Table of Contents 
Limits 
L'Hospital Rule 

Differentiation and Indefinite Integral 

Integration by parts 
Reduction formulae on trigonometric identities 

Definite Integral 
Important properties of definite integral 

Coordinate Geometry 
Straight lines and pair of straight lines 
Circle 
Conic section 
Parabola 
Ellipse 
Hyperbola 

Algebra 
Complex number 
Theory of equations 
Sequence and Progression 
Permutation and Combination 
Binomial and Series 
Probability 
Functions 

Trigonometry 
Solution of triangles 
Inverse trigonometric functions 
 
 

   
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Limits 
L'Hospital Rule 
If f (x) and g (x) are two functions of ​x​ such that: 
● Both f (x) and g (x) are continuous at x = a . 
● Both f (x) and g (x) are differential at x = a . 
● Both f ′(x) and g ′(x) are continuous at x = a . 
● Either lim f (x) = 0 = lim g (x) or lim f (x) = ∞ = lim g (x)  
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
f (x) f ′(x)
Then, we can apply the L’Hospital’s Rule which says that lim = lim g′(x) . 
x→a g(x) x→a

   

   
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Differentiation and Indefinite Integral 
Fundamental definition of differentiation: 
d f (x+h) − f (x)
dx f (x) = lim h  
h→0

 
Fundamental property of indefinite integration: 

d
dx f (x) = g(x) ⇔ ∫ g(x) dx + C   

 
Based on the above two properties of differentiation and integration respectively, we can derive the 
following list of differentiation and integration formulae. 
d
● dx C = 0 , where C is a constant  

xn+1
● d
dx (xn ) = nxn−1 ⇒ ∫ xn dx = n+1 + C , n =/ − 1  

● d
dx (ln|x|) = 1
x ⇒ ∫ 1x dx = ln|x| + C , when x =/ 0  

● d x
dx (e ) = ex ⇒ ∫ ex dx = ex + C  

ax
● d x
dx (a ) = ax ln(a) , a > 0, a =/ 1 ⇒ ∫ ax dx = ln(a) + C , a > 0, a =/ 1  

 
Similarly, a list of differentiation and integration formulae based on trigonometric identities can be 
obtained. 

● d
dx (cos x) = − sin x ⇒ ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C  

● d
dx (sin x) = cos x ⇒ ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C  

● d
dx (tan x) = sec2 x ⇒ ∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + C  

● d
dx (cot x) = − cosec2 x ⇒ ∫ cosec2 x dx = − cot x + C  

   
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 ● d
dx (sec x) = tan x sec x ⇒ ∫ tan x sec x dx = sec x + C  

● d
dx (cosec x) = − cot x cosec x ⇒ ∫ cot x cosec x dx = − cosec x + C  

● d
dx (ln|cos x|) = − tan x ⇒ ∫ tan x dx = − ln|cos x| + C  

● d
dx (ln|sec x + tan x|) = sec x ⇒ ∫ sec x dx = ln|sec x + tan x| + C  

● d
dx (ln|cosec x − cot x|) = cosec x ⇒ ∫ cosec x dx = ln|cosec x − cot x| + C  

● d
dx (sin
−1 x )
a = 1
√a2 −x2
⇒ ∫ √a1−x dx = sin−1
2 2
x
a +C 

● d
dx (cos
−1 x )
a = − 1
√a2 −x2
⇒ ∫− √a1−x dx = 2 2
cos−1 x
a +C 

● d
dx (tan
−1 x )
a = a
a2 +x2 ⇒ ∫ a +x
1
2 2 dx = a1 tan−1 x
a +C 

−1 x
● d
dx (cot a) = − a
a2 +x2 ⇒ ∫− a +x
1
2 2 dx = a1 cot−1 x
a +C 

−1 x
● d
dx (sec
−1 x )
a = a
x√x2 −a2
⇒ ∫ x√x1−a dx =
2 2
1
a sec a +C 

−1 x
● d
dx (cosec
−1 x )
a = − a
x√x2 −a2
⇒ ∫− x√x1−a dx = 2 2
1
a cosec a +C 

 
There are some special integrals which you should keep in your mind while solving the problems. They 
will help you solve questions quickly and efficiently. 

● ∫x 1 1 | x − a| +C 
2 − a2 dx = 2a ln | x + a|

● ∫ a −x
1
dx = 1 | x + a| +C 
2 2 2a ln | x − a|

| |
● ∫ √a 1+ x2 2
dx = ln | x + √x2 + a2 | + C  
| |
| |
● ∫ √x 1− a2 2
dx = ln | x + √x2 − a2 | + C  
| |

   
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 ● ∫ √a2 − x2 dx = 1
2x √a2 − x2 + 21 a2 sin−1 ( ax) + C  

| |
● ∫ √a2 + x2 dx = 1
2x √a2 + x2 + 21 a2 ln || x + √a2 + x2 || + C  

| |
● ∫ √x2 − a2 dx = 1
2x √x2 − a2 − 21 a2 ln || x + √x2 − a2 || + C  
 
Integration by parts 
Integration by parts is a technique employed to solve the integral of the form ∫ uv dx , where ​u​ and ​v​ are 

two functions of ​x​. The integral of this form is given by the following formula. 

∫ uv dx = u ∫ v dx − ∫ { ( )} du
dx ∫ vdx dx  

 
Another theorem can be derived as an application of integration by parts is: 

∫ eg(x) {f (x)g′(x) + f ′(x)} dx = eg(x) .f (x) + C

Reduction formulae on trigonometric identities 

Reduction formulae gives a recursive relation. These formulae will prove useful to you when you have 
to reduce a large integral into small solvable sub-parts. 

sinn − 1 x cos x
● ∫ sinn x dx = − n + n−1
n ∫ sinn − 2 x dx  

cosn − 1 x sin x
● ∫ cosn x dx = n + n−1
n ∫ cosn − 2 x dx  

tann − 1 x
● ∫ tann x dx = n−1 − ∫ tann − 2 x dx  

cotn − 1 x
● ∫ cotn x dx = − n−1 − ∫ cotn − 2 x dx  

secn − 2 x tan x
● ∫ secn x dx = (n − 1) + n−2
n−1 ∫ secn − 2 x dx  

cosecn − 2 x cot x
● ∫ cosecn x dx = − (n − 1) + n−2
n−1 ∫ cosecn − 2 x dx

   
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Definite Integral
Suppose f is a function of x defined in the closed interval [a, b] and ϕ is another function such that 
ϕ′(x) = f (x) holds for all x in the domain of f . Then, we define the definite integral as: 

b
∫ f (x)dx = ϕ(b) − ϕ(a)
a

b
The definite integral ∫ f (x)dx gives the area covered under the graph of function f (x) in the interval 
a

[a, b] . You should keep this fact at the back of your mind. It will prove useful when you are asked to 
calculate the area under the curve. 
 

