Chapter 5

Transient Analysis

Jaesung Jang

Complete response = Transient response + Steady-state response

Time Constant
First order and Second order Differential Equation

.
1
 Transient Analysis
• The difference of analysis of circuits with
energy storage elements (inductors or
capacitors) & time-varying signals with
resistive circuits is that the equations
resulting from KVL and KCL are now
differential equations rather than algebraic
linear equations resulting from the resistive
circuits.

• Transient region: the region where the

signals are highly dependent on time.
(temporary)
– No voltage or current sources
– Transient Analysis 1

0. 9

• Steady-state region: the region where the 0. 8

signals are not time dependent (time rate of 0. 7

0. 6

change of signals is equal to zero) or

V/Vs
0. 5

periodic. d( )
0. 4

=0 0. 3

– Constant signals dt 0. 2

0. 1

– Sinusoidal signals 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s e c )
6 7 8 9 10
2
 Solution of Ordinary Differential Equation
• Transient solution (xN) is a solution of the dx
homogeneous equation: transient (natural) + x = Vs
response. -> temporary behavior without the dt
source.
• Steady-state (particular) solution (xF) is a solution dx N
due to the source: steady-state (forced ) + xN = 0
dt
response.

• Complete response = transient (natural) response dx F

+ x F = Vs
+ steady-state (forced ) response -> x = xN + xF dt
• First order: The largest order of the differential 1

equation is the first order. 0.9

0.8

– RL or RC circuit. 0.7

0.6

• Second order: The largest order of the differential

V/Vs
0.5

equation is the second order.

0.4

0.3

– RLC or LC circuit. 0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (s ec )

3
 Writing Differential Equations
• Key laws: KVL & KCL for capacitor voltages or inductor currents
vR
KCL : iR = iC → = iC
R
KVL : − v S + v R + vC = 0 → −v S + iR R + vC = 0
iC (t ′)
t
iC R + vC (t = 0) + ∫ dt ′ = v S
C
0
diC i dv di i dv
R + C = S → C + C = S : Differential equation for iC
dt C dt dt RC Rdt
vR dv v − vC dv v v
= iC = C C = S → C + C = S : Differential equation for vC
R dt R dt RC RC

dx(t )
a1 + a0 x(t ) = b0 f (t )
dt
where x(t ) represents the capacitor voltage or the inductor current and
the constants a1 , a0 , and b0 represents combinations of circuit element parameters.
→ First - order linear ordinary differential equation

4
 Writing Differential Equations (cont.)
KCL : iR = iC = iL = i
• Key laws: KVL & KCL
KVL : − v S + v R + vC + v L = 0 → −vS + iR R + vC + v L = 0
i(t ′)
t
iR + vC (t = 0 ) +
di
∫0
C
dt ′ + L = v S
dt
2
di i d i dvS d 2i Rdi i dv
R+ +L 2 = → 2+ + = S : Differential equation for i
dt C dt dt dt Ldt LC Ldt
vR dv v − vC − v L dv v v 1  d dv 
= iC = C C = S →C C = S − C − L C C 
R dt R dt R R R  dt dt 
dvC  d 2 vC 
RC = v S − vC − LC  2 
dt  dt 
 
 d 2 vC 
LC   + RC dvC + vC = vS : Differential equation for vC
 dt 2  dt
 
d x(t )
2
dx(t )
a2 + a1 + a0 x(t ) = b0 f (t ) → Second - order linear ordinary differential equation
dt 2 dt
where x(t ) represents the capacitor voltage or the current and
the constants a 2 , a1 , a0 , and b0 represents combinations of circuit element parameters.
a2 d 2 x(t ) a1 dx(t ) 1 d 2 x(t ) 2ζ dx(t )
+ x(t ) = f (t ) → 2 + x(t ) = K S f (t )
b0
+ +
a0 dt 2 a0 dt a0 ω n dt 2 ωn dt
where the constants ω n = a0 a 2 , ζ = (a1 2) 1 a0 a2 and K S = b0 a0 termed the natural frequency, the damping ratio, 5
and the DC gain, respectively.
Examples of Writing Differential Equations
vR
KCL : i R1 = iL + i R2 → = iL + i R2
R
KVL : − v S + v R + v L = 0 → v R = vS − v L
v (t ′)
t
v − vL
= iL (t = 0) + L
vR v
R
= i L + i R2 → S
R L ∫
dt ′ + L
0
R

