances:
ZHX = 63.37 Ω @ the H side
ZHY = 106.21 Ω @ the H side
ZXY = 4.41 Ω @ the X side
Find the equivalent circuit in ohms, referred to the
H side.
Z XY = (
140 2
48 ) ( 4.41 ) = 37 .52 Ω
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Three-Winding Transformer
With all impedances referred to the H side, we get
+
r
r VX
VH 40.18 Ω r
+
- VY -
-
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Transformer Connection
Transformer Polarity
V1 V1
H1 H2 H1 H2
V V
Less Greater
than V1 than V1
x1 x2 x2 x1
Subtractive Polarity Additive Polarity
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2
Subtractive Additive
X1 X2 X2 X1
Transformer Connection
Parallel Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2
LOAD
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Transformer Connection
Parallel Connection
same turns ratio
Connected to the same primary phase
Identical frequency ratings
Identical voltage ratings
Identical tap settings
Per unit impedances within 0.925 to 1.075 of
each other
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
WYE-WYE (Y-Y)
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
DELTA-DELTA (Δ-Δ)
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
WYE-DELTA (Y-Δ)
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
DELTA-WYE (Δ-Y)
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2
Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2
Three-Phase Transformer
Three-Phase Transformer
Angular Displacement
ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-1993: The angular
displacement of a three-phase transformer is the
time angle (expressed in degrees) between the
line-to-neutral voltage of the high-voltage
terminal marked H1 and the the line-to-neutral
voltage of the low-voltage terminal marked X1.
The angular displacement for a three-phase trans-
former with a Δ-Δ or Y-Y connection shall be 0o.
The angular displacement for a three-phase trans-
former with a Y-Δ or Δ-Y connection shall be 30o,
with the low voltage lagging the high voltage.
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Three-Phase Transformer
Vector Diagrams
H2 X2 H2
X2
X1
X1 X3
H1 H3 H1 H3 X3
Δ-Δ Connection Y-Δ Connection
H2 X2 H2 X2
X1
X1 X3 X3
H1 H3 H1 H3
Y-Y Connection Δ-Y Connection
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Three-Phase Transformer
IEC Designation
0
IEC Designation for Δ-Δ
10 2
Dd0 Dd2 Dd4
Dd6 Dd8 Dd10
8 4
IEC Designation for Y-Y
Yy0 Yy6 6
Three-Phase Transformer
IEC Designation
11 1
IEC Designation for Y-Δ
Three-Phase Transformer
Positive–Sequence Voltages
B b
H2 X2
X1
N
A H3 X3 c
H1
C r r r a
VBN1 Vab1 Vbn1
r
(A-B-C)
r r r
Van1
r Vbc1 Van1 lags V
o
AN1
by 30
r r Vca1 r
VAN1 VCN1 Vcn1
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Three-Phase Transformer
Positive–Sequence rCurrents
B r Iba1 r b
H2 X2
IB1 X1 r Ib1
r Icb1 r
IA1 r Ic1
A r H3 Iac1 X3
r c
IC1 H1 Ia 1
C a
r r
r Icb1 Ib1
IB1 (A-B-C) r r
r Ia1 lags IA1
r r Ia1 r r by 30o
IA1 IC1 Iba1 Iac1
r
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Three-Phase Transformer
Positive Sequence Impedance
Whether a bank of single-phase units or a three-
phase transformer unit (core type or shell type),
the equivalent impedance is the same.
Using per-unit values, the positive-sequence
equivalent circuit is
Z1 = R1 + jX1
+ r r + Note: The negative-
r IH = IX r sequence impedance is
VH VX equal to the positive-
- - sequence impedance.