 
 

Important properties of definite integral 

b a
● ∫ f (x)dx = − ∫ f (x)dx
a b
b b b
● ∫ (f (x) + g(x))dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx
a a a
b c b
● ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx , where f (x) is def ined on interval [a, c] and [c, b]
a a c
b b
● ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (a + b − x)dx
a a
mT T
● ∫ f (x)dx = m ∫ f (x)dx , where f (x) is a periodic f unction with period equal to T
0 0

   
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The Leibnitz’s rule for differentiation under the sign of integration is an important theorem that will 
reduce the time taken to solve a certain class of problems.  

d
dx [ ψ(x)
∫
ϕ(x)
f (t)dt ] = d
dx {ψ(x)} f (ψ(x)) − d
dx {ϕ(x)} f (ϕ(x))

There are some important results you should remember. They are given below: 
π/2 π/2
● ∫ sinm x cosn x dx = ∫ cosm x sinn x dx
0 0
π/2
(m − 1)(m − 3)......(1 or 2)(n − 1)(n − 3)......(1 or 2) π
● ∫ sinm x cosn x dx = (m + n)(m + n − 2).....(1 or 2) .2 ​when both ​m​ and ​n​ are even integers.
0
π/2
(m − 1)(m − 3)......(1 or 2)(n − 1)(n − 3)......(1 or 2)
● ∫ sinm x cosn x dx = (m + n)(m + n − 2).....(1 or 2) , ​when either ​m​ or ​n​ is an odd integer.
0
   

   
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Coordinate Geometry 
Straight lines and pair of straight lines 

√(x
2 2
● The distance between two points (x1 , y 1 ) and (x2 , y 2 ) is given by 1 − x2 ) + (y 1 − y 2 ) . 

● If a point ​P (x, y ) divides two points ​L (x1 , y 1 ) and ​M (x2 , y 2 ) in the ratio m : n , then 
x = (mx2 + nx1 )/(m + n) and y = (my 2 + ny 1 )/(m + n) . 
● In the above division, if m : n is positive, then the division is internal. If it is negative, then the 
division is external. 
● The centroid ​C (x, y ) of three points ​A (x1 , y 1 ) , ​B (x2 , y 2 ) and ​C (x3 , y 3 ) is given by x = ( x1 + x2 + x3
3 ) 
y1 + y2 + y3
and y = ( 3 ) 
● The incentre ​I (x, y ) of three points ​A (x1 , y 1 ) , ​B (x2 , y 2 ) and ​C (x3 , y 3 ) is given by 

x= ( ax1 + bx2 + cx3

a+b+c ) and y = ( ay 1 + by 2 + cy 3
a+b+c ) 

● Orthocentre, centroid and circumcentre are collinear and centroid always divides the line 
joining orthocentre and circumcentre in the ratio 2:1. 
 
In coordinate geometry, a line can be written in different equation forms. Many useful forms are given 
below: 
● y = mx + c , where m is the slope of the line while c is its y − intercept . 
● y − y 1 = m(x − x1 ) , where the line passes through point (x1 , y 1 ) and has slope m . 
x−x1 y−y 1
● cos θ = sin θ = r is the parametric form where r is the distance of any point (x, y ) on the line from 
a fixed point (x1 , y 1 ) on the line. 
x y
● a + b = 1 , where a and b are intercepts on the x- and y-axis respectively. 
● xcos α + y sin α = p , where ​p​ is the length of perpendicular from origin ​O​ to line L
​ ​ and it makes 
an angle α with the positive side of x-axis. 
● ax + by + c = 0 is the general form of a straight line. 
 
Some important formulae are given below: 
● Given a line L ≡ ax + by + c = 0 , if ax1 + by 1 + c = 0 has the same sign as c , then the point 
(x1 , y 1 ) lies on the origin side of L . Otherwise, it is on the other side. 

   
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 ● The length of a perpendicular from point P (x1 , y 1 ) to the line L ≡ ax + by + c = 0 is given by 
| ax + by + c |
| 1 2 1 2 | . 
| √a + b |
● If two lines have slopes m1 , m2 where m1 m2 =/ 1 , then the angle between them is given by 
| m −m |
tan θ = | 1 +1 m m2 | . 
| 1 2|

● Two parallel lines have same slope and their general equation ax + by + c = 0 differ only in the 
term c . 
| c −c |
● The distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0 is given by | 1 2 2 2 |
| √a + b |
. The coefficients involved the two equation should be the same. 
p1 p2
● Area of a parallelogram is sin θ where p1 , p2 are the distances between parallel sides 
respectively and θ is the angle between two adjacent side. 
● The area of the parallelogram bounded by the lines y = m1 x + c1 , y = m1 x + c2 , y = m2 x + c3  
| (c − c )(c − c ) |
and y = m2 x + c4 is | 1 m 2− m3 4 | . 
| 1 2 |
● Two perpendicular lines with slope m1 and m2 follow the relation m1 m2 = − 1 . 
● Two straight lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 are perpendicular when 
a1 a2 + b1 b2 = 0 . 
● Three lines are concurrent if three constants A, B and C can be found such that 
A(a1 x + b1 y + c1 ) + B(a2 x + b2 + c2 ) + C(a3 x + b3 y + c3 ) = 0 holds true. 
● The equation of family of line passing through the point of intersection of two lines can be given 
by (a1 x + b1 y + c1 ) + k(a2 x + b2 + c2 ) = 0 where ​k​ is an arbitrary real constant. 
● Equations of angle bisector of two lines L1 ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c 1 = 0 and L2 ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 is 
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y + c2
= ± where the two lines are not parallel. 
√ a2 1
2
+b 1 √a 2
2 + b2 2