Rv L (t ′) Rv L (t ′)
t t
v S − v L = RiL (t = 0 ) + ∫ dt ′ + v L → v S = RiL (t = 0 ) + ∫ dt ′ + 2v L
L L
0 0
dvS R 2dvL dv R dv
= vL + → 2 L + v L = S : Differential equation for v L
dt L dt dt L dt

KCL : iR1 = iC + i L
KVL : − vS + v R1 + vC = 0 → vS = v R1 + vC
diL
− vC + v R2 + v L = 0 → vC = v R2 + v L = L + iL R2
dt
 dvC   d  diL    d 2 iL 
v R1 = i R1 R1 = (iC + iL )R1 =  C
di
+ iL  R1 =  C  L + iL R2  + i L  R1 = LC 2 + R2C L + i L  R1

 
 dt   dt  dt    dt dt 
 d 2
i di  di
v S = v R1 + vC =  LC 2L + R2 C L + iL  R1 + L L + i L R2 →
 dt dt  dt
 
d 2i L diL di
v S = R1 LC + R1 R2C + R1i L + L L + iL R2 →
dt 2 dt dt
d 2 iL
+ (R1 R2 C + L ) + (R1 + R2 )iL = vS : Differential equation for iL
diL
R1 LC 6
dt 2 dt
 DC steady state solution: Final Condition
• Steady state solution due to AC (sinusoidal waveforms) is in Chap. 6 (frequency
response).
• DC steady state solution: response of a circuit that have been connected to a DC
source for a long time or response of a circuit long after a switch has been
activated.
– All the time derivatives are equal to zero at the steady state.

• Capacitors: insulators (very large resistances) are inside the capacitors.

• Inductors: Induction works only when the change in electric fields happens.
dvC (t )
iC (t ) = C → 0 as t → ∞
+ dt
di (t )
+
+ v L (t ) = L L → 0 as t → ∞
+ dt
At DC steady state,
all capacitors behave as open circuits
and all inductors hehave as short circuits.
d 2 iL
+ (R1 R2C + L ) + (R1 + R2 )iL = vS
dvC vC v di L
+ = S R1 LC 2
dt RC RC dt dt
vC = v S at the steady state vS
iL = at the steady state 7
(R1 + R2 )
 DC steady state solution: Initial Condition
• Initial condition: response of a circuit before a switch is first activated.
– Since power equals energy per unit time, finite power requires continuous
change in energy.
• Primary variables: capacitor voltages and inductor currents-> energy
WL (t ) = Li L2 (t ) WC (t ) = CvC2 (t )
1 1
storage elements
2 2
– Capacitor voltages and inductor currents cannot change instantaneously but
should be continuous. -> continuity of capacitor voltages and inductor
currents
– The value of an inductor current or a capacitor voltage just prior to the
closing (or opening) of a switch is equal to the value just after the switch has
been closed (or opened).
( ) ( )
vC t = 0 − = vC t = 0 +
iL (t = 0 ) = i (t = 0 )
−
L
+

where the notation 0 − signifies " just before t = 0" and

0 + signifies " just after t = 0" Discontinuous of capacitor voltage
-> infinite power at t=0.
8
 First Order Response
• First-order circuit: one energy storage element + one energy loss
element (e.g. RC circuit, RL circuit)

• Procedures
– Write the differential equation of the circuit for t=0+, that is, immediately
after the switch has changed. The variable x(t) in the differential equation
will be either a capacitor voltage or an inductor current. You can reduce
the circuit to Thevenin or Norton equivalent form.
– Identify the initial conditions x(t=0+) [= x(t=0-)] and final conditions x(t=∞).
– Solve the differential equation.
– Write the complete solution for the circuit in the form.
x(t ) = x(t = ∞ ) + [x(t = 0 ) − x(t = ∞ )]exp(− t τ )
• The time constant (τ) is a measure of how fast capacitor voltages or
inductor currents react to the input (voltage or current source). It is a
period of time during which capacitor voltages or inductor currents
change by 63.2% to get to the steady state. [x(t = τ ) − x(t = 0)]
= 1 − e −1 = 0.632
[x(t = ∞ ) − x(t = 0)]
9
 First Order Response (cont.)
• First-order circuit: one energy storage element + one
energy loss element (e.g. RC circuit, RL circuit)
dx (t ) a dx (t ) dx(t )
+ a0 x (t ) = b0 f (t ) → 1 + x(t ) = 0 f (t ) → τ + x (t ) = K S f (t )
b
a1
dt a0 dt a0 dt
where τ = a1 a0 and K S = b0 a0 termed the time constant and DC gain, respectively.

