CAPE Biology Unit 2: Module 2 N.M.

Narine

Homeostasis and hormonal action

1. Definition of homeostasis – maintenance of a stable internal environment.

2. Introduction to homeostasis and hormonal action – one of the most important functions of nervous and
hormonal co-ordination is to control internal conditions to maintain homeostasis. The transfer of messages
from one cell to another is called cell signaling.

3. Homeostasis for a cell - For a cell the immediate environment is the tissue fluid surrounding it. Many
conditions must be maintained in order for it to work at an optimal level. These conditions include
temperature, amount of water and concentration of glucose in the tissue fluid.

4. Principles of homeostasis – in the human body, certain conditions must be kept stable in order for proper
functioning of the body e.g. glucose, temperature, water balance etc. These conditions are kept stable or at a
set point by negative feedback mechanisms e.g. the concentration of glucose in the blood is kept at about 80
to 100 mg of glucose per 100 cm3. This is the set point of glucose i.e. the ideal value for blood glucose
concentration. When there is a change in the set point value, this stimulus is detected by cells called
receptors and a message in the form of hormones or a nerve impulse is communicated to other cells called
effectors which respond by taken actions to bring back the factor to a set point value.

Evaluation:

1. Define the following terms:

(a) Receptors
(b) Regulators
(c) Effectors
(d) Set point
(e) Negative feedback mechanism
2. Why are negative feedback mechanisms classified as dynamic systems?
3. Explain how the following conditions affect a cell:
(i) Temperature
(ii) Amount of water
(iii) Concentration of glucose
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CAPE Biology Unit 2: Module 2 N.M. Narine

Homeostasis and hormonal action

Endocrine system

1. Definition of endocrine system – a system which consist of endocrine glands. Endocrine glands are
ductless glands that secrete chemical messages called hormones directly into the blood stream to target cells.

2. Definition of exocrine glands – glands that secrete chemicals into ducts which are transported to various
target cells.
3. Diagram showing the position of some endocrine and exocrine glands. Figure 7.2, page 144.
4. The pancreas – functions as both an endocrine gland and exocrine gland. The exocrine function is the
secretion of pancreatic juice containing several enzymes such as lipase, amylase and trypsin. The endocrine
function of the pancreas however is the secretion of the hormones insulin and glucagon by the cells of the
Islets of Langerhans. Alpha cells secrete glucagon while beta cells secrete insulin.
5. Diagram showing control of glucose – include pancreas as control centre and set point value at bottom.

Evaluation:

1. Differentiate between alpha and beta cells in the pancreas in their control of glucose concentration.
2. What is the negative effect to a cell if blood glucose concentration becomes very high.
3. What is the set point value of glucose in the blood?
4. Explain how insulin lowers blood glucose concentration.
5. Explain how glucagon raises blood glucose concentration.

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CAPE Biology Unit 2: Module 2 N.M. Narine

Homeostasis and hormonal action

Plant growth regulators/plant hormone

Chemicals that are involved in cell signaling in plants and usually result in growth, maturity or development.

Examples:

 Auxin – involved in controlling the growth responses of plants towards or away from a stimulus such as
light or gravity.
 Gibberellin – involved in controlling stem elongation and seed germination.
 Abscicic acid – involved in controlling the response of plants to stress such as causing stomata to close
when water is in short supply.
 Ethylene (gas) – involved in fruit ripening and senescence (aging processes such as leaf fall etc.)

Fruit ripening

Development of a fully mature fruit with all the features that are attractive to animals.

Changes that occur during fruit ripening:

 Colour change – the green colour of an unripe fruit is due to the presence of chlorophyll in chloroplasts. As
the fruit ripens, these chloroplasts change to become chromoplasts which contain various pigments other
than chlorophyll. e.g. in chili peppers, tomatoes and bananas the chlorophyll breaks down and various
coloured carotenoid pigments develop inside the chromoplasts changing the fruit flesh to yellow, orange or
red.
 Softening of texture – due to the partial hydrolysis of their middle lamellae (part of the cell wall midway
between two adjoining plant cells made up largely of pectin). This makes it easier for the cells to separate
from each other. Pectin also becomes more hydrated which helps the fruit to become juicier.
 Production of more aromatic compounds – each kind of fruit has a typical scent and flavor due to
chemical substances produced as the fruit ripens e.g. the flavor of banana is caused by isopentyl acetate and
isobutyl acetate. Many of these chemicals are volatile meaning that they change into a gaseous form and so
animals can smell them from some distance away.

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CAPE Biology Unit 2: Module 2 N.M. Narine
 Increase in sweetness – as a fruit ripens starch is converted to glucose, fructose and sucrose. Unlike starch,
sugars within cells would dissolve in water decreasing the water potential inside the cell so that more water
moves into the cells by osmosis making the fruit juicier.
Homeostasis and hormonal action

Importance of fruit ripening – edible fruits are adapted to be dispersed by animals. These edible fruits are
usually sweet, colourful aromatic, soft, tasty and nutritious to attract animals so that it may later be dispersed
when the seeds are egested or discarded. Seed dispersal allows plants to colonise new areas and prevent
overcrowding which may result in competition for light, water and nutrients.

Control of fruit ripening by ethylene (ethene)

 Properties of ethylene - has an unusual property as a hormone or plant regulator as it is a gas. In can
therefore spread easily from one fruit to another by diffusion through the air. It is also lipid soluble which
means that it is easy for it to diffuse freely between cells. In some fruits there is a sudden burst of ethylene
as they begin to ripen which is accompanied by a sudden rise in the rate of respiration.

 Synthesis of ethylene – synthesized form the amino acid methionine by a metabolic pathway involving
enzymes such as ACC synthase and ACC oxidase. As ethylene is produced, it increases the activity of the
enzymes so that more ethylene is produced which triggers various changes that are involved in fruit
ripening. Ethylene production results in fruit ripening because it switches on various genes that become
transcribed to produce mRNA. The mRNA is then translated to produce many proteins, including numerous
enzymes that are involved in fruit ripening. e.g.
(i) Amylase which converts starch to sugars making the fruit sweeter
(ii) Pectinase which breaks down the middle lamellae of cell wall causing the fruit to soften and become
juicier

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CAPE Biology Unit 2: Module 2 N.M. Narine

Homeostasis and hormonal action

How ethylene changes gene activity

When ethylene binds to receptor cells in the fruit, it causes enzymes that inhibit fruit ripening to also bind to the
receptor. This result in the activation of genes that cause the transcription of genes involved in fruit ripening.
This later result is the translation of the mRNA to proteins that are involved in fruit ripening.

Diagram showing how ethylene changes gene activity.

Commercial use of ethylene

Ethylene can be synthesized by chemists and marketed to the fruit industry. It is better to pick unripe fruits.
Unripe fruits are harder and stronger and therefore easier to transport without being easily damaged. When they
arrive to the final distributor warehouse they are placed in a room where ethylene gas is supplied. Therefore, the
right stage of ripeness of the fruit can be achieved so that it can be marketed.
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CAPE Biology Unit 2: Module 2 N.M. Narine