● Assuming θ to be the angle between the angle bisector and one of the lines, if |tanθ| < 1 , then 
the given angle bisector is acute angle bisector. If |tanθ| > 1 , then the angle bisector bisects the 
obtuse angle. 
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y + c2
● = + gives the bisector of angle containing origin if both constants c1 and 
√ a2 1
2
+b 1 √a 2
2 + b2 2

c2 are positive. 
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y + c2
● Similarly, = − gives the bisector of the other angle. 
√ a2 1 + b2 1 √a 2
2 + b2 2

   
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 ● If a1 a2 + b1 b2 > 0 , then the obtuse angle contains the origin. 
 
Formulae based on pair of straight lines passing through origin: 
● A homogeneous equation of second degree ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 always represents a pair of 
straight line and if:  
○ h2 > ab ⇒ lines are real and distinct 
○ h2 = ab ⇒ lines are coincident. 
○ h2 < ab ⇒ lines are imaginary with real point of intersection (0,0) 
○ a + b = 0 ⇒ lines are perpendicular. 
| 2 |
● Assuming θ to be the angle between the pair of straight lines, tan θ = | 2√ah +−b ab | . 
| |
● A homogeneous equation of n degree represents ​n​ straight lines passing through origin. 
● A general second degree equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents a pair of 
straight lines if abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = 0 . 

Circle 
2 2
● The circle with centre (h, k ) and radius r is represented by (x − h) + (y − k ) = r2 . 
● A general second degree equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents a circle if: 
○ a = b 
○ h = 0 
● The general equation of a circle x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 has its centre at (− g ,− f ) and radius 

r= √g 2 + f 2 − c . 

● The equation of circle with (x1 , y 1 ) and (x2 , y 2 ) as its diameter is given by 
(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) + (y − y 1 )(y − y 2 ) = 0 . 

● A circle with equation x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 makes the intercepts 2√g 2 − c and 2 √f 2

− c on 

the axes respectively. 

● The point (x1 , y 1 ) is inside the circle if x2 1 + y 2 1 + 2gx1 + 2f y 1 + c < 0 . 
● The point (x1 , y 1 ) is outside the circle if x2 1 + y 2 1 + 2gx1 + 2f y 1 + c > 0 . 
● The point (x1 , y 1 ) is on the circle if x2 1 + y 2 1 + 2gx1 + 2f y 1 + c = 0 . 

   
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 ● Parametric equation of the circle is x = h + rcosθ and y = k + rsinθ , where (h, k ) is the centre of 
the circle and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π . 
● The equation of tangent at point (x1 , y 1 ) is given by xx1 + y y 1 = a2 . 
● The equation of tangent at point P (α) is xcosα + y sinα = a . 
α+β α+β
a cos asin
● The point of intersection of tangent at point P (α) and P (β) is given by ( 2
α−β , 2
α−β ) . 
cos 2 cos 2

● The line y = mx + c is tangent to the circle x2 + y 2 = r2 if c2 = r2 (1 + m2 ) and the point of contact 

is given by (− r2 m
c , r2
c ) . 
y 1 +f
● The normal to the circle at point (x1 , y 1 ) is given by y − y 1 = x1 +g (x − x1 ) . 

 
Formulae related to family of circles: 
● The family of circles passing through points (x1 , y 1 ) and (x2 , y 2 ) is of the form 
(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) + (y − y 1 )(y − y 2 ) + k (xy 1 − xy 2 + y x2 − y x1 + x1 y 1 − x2 y 2 ) = 0 . 
● The equation of family of circles touching a fixed line y − y 1 = m(x − x1 ) at the fixed point (x1 , y 1 )  
2 2
is (x − x1 ) + (y − y 1 ) + k [y − y 1 − m(x − x1 )] = 0 . 
● Equation of a circle circumscribing a triangle whose sides are given by L1 = 0, L2 = 0 and 
L3 = 0 is L1 L2 + λL2 L3 + μL1 L3 = 0 , where the constants λ and μ are such that the coefficients 
of x2 and y 2 are equal and the coefficients of xy is equal to zero. 

● The length of tangent from a point (x1 , y 1 ) is given by √S 1 = √x2 1 + y2 1 + 2gx1 + 2f y1 + c . 

2 2 2 2
● Equation of director circle (x − h) + (y − k ) = 2r2 , where (x − h) + (y − k ) = r2 is the equation 
of the original circle. 
● The equation of the chord of a circle with respect to its midpoint (x1 , y 1 ) is T = S 1 , where 
T = xx1 + y y 1 + g (x + x1 ) + f (y + y 1 ) + c and S 1 = x2 1 + y 2 1 + 2gx1 + 2f y 1 + c . 
● The equation of chord of contact from a point P (x1 , y 1 ) is given by 
T = 0 = xx1 + y y 1 + g (x + x1 ) + f (y + y 1 ) + c . 
● Chord of contact does not exist if the point ​P​ is inside the circle. 
RL3
● Area of the triangle formed by the chord of contact and its tangent is R2 + L2
, where ​R​ is the 

radius of the circle and ​L​ is the length of the tangent. 

● The joint equation of the pair of tangents drawn from the point ​P (x1 , y 1 ) is given by S S 1 = T 2 . 

   
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Common tangents to the circle: 
● When the two circles neither intersect nor touch each other, four tangents are possible. Two of 
them are traverse and two of them are direct. 
● When two circles intersect, two direct tangents are possible. 
● When the two circles touch each other internally, only one tangent is possible. 
● When the two circles touch each other externally, three tangents are possible. 

√d − (r − r ) . 
2 2
● Length of the external common tangent = 1 2

Length of the internal common tangent = √d + (r − r ) , where ​d​ is the distance between the 
2 2
● 1 2

centre of the circle and ​r1​​ and ​r​2​ are the centre of the circle respectively. 
 
