Paper No:7 Energy and Environment

Module: 1 Sun as an energy source

Development Team
Prof. R.K. Kohli
Principal Investigator
& Prof. V.K. Garg & Prof. Ashok Dhawan
Co- Principal Investigator
Central University of Punjab, Bathinda

Dr. Dhanya M.S.,

Paper Coordinator
Central University of Punjab, Bathinda

Dr. Dhanya M.S.

Content Writer
Central University of Punjab, Bathinda
Content Reviewer Dr. Sunayan Saha, ICAR- Central Potato Research Station,
Jalandhar

Central University of Punjab 1

Anchor Institute

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 Description of Module

Subject Name Environmental Sciences

Paper Name Energy and Environment

Module Name/Title Sun as an energy source

Module Id EVS/EE-VII/01

Pre-requisites

To understand

 Structure and composition of sun

Objectives
 Energy production reactions in sun
 Estimation of energy production inside the sun

Keywords Structure, energy production, nuclear fusion

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
Module 01: Sun as an energy source

Learning Objectives:

This module may help the students to understand

 Structure and composition of sun

 Energy production reactions in sun

 Estimation of energy production inside the sun

1. Introduction

The sun is a star close to earth that provides the energy to our planet. It is the ultimate source of all the
energy sources. The Sun is the largest object in our solar system. The radius of the sun is 6.9 × 108 m
that is 109 times that of the earth. The mass of sun is 2 × 1030 kg which is around 300,000 Earths.

2. Anatomy of a star

The anatomy of a star (Fig 1) consists of

- Chromosphere

- Photosphere

- Convection zone

- Radiation zone

- Core

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 Convection
zone

Radiation zone

Chromosphere

Core Photosphere

Fig 1 Anatomy of a star

The energy emission in the sun is by nuclear fusion. The centre or core of the star plays the platform
for fusion process. After the energy production, it is released away from the core by means of radiation
in the radiation zone of the star.

Radiative Zone: The radiation zone extends out to about 0.7 solar radii from the core. In this zone the
radiation makes it hot and it helps in transfer of heat from core in outward direction. The ionic forms
of hydrogen and helium emitting photons in this zone travel a short distance before being reabsorbed
by other ions. The temperature of approximately 7 million kelvin at closer to the core is reduced to 2
million at the boundary with the convective zone. There is also reduction in density with a range of 20
g/cm³ closest to the core to 0.2 g/cm³ at the upper boundary.

Convective Zone: This zone has lower temperature than in the radiative zone and non-ionized heavier
atoms. This zone lies in 200,000 km from the surface. The rising thermal cells carry the majority of the
heat outward to the Sun’s photosphere. Once these cells rise to just below the photospheric surface,
their material cools, causing their density increases. This forces them to sink to the base of the
convection zone again – where they pick up more heat and the convective cycle continues.

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 As the energy moves away from the core and passes through the radiation zone, it reaches the part of
the star where the energy continues its journey towards the surface of the star as heat associated with
thermal gradients. This part of the star is called the convection zone. The surface of the star, called the
photosphere of thickness ~500 km, emits light in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
star is engulfed in a stellar atmosphere called the chromospheres of thickness ~2500 km. The
chromosphere is a layer of hot gases surrounding the photosphere.

Fig 1 Interior of sun (Source: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/science/Sunlayers.html)

The Corona is the Sun's outer atmosphere. The sun's magnetic fields rise through the convection zone
and erupt through the photosphere into the chromosphere and corona. The eruptions lead to solar
activity, which includes such phenomena as sunspots, flares, prominences, and coronal mass ejections.

3. Atmosphere of sun

The surface Gas Pressure (top of photosphere) is 0.868 mb and Pressure at bottom of photosphere
(optical depth = 1) is 125 mb. The effective temperature is 5772 K. Temperature at top of photosphere
5

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 is 4400 K and at bottom of photosphere is 6600 K. Temperature at top of chromospheres is ~30,000
K.