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Three-Phase Transformer
Negative–Sequence Voltages
B b
H2 X2
X1
N
A H3 X3 c
H1
Cr r a
VCN2 Vcn2 r r
r Van2 leads VAN2
(A-C-B) Vcb2 r
r by 30o
Vac2 Vbn2
r
r
r r Vba2
VAN2 VBN2 Van2
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Three-Phase Transformer
Negative–Sequence
r Currents
B r Iba2 r b
H2 X2
IB 2 X1 r Ib2
r Icb2 r
IA2 r Ic2
A r H H3 Iac2 X3
r c
IC2 1 Ia 2
C r r a
r Ic 2 Iac2
IC 2 r r
(A-C-B) r Ia2 leads IA2
r r Ib 2 by 30o
r r Iba2
IA 2 IB 2 Icb2
r
Ia2
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Three-Phase Transformer
Positive– & Negative Sequence Networks
Z1 Z2
+ r + + r +
Primary I1 Secondary Primary I2 Secondary
Side Side Side Side
- - - -
Positive Negative
Sequence Z1 = Z2 Sequence
Network Network
Three-Phase Transformer
Transformer Core
Shell Type
Note: Only the X
4-Legged Core Type windings are shown.
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Three-Phase Transformer
Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Flux
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer
does not provide a path for zero-sequence flux. On
the other hand, a bank of single-phase units, the
4-legged core type and the shell-type three-phase
transformer provide a path for zero-sequence flux.
3φ0
Note: The zero-
sequence flux leaks out
of the core and returns
φ0 φ0 φ0 through the transformer
tank.
3-Legged Core Type
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Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.
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Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.
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Three-Phase Transformer
Example: Consider a two-winding three-phase
transformer with the following nameplate rating:
25 MVA 69Δ -13.8YG kV (Dyn1) Z=7%. Draw the
positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use
the transformer rating as bases.
Three-Phase Transformer
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer
has the following nameplate rating: 150/150/45
MVA 138zG-69zG-13.8Δ kV (Yy0d1).
H-X @ 150 MVA = 14.8%
H-Y @ 45 MVA = 21.0%
X-Y @ 45 MVA = 36.9%
Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent
circuits. Use 100 MVA and the transformer voltage
ratings as bases.
At the chosen MVA base,
Z HX = 0.148 ( 100 / 150 ) = 0.10 p.u.
Z HY = 0.21( 100 / 45 ) = 0.47 p.u.
Z XY = 0.369 ( 100 / 45 ) = 0.82 p.u.
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Three-Phase Transformer
-
VY - -
VY -
- -
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Primary Secondary
A a
abc
B
C
Y T
b
c
Core
Admittance Loss
Matrix
Pp .u . =
kVA Rating
System Base
2
(
A V + Bε
CV
2
)
Q p .u . =
kVA Rating
System Base
2
(
D V + Eε
FV
2
)
A = 0.00267 B = 0.734x10 -9 C = 13.5
D = 0.00167 E = 0.268x10 -13 F = 22.7 |V| in per unit
Transformer Model
Three I1 I2
Identical
z11 z12 z22
Single-phase
Transformers
in Bank
I3 I4
z11 z12
z33 z34 z44
z21 z22
z33 z34
I5 I6
z43 z44
z55 z56 z66
z55 z56
z65 z66
Transformer Model
Node Connection Matrix, C
V1 VA
V2 VB
V3 VC
=
V4 Va
V5 Vb
V6 Vc
[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ]
Matrix C defines the relationship of the Primitive Voltages and
Terminal Voltages of the Three-Phase Connected Transformer
Transformer Model
VA Va
IA Ia
1 2
3 4 Ib
IC
VC
5 6 Vb
IB Ic
VB Vc
Transformer Model
6 Va
VA Ia
IA
1 2
3 Ib
VC IB 4 Vb
5
IC Ic
VB
Vc
Wye Grounded-Delta Node Connection Matrix, C
Connection
V1 1 VA
V2 1 -1 VB
V3 1 VC
[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ] V4
=
1 -1 Va
V5 1 Vb
V6 -1 1 Vc
Transformer Model
R1 M R2
A a
1 L1 L2 2
3 Identical
R1 R2
Single-Phase B M
b
Transformers 3 L1 L2 4
connected R1 N R2
M
Wye-Delta C c
5 L1 L2 6
Let, Z 1 = R1 + jωL1 = Z 3 = Z 5
Z 2 = R2 + jωL2 = Z 4 = Z 6
Z M = Z 12 = jωM = Z 34 = Z 56
Transformer Model
V1 Z1 ZM I1
V2 ZM Z2 I2
V3 Z1 ZM I3 The Primitive
= Voltage Equations
V4 ZM Z2 I4
V5 Z1 ZM I5
V6 ZM Z2 I6
Transformer Model
A B C a b c
Z2 -ZM ZM A
Z2 -ZM ZM B
1 Z2 ZM -ZM C
YBUS =
Z1 Z2 –ZM2 -ZM ZM 2Z1 -Z1 -Z1 a
ZM -ZM -Z1 2Z1 -ZM b
ZM -ZM -Z1 -Z1 2Z1 c
Transformer Model
The Bus Admittance Matrix
Iinj = [C Yprim CT] Vnode
YBUS = [C][Yprim][CT]
1 Z2 -ZM 1
1 -ZM Z1 1 -1
1 1 Z2 -ZM 1
Z1 Z2 –ZM2 1 -1 -ZM Z1 1 -1
-1 1 Z2 -ZM 1
-1 1 -ZM Z1 -1 1
yt -ayt ayt
yt -ayt ayt
yt ayt -ayt