Radical axis of two circles: 
● The equation of the radical axis of the circle is given by S 1 − S 2 = 0 , where ​S1​ =​ 0 and ​S2​ =​ 0 are 
the equation of the circles respectively. 
● If two circles intersect, then the radical axis is the common chord of the circles. 
● If two circles touch each other, then the radical axis is the common tangent at the point of 
contact. 
● The radical axis is always perpendicular to the line joining the centre of the two circles. 
● The condition for two circles to be orthogonal is 2g 1 g 2 + 2f 1 f 2 = c1 + c2 . 

Conic section 
● The general equation of a conic section with directrix lx + my + n = 0 and focus (p, q ) is 
2 2 2
(l2 + m2 )[(x − p) + (y − q ) ] = e2 (lx + my + n) , where e is the eccentricity. 
● When focus lies on the directrix, the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents a 
pair of straight lines. Also, its D = abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 will be equal to zero. 
○ If e > 1 , lines will be real and distinct. 
○ If e = 1 , lines will be coincident. 
○ If e < 1 , lines will be imaginary. 
● When focus does not lie on the directrix, D =/ 0 .  

   
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 ○ If e > 1 ⇔ h2 > ab , the equation represents a hyperbola. An additional condition 
a + b = 0 would imply that the equation is that of a rectangular hyperbola. 
○ If e = 1 ⇔ h2 = ab , the equation represents a parabola. 
○ If 0 < e < 1 ⇔ h2 < ab , the equation represents an ellipse. 

Parabola 
● The equation of a parabola is y 2 = 4ax , when its vertex is (0,0), its axis is ​y​ = 0, directrix being ​x 
+ ​a​ = 0 and focus is at (​a,​ 0). 
● The standard forms of parabola are as follows: 
○ y 2 = 4ax  
○ y 2 = − 4ax  
○ x2 = 4ay  
○ x2 = − 4ay  
● The point (x1 , y 1 ) lies outside, on or inside the parabola y 2 = 4ax according as the expression 
y 2 1 = 4ax1 is >, = or < 0 . 
● For a line y = mx + c , the condition for tangency is c = a/m . 

● Length of the chord intercepted on the parabola by the line y = mx + c is 4

m √a(l 2
+ m2 )(a − mc) . 

● The parametric representation of a parabola is x = at2 and y = 2at where the equation for 
parabola is y 2 = 4ax . 
● The equation of a chord joining t1 and t2 is 2x − (t1 + t2 )y + 2at1 t2 = 0 . 
● If the chord joining t1 and t2 , and t3 and t4 meet at (c, 0) , then t1 t2 = t3 t4 = − c/a . 
● Normals to parabola: 
y1
○ y − y1 = − 2a (x − x1 ) at (x1 , y 1 )  
○ y = mx − 2am − am3 at (am2 ,− 2am)  
○ y + tx = 2at + at3 at (at2 , 2at)  
● Tangents to parabola: 
○ y y 1 = 2a(x + x1 ) at (x1 , y 1 )  
○ y = mx + a/m , where m =/ 0 at (a/m2 , 2am)  
○ y t = x + at2 at (at2 , 2at)  

   
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 ● When normal to the parabola y 2 = 4ax at point t1 intersect the parabola at point t2 , then 

(
t2 = − t1 + 2
t1 ) . 
● When normals to the parabola y 2 = 4ax at point t1 and t2 intersect the parabola at point t3 , 
then t1 t2 = 2 ; t3 = − (t1 + t2 ) and the line joining t1 and t2 passes through the point (− 2a, 0) . 

● Equation of a pair of tangents from point (x1 , y 1 ) to parabola is given by S S 1 = T 2 . 

● The locus of point of intersection of perpendicular tangents is the directrix of the parabola. 
● The equation of chord of contact is given by T = 0 . 
● Equation of the chord of a parabola whose midpoint is (x1 , y 1 ) is given by T = S 1 . 
● If the tangent and the normal to any point ​P​ on the parabola intersect the axis at ​T​ and ​G 
respectively, then ​ST​ = ​SG​ = ​SP,​ where ​S​ is the focus. 
● Tangents at the extremities of the focal chord intersect at right angles at the directrix. 
● Semi latus rectum of the parabola is the harmonic mean between segments of any focal chord 
of the parabola. 
● The orthocentre of any triangle formed by three tangents to the parabola y 2 = 4ax lies on the 
directrix and has the coordinates (− a, a(t1 + t2 + t3 + t1 t2 t3 ) . 
● Centroid of the triangle formed by three co-normal points lie on the x-axis. 
● A circle circumscribing the triangle formed by three co-normal points passes through the vertex 
of the parabola and is given by 2(x2 + y 2 ) − 2(h + 2a)x − k y = 0 .

Ellipse 
x2 y2
● Standard equation of an ellipse is a2 + b2
= 1 , where its foci are (ae, 0) and (− ae, 0) and the 
a
directrices are given by x = e and x = − ae . 
● In the above form, b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) holds. Here, 0 < e < 1 . 
2b2
● Length of latus rectum is a . 
● The sum of the focal distances of any point on the ellipse is equal to the length of major axis. 
x2 1 y2 1
● The point P (x1 , y 1 ) lies outside, inside or on the ellipse as: a2 + b2
>, < or = 1 . 
x2 y2
● Parametric representation of ellipse a2 + b2
= 1 is x = acosθ and y = bsinθ . 

● Parametric coordinates of auxiliary circle of an ellipse is x = acosθ and y = asinθ . 

x2 y2
● The line y = mx + c is tangent to the ellipse a2 + b2
= 1 if c2 = a2 m2 + b2 . 