Composition of Photosphere: (Table 1)

Major elements
H 90.965%,
He 8.889%
Minor elements
O 774 ppm
C 330 ppm
Ne 112 ppm
N 102 ppm
Fe 43 ppm
Mg 35 ppm
Si 32 ppm
S 15 ppm

4. Core of the sun

The core of the Sun occupies 20–25% of the solar radius from the centre. The energy production by
fusion of hydrogen atoms (H) into molecules of helium (He) occur at the core. The high energy
production is the result of extreme pressure and temperature that exists within the core. The pressure
and temperature of the core of the sun is equivalent of 250 billion atmospheres (25.33 trillion KPa)
and 15.7 million kelvin, respectively. The 99 percent of energy produced by sun happens in 24 percent
of the radius i.e. core. The heat energy is transferred to other parts and outer space from the core.

5. Nuclear fusion reaction in the Sun

The temperature inside the sun is > 10,000,000 K. The stellar nuclear reactions are responsible for
energy production inside the sun. The hydrogen atoms combine together to form helium atom by the
nuclear fusion reaction. The Sun releases energy at a mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million
6

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 metric tons per second, which produces the equivalent of 38,460 septillion watts (3.846×1026 W) per
second.

These reactions are of two types

 Proton-Proton Chain (P-P chain) &

 CNO cycle

The Sun emits 4 x 1026 Watts of power.

5.1 Proton-Proton Chain Reaction: It converts Hydrgen atoms (H) to Helium (He). This stellar
reaction is most efficient in lower mass stars like the Sun. The reaction results in fusion of four protons
into one alpha particle with the release of two positrons and two neutrinos (which further changes two
of the protons into neutrons) and energy.

Fig 2 Proton-proton chain reaction

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 5.2 CNO cycle

This reaction is important in heavier stars. In this cycle, hydrogen is used to synthesize heavier
elements. The heaviest elements are synthesized by fusion that occurs as a more massive star
undergoes a violent supernova at the end of its life, a process known as supernova nucleosynthesis.

Fig 3 CNO cycle

This is most efficient in heavier stars having temperature greater than 16,000,000 K. This cycle was
proposed by Hans Bethe in 1939.

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 The sun remains hot due to equilibrium maintained between Nuclear reactions; chemical or
gravitational energy. But it is inadequate to maintain luminosity for billions of years. Pressure balance
(gas pressure vs gravity) and energy balance (production vs outflow) are both needed to regulate heat
energy inside the sun.

6. Energy production in Sun

The energy released during conversion of hydrogen to helium is mainly in the form of photons. The
energy released can be estimated from the mass difference.

Mass of 4H1 = 6.69048 x 10-27 kg ……………….(1)

Mass of 1He4 = 6.64648 x10-27 kg ……………… (2)

∆m, mass difference = (1)- (2) = 0.04400 x10-27 kg

E= mc2 = 4.o x 10 -12 Joules per reaction

44
If 10% of hydrogen is converted into helium for the sun, it will produce 10 J of energy which is
sufficient to keep sun burning for 10 billion years.

7. Calculations related to energy production in sun

Example 1

How much mass is converted to energy every second in the sun to supply energy to the earth?

Solution:

Solar constant = 1372 W/m2

Rearth = 6.4 x 106 m

D earth-sun = 1.5 x 1011 m

Msun = 2.0 x 1030 kg

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 To get solar constant in units of amss (kg), we have

1372 J/s = 1.372 x 10 kg m2/s2 = 1.524 x 10 14 kg/s

C2 9 x 10 16 m2/s2

The total energy falling on the earth is solar constant times the projected area of the earth (from the
sun), then

A earth SC = (1.3 x 10 14 m2) x (1.5 x 10-14 kg/s/m2) = 2 kg/s

Which is the mass converted every second to supply light incident on earth.

Example 2

How much metric tons of H are converted to He to supply this energy?

Solution:

Take mp =1.67262 x 10-27 kg

D earth-sun = 1.5 x 1011 m

M He = 6.64648 x 10-27 kg

The mass difference between four protons (6.69048 x 10-27 kg) and one helium nucleus (2 proton +2
neutrons)

is 0.04400 x 10-27 kg

The ratio of H-burned to converted mass is 6.69048/0.04400 = 150 0r 0.7 % of rest energy (mass) of
original H converted to He.