YBUS =
-ayt ayt 2a2yt -a2yt -a2yt
ayt -ayt -a2yt 2a2yt -a2yt
ayt -ayt -a2yt -a2yt 2a2yt
-yt yt -yt yt
YIII = 1/√3 -yt yt YIIIT = 1/√3 yt -yt
yt -yt yt -yt
[Ybus] =
Transformer Equations
Consider the winding-to-winding relationship
between primary and secondary:
From transformer equations,
VPRI Z PRI
=a =a 2
VSEC Z SEC
I PRI 1 N PRI
= a=
I SEC a N SEC
Distributing Transformer
Impedance Between Windings
Transformers are typically modeled with series
impedance lumped at either end.
To properly model transformer behavior, series
impedance must be modeled in both windings.
PROBLEM: divide ZT into ZP and ZS given a
ZT = Z P + Z S '
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Distributing Transformer
Impedance Between Windings
ASSUMPTION: Transformer impedance varies as
number of wire turns.
Z S = aZ P
Referring ZS to primary side ,
ZS ' = a ZS = a ZP
2 3
Substituting,
ZT = Z P + a Z P 3
= (1 + a3 ) Z P
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Distributing Transformer
Impedance Between Windings
To find ZP and ZS,
1
ZP = ZT
(1 + a )
3
a
ZS = Z
(1 + a )
3 T
Wye-Grounded – Wye-Grounded
Delta-Delta
⎡ I A ⎤ ⎡1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ I Pr i _ Winding _1 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥
⎢ B⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ Pr i _ Winding _ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ I C ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 ⎥⎦
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Delta-Delta Transformer
Connection
Aluminum Conductor
Hard-Drawn Copper Steel Reinforced
(Cu) (ACSR)
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R – Resistance
L ρ – Resistivity of Material
R=ρ L – Length
A A – Cross-Sectional Area
2 2’
r
I2 z 22
V 1− 1' = I 1 z 11 + I 2 z 12
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Earth Resistance:
Carson derived an empirical formula for the earth
resistance.
r = 1.588 x 10 f
-3 Ω/mile
d
= 9.869 x 10-4 f Ω/km
where f is the power frequency in Hz
Note : At 60 Hz,
rd = 0.09528 Ω/mile
= 0.059214 Ω/km
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Ds = Dsc d
Ds = 1.09 4 Dsc d 3
Note: Dsc=GMR of a single conductor
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Z ac = 3.81 + j 23.97 Ω
We get
⎡14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 ⎤
Zabc= ⎢ 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 ⎥ Ω
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38⎥⎦
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De
zxx = ( rx + rd ) + jωk ln xx=aa,bb,cc,ww
Dsx
De
z xy = rd + jω k ln xy=ab,ac,aw,bc,bw,cw
Dxy
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V1 Z1 Z2 I1
=
0 Z3 Z4 I2
De
z ww = ( rw + rd ) + jωk ln 10’ 10’
Dsw a b c
= ( 4.0 + 0.095 ) + j0.121 ln 0.001
2790
Z aw = Z cw = 3.81 + j 24.47 Ω
Z bw = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790
15 Ω/mile
Z bw = 3.81 + j 25.36 Ω
From a previous example, we got
⎡14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 ⎤
⎢ 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 ⎥ Ω
Z1= ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38⎥⎦
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Define: Z k 1 = f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 13
Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23
Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12
Z s = Z 11 = Z 22 = Z 33
Substitution gives
r r
⎡ ΣV a ⎤ ⎡ Z s Z k1 Z k 2 ⎤⎡I a ⎤
⎢ r⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢r ⎥
⎢ΣVrb ⎥ = ⎢ Z k 1 Zs Z k 3 ⎥ ⎢ I b ⎥ Volts
r
⎢ ΣVc ⎥ ⎢⎣ Z k 2 Zk3 Z s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 = 3.81 + j 26.66 Ω
Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12 = 3.81 + j 26.32 Ω
⎢ΣVrb ⎥ = ⎢ Z m Zs Z m ⎥⎢I b ⎥
r Volts
⎢ Σ Vc ⎥ ⎢ Z m Zm Z s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
where
De
Z s = ( ra + rd )s + jωks ln
Ds Ω
De
Z m = ( Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 13 )
1
3 = rd s + jωks ln Ω
Dm
Ds, Dm = GMR and GMD, respectively
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D31 D12
D
D 31 23
D31
D12 D23
D23
D12
D31
Dm = 3 D12D23D31
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⎢⎣ Z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z s 2 − Z m 2 Z s 1 + 2 Z m1 Z s 0 − Z m0 ⎥⎦
Note: Z012 is not symmetric.