   
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 ● The equation of chord of ellipse joining two points with eccentric angle α and β is given by 
x α+β y α+β α−β
a cos 2 + b sin 2 = cos 2 . 
x2 y2 xx1 yy 1
● The equation of tangent to ellipse a2 + b2
= 1 is a2 + b2
= 1 at point (x1 , y 1 ) . 
x2 y2 xcosα ysinα
● The equation of tangent to ellipse a2 + b2
= 1 is a + b = 1 at a point with eccentric angle α

. 
x2 y2 a2 x b2 y
● Equation of normal to ellipse a2 + b2
= 1 at point (x1 , y 1 ) is x1 − y1 = a2 − b2 . 
x2 y2
● Equation of normal to ellipse a2 + b2
= 1 at point with eccentric angle α is 

axsecα − bycosecα = a2 − b2 . 
(a2 − b2 )m
● Equation of normal in terms of its slope is y = mx − . 
√a2 + b2 m2
● The equation of director circle of ellipse is x2 + y 2 = a2 + b2 .  
● The product of the length of the perpendicular segments from the foci on any tangent to the 
ellipse is ​b​2​. 

Hyperbola 
x2 y2
● Standard equation of hyperbola is a2 − b2
= 1 , where b2 = a2 (e2 − 1) . 

● The difference of the focal distance of any point on the hyperbola is constant and is equal to the 
length of transverse axis. 
x2 y2 x2 y2
● The hyperbola a2 − b2
= 1 and a2 − b2
= − 1 are conjugate to each other. 
2 2
● If e1 and e2 are the eccentricities of a hyperbola and its conjugate, then (1/e1 ) + (1/e2 ) = 1 . 
● Rectangular hyperbola has eccentricity e = √2 and the transverse axis is equal to the conjugate 
axis. 
● The parametric representation of hyperbola is x = asecθ and y = btanθ . It can also be 
represented as x = acosh η and y = bsinh η . 
x2 1 y2 1
● A point (x1 , y 1 ) lies inside, on or outside the hyperbola according as: a2 − b2
>, = or < 1 . 

● The straight line y = mx + c is a tangent to hyperbola if c2 = a2 m2 − b2 . 

x2 y2 xx1 yy 1
● The equation of tangent to hyperbola a2 − b2
= 1 is a2 − b2
= 1 at point (x1 , y 1 ) . 
x2 y2 xsecα ytanα
● The equation of tangent to hyperbola a2 − b2
= 1 is a − b = 1 at a point with eccentric 

angle α . 

● The equation of tangent in slope form is y = mx ± √a2 m2 − b2 . 

 

   
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 x2 y2 a2 x b2 y
● The equation of normal to hyperbola a2 − b2
= 1 at a point (x1 , y 1 ) is x1 + y1 = a2 + b2 . 
x2 y2
● The equation of normal to hyperbola a2 − b2
= 1 at a point with eccentric angle α is 

ax/secα + by/tanα = a2 + b2 . 
● The equation of director circle of the hyperbola is x2 + y 2 = a2 − b2 . 
● The tangent and normal at any point of the hyperbola bisect the angle between the focal radii. 
● The locus of the feet of the perpendicular drawn from the focus to any tangent is the auxiliary 
circle.  
x y x y
● The equation of asymptotes of the hyperbola are a + b = 1 and a − b = 1 . 
● For rectangular hyperbola x2 − y 2 = a2 , the equation of asymptotes are y = ± x . 

   
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Algebra 
Complex number 
● z = a + ib is the general representation of a complex number. Here, a represents the real part 
while ib is the complex part. 
2
● |z| = a2 + b2 and θ = tan−1 ab , |z | is called the modulus of complex number and θ is its 
argument. 
● |z | ≥ 0  
● z = a − ib , z is called the conjugate of ​z​ where z = a + ib . 
● z + z = 2 Re(z)  
● z − z = 2 Im(z)  
● z1 + z2 = z1 + z2  
● z1 − z2 = z1 − z2  
● z 1 .z 2 = z 1 .z 2  
● |z | = |z |  
 
Demoivre’s Theorem 
● cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ  
n
● (cos θ + i sin θ) = cos nθ + i sin nθ  
 
Some properties of cube roots of one are given below: 
−1 + i√3 −1 − i√3
● Cube roots of one are: 1, 2 , 2  
● If w is a cube root of 1, then 1 + w + w2 = 0 . 
● a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a − ω b)(a − ω 2 b)  
● a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a + ω b)(a + ω 2 b)  
● a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a + ω b + ω 2 c)(a + ω 2 b + ω c)  
 
Properties of n​th​ root of one are important and should be kept in mind. Assuming 1, α​1​, α​2​, ........, α​n-1​ to be 
the ​n​ roots of one, the following properties can be defined: 
● These roots form a G.P. series with common ratio equal to ​ei​ ​(2π/​n)​ ​.  

   
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 ● 1​p​ + α​1​p​ + α​2​p​ + …… + α​n﹣1​p​ = 0, if p is not an integral multiple of n. 
● 1​p​ + α​1​p​ + α​2​p​ + …… + α​n﹣1​p​ = ​n,​ if p
​ ​ is an integral multiple of ​n​. 
● 1 . α​1​ . α​2​ ……. α​n﹣1 ​ = 1, if ​n​ is even 
● 1 . α​1​ . α​2​ ……. α​n﹣1 ​ = ﹣1, if ​n​ is odd 

Theory of equations 
● The general solution to the quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by 
−b + √b2 − 4ac −b − √b2 − 4ac
x= 2a and x = 2a . 
● Assuming α and β to be the solution of the quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 , 
then α + β = − b/a , αβ = c/a and α − β = √D/a  
● If D > 0 , then the roots are real. 
● If D < 0 , then the roots are imaginary. 
● If D = 0 , then the two roots are equal. 
● If αi is the i​th ​root of equation f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn − 1 + a2 xn − 2 + ....... + an − 1 x + an = 0 , where all the 

coefficients are real, then ∑ α = − a1 /a0 , ∑ α1 α2 = a2 /a0 . 

j
Similarly, ∑ α1 α2 α3 .....αj = (− 1) aj /a0  

● In a polynomial equation, if there exists imaginary roots, then they will exist in form of conjugate 
pairs. 
● If there are two numbers a and b such that f (a) . f (b) ≤ 0 , then f (x) = 0 has at least one root in 
the interval [a, b] . 