Hence total mass burn rate of the sun is

150 x 4.2 x 10 9 kg/s = 6.3 x 1011 kg/s = 630 million metric tons each second

10

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 Example 3

How long will the sun continue to produce energy? (Ignoring other processes and emissions from
the sun)

Dividing the burn rate into fuel supply (total mass) gives an estimate of how long sun will last

Life time of sun = Msun = 2.0 x 10 30 kg = 3.2 x 1018 s = 1011 yr.

Burn rate 6.3 x 10 11 kg/s

The sun convert only 10 % of its H mass to He, so the above estimate o=is high by a factor of 10.

And main life time of sun is ~ 10 10 yr

8. Energy Transport in Sun

The energy produced at core of the sun by fusion reaction is transported by Conduction, Convection
and Radiation.

Table 2 Energy transport in sun

Part of sun Temperature (10 6 K) Density (g/cm3) Energy transport

Core ~15 100 Convective

Radiation zone ~3 1 Radiative

Convective zone ~1 0.1 Convective

The stars generally use the convective and radiative method.

9. Solar energy to earth

The sunlight that reaches the earth depends on the revolution of the earth around the sun.

Orbital plane : The orbit of the earth around the sun lies in a geometrical plane called the orbital plane.
The ecliptic plane is the plane of the orbit that intersects the sun. The line of intersection between the

11

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 orbital plane and the ecliptic plane is the line of nodes. Planetary orbits, including the earth's orbit, lie
in the ecliptic plane.

The luminosity of a star is the total energy radiated per second by the star.

The amount of radiation from the sun that reaches the earth's atmosphere is called the solar constant.
The solar constant varies with time because the earth follows an elliptical orbit around the sun and the
axis of rotation of the earth is inclined relative to the plane of the earth's orbit. Distances between
points on the surface of the earth and the sun vary throughout the year.

The flux of solar radiation incident on a surface placed at the edge of the earth's atmosphere depends
on the time of day and year, and the geographical location of the surface. Some incident solar radiation
is reflected by the earth's atmosphere.

The fraction of solar radiation that is reflected back into space by the earth-atmosphere system is
called the albedo. The solar radiation is absorbed or reflected by clouds (20%), atmospheric particles
(10%), and reflection by the earth's surface (5%). Thereby prevents from reaching the earth surface.

The solar flux that enters the atmosphere is reduced by the albedo. So the solar radiation undergoes
absorption, reflection or scattering by air, water vapor, dust particles, and aerosols while travelling to
earth. The solar radiation that reaches directly to earth is direct solar radiation and that reaches after
scattering is known as diffuse radiation.

Light is electromagnetic radiation. It can be used to transfer energy by the propagation of

electromagnetic waves from one location to another. Two other energy transfer processes are
conduction and convection. Conduction is the transfer of energy as the result of a temperature
difference between substances that are in contact. Convection is the transfer of energy by the
movement of a heated substance.

12

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 10. Solar radiation spectrum

Fig 4 Solar radiation spectrum

11.Sun-Earth relationship

The distance between sun and earth is measured in Astronomical Unit (AU). One AU is the distance
travelled in 8.31 minutes at the speed of light. The mean distance of sun from Earth is 149.6 x 106 km
with minimum of 147.1 x106 km and maximum of 152.1 x 106 km.

12. Solar energy received on earth

Example 4: The solar power incident on a surface averages 400 W/m2 for 12 hours. How much
energy is received?

Solution:

400 W/m2 x 12 hours = 4800 Wh/m2 = 4.8 kWh/m2

13

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source
 Example 5: The amount of solar energy collected on a surface over 8 hours is 4 kWh/m2. What is the
average solar power received over this period?

Solution

4 kWh/m2/8 h = 0.5 kW/ m2 = 500 W/m2

Conclusion

The sun produces the energy by nuclear fusion reaction of hydrogen to helium atoms in the core. The
energy is transported by means of radiation and convection. Only a small portion of sun is reaching the
earth and all the energy sources are dependent on sun.

14

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Sun as an energy source