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Z s 0 = 31 ( Z aa + Z bb + Z cc )
Z s 1 = 31 ( Z aa + aZ bb + a 2 Z cc )
Z s 2 = 31 ( Z aa + a 2 Z bb + aZ cc )
Z m 0 = 13 ( Z ab + Z bc + Z ca )
Z m 1 = 13 ( a 2 Z ab + Z bc + aZ ca )
Z m 2 = 31 ( aZ ab + Z bc + a 2 Z ca )
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Z s0 = Z s Z m0 = Z m
Z s1 = Z s 2 = 0 Z m1 = Z m 2 = 0
The sequence impedance matrix reduces to
⎡ Z 0 ⎤ ⎡Z s + 2 Z m 0 0 ⎤
⎢Z ⎥ = ⎢ 0 Zs − Zm 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣Z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 Z s − Z m ⎥⎦
Z 0 = Z s + 2 Z m = 22.55 + j110.80 Ω
Z 1 = Z 2 = Z s − Z m = 11.12 + j 32.17 Ω
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D
Due to charge qa, we get the voltage drop vab.
qa D
v ab = ln
2πε ra
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⎢M⎥ ⎢ M M M M M ⎥⎢ M ⎥ 1 H kj
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ Pkj = 2πε ln D
⎣v n ⎦ ⎣ Pna Pnb Pnc ... Pnn ⎦ ⎣q n ⎦ kj
⎡+ C aa − C ab − C ac ... − C an ⎤
⎢− C + Cbb − Cbc ... − Cbn ⎥⎥
C= ⎢ ba
⎢ M M M M M ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣− C na − C nb − C nc ... + C nn ⎦
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⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ − jω C na − jω C nb − jω C nc ... + jω C nn ⎦
The difference between the magnitude of a
diagonal element and its associated off-diagonal
elements is the capacitance to ground. For
example, the capacitance from a to ground is
C ag = C aa − C ab − C ac − ... − C an
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Thus, we have
C012 = A −1C abc A
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Hab=Hbc=81.2 ft 40’
Hac=84.8 ft
Find the P matrix
H aa 1
Paa = Pbb = Pcc = ln
2πε 0 ra
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0.0357
= 138.86 x 10 9 Meter/Farad
= 86.29 x 10 6 Mile/Farad
Similarly, we get
H ab
1
Pab = Pbc = ln
2πε 0 Dab
= 19.66 x 10 6 Mile/Farad
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3’ 1’ 3’
Example
A B C
4’
Phase Conductor
N
336,400 26/7 ACSR
Neutral Conductor
4/0 6/1 ACSR
Length: 300 ft. 24’
Data Requirements
Phasing
Configuration
System Grounding Type
Length
Phase Conductor Type, Size & Strands
Ground/Neutral Wire Type, Size & Strands
Conductor Spacing
Conductor Height
Earth Resistivity
Ha Hb Hc Hg Hg Hc Hb Ha Hg Ha Hc Hb
D12
Circuit Circuit
No. 1 No. 2