Sequence and Progression 

● In an AP, ​n​th​ term is given by an = a1 + (n − 1)d  
● In an AP, the sum of first ​n​ terms is given by S n = 2n [2a + (n − 1)d] . 
● If ​a,​ ​b​, ​c​ are in AP, then a + c = 2b . Here, ​b​ is the arithmetic mean of ​a​ and ​c​. 
● In a GP, ​n​th​ term is given by an = a1 rn − 1 . 
● In a GP, the sum of first ​n​ terms is given by S n = a1 (rn − 1)/(r − 1) . 
● If ​a,​ ​b​, ​c​ are in GP, then ac = b2 . Here, ​b​ is the geometric mean of ​a​ and ​c.​  

   
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 ● In a HP, the ​nth​
​ term is given by tn = ab/(b + (n − 1)(a − b)) , where ​a​ is the first term and ​b​ is the 
last term of the harmonic progression. 
● If ​a,​ ​b​, ​c​ are in HP, then b = 2ac/(a + c) . Here, ​b​ is the harmonic mean between ​a​ and ​c​. 
● AM ≥ GM ≥ HM 
In the above inequality, the equality holds if the two numbers are equal. 
● The sum of an Arithmetico-Geometric series is given as 
S n = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + (a + 3d)r3 + ......... + [a + (n − 1)d]rn−1 . 
2
● When n → ∞ and |r| < 1 , then S ∞ = a/(1 − r) + dr/(1 − r) . 
 
Other than the formulae given above, there are some important summation results that you should 
remember: 
n
● ∑ r = n(n + 1)/2  
r=1
n
● ∑ r2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)/6  
r=1
n n
● ∑ r3 = n2 (n + 1)2 /4 = [ ∑ r ]2  
r=1 r=1
n
∑ r4 = n
● 30 (n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n2 + 3n − 1)  
r=1

Permutation and Combination 

● We define the factorial of a positive integer as n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)......... 3 . 2 . 1  
● 0! = 1  
n​
● P​r​ denotes the permutation of ​n​ different things, taking ​r​ things at a time. 
n​
● P​r = n!/(n − r)!  
n​
● Cr​ ​ denotes the combination of ​n​ different things, taking ​r​ things at a time.   
n​ n!
● Cr​ ​ = r!(n−r)! = n​Pr​ ​ / r​! 

● The number of ways in which (​m​ + ​n)​ different things can be divided into two groups containing 
(m+n)!
m​ and ​n​ things respectively is m!n! . If m = n , then the groups are equal and the number of 
(2n)!
sub-division becomes n!n!2! . 
(2n)!
● However, if 2​n​ things are to be divided equally between two people, the result is n!n! . 

   
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 ● The number of ways in which (​m +​ ​n ​+ ​p)​ different things can be divided into three groups 
(m+n+p)!
containing ​m​ and ​n​ things respectively is m!n!p! . If m = n = p , then the groups are equal and 
(3n)!
the number of sub-division becomes n!n!3! . 
● Circular permutation of ​n​ things taken all at a time is (n − 1)! . 
​
● Given ​n​ different things, the number of ways in which you can select at least one of them is n​ C ​1​ + 
n​
C2​​ + n​ ​C​3​ + n​ C
​
​4​ + ……. + n​ ​Cn​ ​ = 2​n​ ﹣ 1. 
● Total number of ways to make selection out of ​p ​+ ​q​ + ​r​ + ... things, where there exist ​p​ identical 
things of one kind, ​q​ identical things of the other kind and so on can be given by 
(1 + ​p)​ (1 + ​q​)(1 + ​r​)... 
● Distribution of ​n​ things among ​p​ people with no restriction: ​pn​ ​. 
n​
● Cr​ ​ is maximum if one of the following things happen: 
○ r​ = ​n/​ 2 , if ​n​ is even 
○ r​ = (​n − 1)/2 or (​n​ + 1)/2 if ​n​ is odd 
● Number of ways in which ​n​ letters can be placed in ​n​ directed letters so that no letter goes into 
n 1
its own envelope is = n! [ 2!1 − 1
3! + 1
4! − 1
5! + ... + (− 1) n! ] . 
 

Binomial and Series 

n﹣​ 1​ n​﹣2​ 2​ n​﹣​r​ r​
● (​x​ + ​y​)n​ ​ ​= n​ ​C​0​xn​ ​ + n​ C
​ n​ n​ n​
1​​ x​ y​ + ​ C​2​x​ y​ + …….. + ​ C​r​x​ y​ + …… + ​ C​ny
n
​ ​   
​ n/2​ n/2
● If ​n​ is even, there is only one middle term given by n​ C ​ .x
n/2​ ​ .y​   

● If ​n​ is odd, there are two middle terms given by n​​ C​(n﹣1)/2​.x​(n﹣1)/2​.y​(n + 1)/2​ and n​​ C​(n + 1)/2​.x​(n + 1)/2​.y​(n﹣1)/2 
● C0​​ + ​C1​​ + ​C2​​ + ​C​3​ + …….. = 2​n 
● C0​​ + ​C2​ +​ ​C4​​ + ​C6​​ + ……. = ​C​1​ + ​C3​​ + ​C5​​ + ​C7​​ + …… = 2​n​﹣1 
● C0​​ 2​ + ​C1​​ 2​ + ​C2​​ 2​ + ​C3​​ 2​ + …… + ​C​n2​​ = 2​​ n​C​n 

   
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 ● ​ ​n​-​r.​​ C​n​ = (2​n)​ !/((​n ​+ ​r)​ !(​n​﹣​r)​ !) 
C0​​ .​C​r​ + ​C​1​.​Cr​ ​ ﹣1​ + ​C2​​ .​C​r​ ﹣2​ + …… + C
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
● If n ∈ Q , then (1 + x) = 1 + nx + 2! x + 3! x + ..... + ∞ , provided |x| < 1  
−1
● (1 + x) = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 .....  
−1
● (1 − x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 .....  
−2
● (1 + x) = 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + 5x4 .....  
−2
● (1 + x) = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 .....  
● The above four expansions are valid only for |x| < 1  
● ex = 1 + x + x2 /(2!) + x3 /(3!) + .....  
n
● e = lim (1 + n1 )  
n→∞
x x2 2 x3 3
● ax = 1 + 1! ln a+ 2! ln a + 3! ln a + ..... where a>0 
● ln(1 + x) = x − x2 /2 + x3 /3 − ..... , where − 1 < x ≤ 1  
● ln(1 − x) = − x − x2 /2 − x3 /3 − ..... , where − 1 ≤ x < 1  
(1+x)
● ln (1−x) = 2 (x + x3 /3 + x5 /5 + ....) where |x| < 1  

Probability 
● 0 ≤ P (A) ≤ 1  
● P (A) + P (A) = 1  
● P (A ⋃ B ) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ⋂ B )  
● If ​A​ and ​B​ are mutually exclusive then P (A ⋂ B ) = 0 . 
● For any two events ​A​ and B
​ ,​ ​P​(exactly one of ​A,​ ​B​ occurs) = P (A ⋂ B) + P (A ⋂ B )  

● De Morgan’s Law: (A ⋃ B ) = A ⋂ B and (A ⋂ B ) = A ⋃ B  

● A ⋃ (B ⋂ C ) = (A ⋃ B ) ⋂ (A ⋃ C )  
● If ​A​ and ​B​ are independent events, then P (A ⋂ B ) = P (A).P (B)  
n
● Bayes theorem: P (B 1 /A) = P (B 1 ).P (A/B 1 ) / ( ∑ P (B i ).P (A/B i ))  
i=1

● Probability that a point lies in an area α out of total area ​S​ is α/S . 

Functions
● Domain of f = { a | a ε A, (a, f (a)) ε f }  
● Range of f = { f (a) | a ε A, (a, f (a)) ε f }  

   
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 ● Let [​x]​ be the greatest integer function, then [​x​ + ​m​] = [​x​] + ​m​, if ​m​ is an integer. 
● [x] + [y] ≤ [x + y ] ≤ [x] + [y] + 1  
● [x] + [− x] = 0 , if x is an integer. 
● [x] + [− x] = 1 , otherwise. 
● {x} = x − [x] , where {x} is defined as fractional part function. 
● A function is one-one, if different elements of ​A​ have different images in ​B,​ where ​A​ is its 
domain and ​B​ is its co-domain. 
● If a function f (x) is injective or one-one, then f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇔ x1 = x2 . 
● A function is many-one if two or more elements in ​A​ have same image in ​B,​ where ​A​ is its 
domain and ​B​ is its co-domain. 
● If a function f (x) is many-one then f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) does not imply x1 = x2 . 
● A function is onto or surjective if every element in its co-domain ​B​ is the image of some element 
in its domain ​A.​  
● For an onto function, its range ​R​ is equal to its co-domain ​B.​  
● A function is into if it is not onto. 
● If a function is both injective and surjective, it is called bijective. 
● Domain of functions like (f ± g )(x) = f (x) ± g (x) and (f .g)(x) = f (x).g(x) is A ⋂ B where A is the 
domain of function f (x) while B is the domain of function g (x) . 

● Domain of function ( ) (x) =

f
g
f (x)
g(x) is A ⋂ B − Y where Y = {x | x ε B, g(x) = 0} . 

● Function g of =/ f og . 
● If a function f is a bijection, then its inverse f −1 is unique. 
● If a function is even function, f (x) = f (− x) . 
● If a function is odd function, f (x) = − f (− x) . 
● A function is periodic if there exists a number ​T​ such that f (x) = f (x + T ) .

   
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Trigonometry 
● sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1  
● sec2 θ − tan2 θ = 1  

● cosec2 θ − cot2 θ = 1  
● sin nπ = 0  
n
● cos nπ = (− 1)  
● tan nπ = 0  
● sin(− θ) = − sin θ ; cos(− θ) = cos θ  
● tan(− θ) = − tan θ ; cot(− θ) = − cot θ  
● sec(− θ) = sec(θ) ; cosec(− θ) = − cosec(θ)  
● sin(A ± B ) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B  
● cos(A ± B ) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B  
● sin2 A − sin2 B = cos2 B − cos2 A = sin(A + B ). sin(A − B )  
● cos2 A − sin2 B = cos2 B − sin2 A = cos(A + B ). cos(A − B )  
tan A± tan B
● tan(A ± B ) = 1∓tan A·tan B  
cot A·cot B∓1
● cot(A ± B ) = cot B±cot A  
A+B A−B
● sin A + sinB = 2 sin 2 · cos 2  
A+B A−B
● sin A − sin B = 2 cos 2 · sin 2  
A+B A−B
● cos A + cos B = 2 cos 2 · cos 2  
A+B B−A
● cos A − cos B = 2 sin 2 · sin 2  
● 2 sin A · cos B = sin(A + B ) + sin(A − B )  
● 2 cos A · cos B = cos(A + B ) + cos(A − B )  
● 2 sin A · sin B = cos(A − B ) − cos(A + B )  
● sin 2A = 2 sin A · cos A  
● cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 A  
2 tan A
● tan 2A = 1 − tan2 A  
● tan2 A = (1 − cos 2A)/(1 + cos 2A)  
2 tan A
● sin 2A = 1 + tan2 A  
1− tan2 A
● cos 2A = 1 + tan2 A  

   
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 ● sin 3A = 3sinA − 4sin3 A  
● cos 3A = 4cos3 A − 3cosA  
● tan 3A = (3tan A − tan3 A)/(1 − 3tan2 A)  
 
Trigonometric relations are very important from a JEE perspective. They allow you solve problems 
quickly without having to derive cumbersome relations. 
 
● If A + B + C = π , then tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA · tanB · tanC . 
● If A + B + C = π /2 , then tanA · tanB + tanB · tanC + tanC · tanA = 1 . 
● If A + B + C = π , then sin2A + sin2B + sin2C = 4 sinA · sinB · sinC and 
sinA + sinB + sinC = 4 cos A2 · cos B2 · cos C2 . 
nβ
sin( 2 )
● sinα + sin(α + β ) + sin(α + 2β) + ........ + sin(α + (n − 1)β = sin( β2 )
sin (α + n−1
2 β ) 
nβ
sin( 2 )
● cosα + cos(α + β ) + cos(α + 2β) + ........ + cos(α + (n − 1)β = sin( β2 )
cos (α + n−1
2 β ) 
 

Solution of triangles
a b c
● Sine formula: In a triangle ​ABC​, with sides a
​ ,​ ​b,​ ​c,​ the given relation hold, sin A = sin B = sin C = 2R , 
where ​R​ is the radius of circumcircle of the triangle.  
2
● Cosine formula: cosA = (b + c2 − a2 )/2bc  
● Projection formula: a = b cos C + c cos B  
● Napier’s Analogy: tan B −2 C = b−c A
b + c cot 2  

√
(s − b)(s − c)
● sin A2 = bc , where s = (a + b + c)/2  

=√
s(s − a)
● cos A2 bc  
(s − b)(s − c)
● tan A2 =
√ s(s − a) = Δ/s(s − a) , where Δ denotes the area of triangle ​ABC​. 

● Area of a triangle = √s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)  

 
In any triangle ​ABC​, 
● M-N rule: (m + n) cot θ = m cot α − n cot β = n cot B − m cot C  
● Δ = 21 ab sin C = 21 bc sin A = 21 ca sin B  

   
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 abc
● R= 4Δ  
a sin B2 sin C
● r = Δ/s = (s − a) tan A2 = cos A2
2
= 4R sin A
2 sin B
2 sin C
2 , where ​r​ is the radius of incircle. 

Δ a cos B2 cos C
● r1 = s−a = s tan A2 = cos A2
2
= 4R sin A2 cos B2 cos C2 , where ​r1​​ is the radius of excircle. 

√2b
1 2
● ma = 2 + 2c2 − a2 , where ​m​a​ is the length of median from vertex ​A.​  

● m2 a + m2 b + m2 c = 43 (a2 + b2 + c2 )  
2bc cos A2
● Xa = b+c , where ​Xa​ ​ denotes the length of angle bisector of vertex ​A​. 

Inverse trigonometric functions

● y = cos−1 x where − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ; 0 ≤ y ≤ π and cos y = x  
● y = sin−1 x where − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ; − π /2 ≤ y ≤ π /2 and sin y = x  
● y = tan−1 x where x ∈ R ; − π /2 ≤ y ≤ π /2 and tan y = x  
● y = cosec−1 x where x ≤− 1 or x ≥ 1 ; − π /2 ≤ y ≤ π /2 , y =/ 0 and cosec y = x  
● y = sec−1 x where x ≤− 1 or x ≥ 1 ; 0 ≤ y ≤ π , y =/ π /2 and sec y = x  
● y = cot−1 x where x ∈ R ; cot y = x  
● cosec−1 x = sin−1 (1/x) ; x ≤− 1 or x ≥ 1  
● sec−1 x = cos−1 (1/x) ; x ≤− 1 or x ≥ 1  
● cot−1 x = tan−1 (1/x) ; x > 0  
● cot−1 x = π + tan−1 (1/x) ; x < 0  
● sin−1 x + cos−1 x = π /2 ; x ∈ R  
● cot−1 x + tan−1 x = π /2 ; x ∈ R  
● cosec−1 x + sec−1 x = π /2 ; |x| > 1  

● tan−1 x + tan−1 y = tan−1 ( ) where x > 0 , y > 0 and xy < 1  

x+y
1−xy

y = π + tan ( ) where x > 0 , y > 0 and xy > 1  

x+y
● tan−1 x + tan−1 −1
1 − xy

y = tan ( ) where x > 0 , y > 0  

x−y
● tan−1 x − tan−1 −1
1 + xy

● sin−1 x + sin−1 y = sin [x√1 − y + y √1 − x ] where x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0 and (x

−1 2 2 2 + y 2 ≤ 1)  

● (x2 + y 2 ≤ 1) ⇒ 0 ≤ sin−1 x + sin−1 y ≤ π /2  

● [
sin−1 x + sin−1 y = π − sin−1 x√1 − y 2 + y √1 − x2 ] where x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0 and (x 2 + y 2 > 1)  

   
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 ● (x2 + y 2 > 1) ⇒ π > sin−1 x + sin−1 y > π /2  

● [
sin−1 x − sin−1 y = sin−1 x√1 − y 2 − y √1 − x2] where x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0   
● cos−1 x ± cos−1 y = cos [xy ∓ √1 − x √1 − y ] where x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0  
−1 2 2

y + tan z = tan [ ] if x > 0, y > 0, z > 0 and xy + yz + zx < 1  

x + y + z − xyz
● tan−1 x + tan−1 −1 −1
1 − xy − yz − zx

● tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = π then x + y + z = xyz  

● tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = π /2 then xy + y z + z x = 1  
● 2tan−1 x = tan−1 ( 1 −2xx2 ) if |x| < 1  

● π + 2tan−1 x = tan−1 ( 1 −2xx2 ) if x <− 1  

● − (π − 2tan−1 x) = tan−1 ( 1 −2xx2 ) if x > 1  
● 2tan−1 x = sin−1 ( 1 +2xx2 ) if |x| ≤ 1  
● π − 2tan−1 x = sin−1 ( 1 +2xx2 ) if x > 1  
● − (π + 2tan−1 x) = sin−1 ( 1 +2xx2 ) if x < − 1  
2
● 2tan−1 x = cos−1 ( 11 −+ xx2 ) if x ≥ 0  
2
● − 2tan−1 x = cos−1 ( 11 −+ xx2 ) if x < 0  
 
Some trigonometric series are given below: 
● sin x = x − x3 /3! + x5 /5! − x7 /7! + ......∞  
● cos x = 1 − x2 /2! + x4 /4! − x6 /6! + ......∞  
● tan x = x + x3 /3 + x5 /120 − ........∞  
3 5 7
● sin−1 x = x + 21 . x3 + 21 . 43 x5 + 21 . 43 . 65 . x7 + ......∞  
3 5 7
● cos−1 x = π /2 − (x + 21 . x3 + 21 . 43 x5 + 21 . 43 . 65 . x7 + ......∞)  
● tan−1 x = x − x3 /3 + x5 /5 − x7 /7......  

   
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