Natural Response
dx (t ) dx (t ) − x N (t )
τ N + x N (t ) = 0 → N = → x N (t ) = x0 e −t τ where x0 is a constant.
dt dt τ
dx (t )
Forced Response due to DC (where f (t ) = F ) : F → 0
dt
dx (t )
τ F + x F (t ) = K S F t ≥ 0 → x F (t ) = K S F t ≥ 0
dt
Complete Response
x(t ) = x N (t ) + x F (t ) = x0 e −t τ + x(t = ∞ ) = x0 e −t τ + K S F (for DC)
x(t = 0 ) = x0 + x(t = ∞ ) → x0 = x(t = 0 ) − x(t = ∞ ) for t ≥ 0 10
Example: First Order Response 1

vR
Step1 : KCL : iR = iC → = iC
R
KVL : − v S + v R + vC = 0 → −v S + i R R + vC = 0
v − vC dx(t )
+ x(t ) = K S F
vR dv dv
= iC = C C = S → RC C + vC = v S t > 0 → τ
R dt R dt dt
( ) ( )
Step2 : vC t = 0 − = 5 V = vC t = 0 + , vC (t = ∞ ) = 12V(= v S )
Step3 : x = vC , τ = RC = 1kΩ × 470µF = 0.47, K S = 1, F = vS
Step4 : vC (t ) = (vC (t = 0) − vC (t = ∞ ))e −t τ + vC (t = ∞ ) = 12 + (− 7 )e −t 0.47

11
Example: First Order Response 2
Step1 : KCL : iR = i L
di L
KVL : − v B + v R + v L = 0 → −v B + i L R + L =0
+ dt
dx(t )
+ x(t ) = K S F
L di L v
→ + iL = B t > 0 → τ
R dt R dt
( ) ( )
Step2 : iL t = 0 − = 0 A = iL t = 0 + , iL (t = ∞ ) = v B R = 12.5A
Step3 : x = i L , τ = L R = 0.1H 4Ω = 0.025, K S = 1 R , F = v B
Step4 : iL (t ) = (i L (t = 0) − i L (t = ∞ ))e −t τ + i L (t = ∞ ) = 12.5 + (− 12.5)e −t 0.025

12
 First Order Transient Response Using
Thevenin/Norton Theorem
• One must be careful to determine the equivalent
circuits before and after the switch changes position.
– it is possible that equivalent circuit seen by the load
before activating the switch is different from the circuit
seen after closing the switch.

vC (t ) = V2 t ≤ 0 ( ) (
vC t = 0 − = V2 = vC t = 0 + )

13
 First Order Transient Response Using
Thevenin/Norton Theorem (cont.)
Page 11

dx(t ) dx(t )
+ x(t ) = K S F
dvC
dv
Step1 : RT C C + vC = VT t > 0 → τ + x(t ) = K S F Step1 : RC + vC = v S t > 0 → τ
dt dt
( ) ( )
dt dt
( ) ( )
Step2 : vC t = 0 − = V2 = vC t = 0 + , vC (t = ∞ ) = VT Step2 : vC t = 0 − = vC t = 0 + , vC (t = ∞ ) = v S
Step3 : x = vC , τ = RT C , K S = 1, F = VT Step3 : x = vC , τ = RC , K S = 1, F = v S

Step4 : vC (t ) = (vC (t = 0 ) − vC (t = ∞ ))e −t τ + vC (t = ∞ ) = (V2 − VT )e −t τ + VT Step4 : vC (t ) = (vC (t = 0 ) − vC (t = ∞ ))e −t τ + vC (t = ∞ )

V V 
RT = R1 || R2 || R3 VT = RT  1 + 2 
 R1 R2 

14
 First Order Transient Response Using
Example 5.10
Thevenin/Norton Theorem (cont.)
0 (closing) < t < 50 ms
dx(t )
+ x(t ) = K S F
dvC
Step1 : RT C + vC = VT t > 0 → τ
dt dt
( ) ( )
Step2 : vC t = 0 − = 0 = vC t = 0 + , vC (t = ∞ ) = VT
Step3 : x = vC , τ = RT C , K S = 1, F = VT
Step4 : vC (t ) = (vC (t = 0) − vC (t = ∞ ))e −t τ + vC (t = ∞ ) = (− VT )e −t τ + VT

RT = (R1 || R2 ) + R3
R2
VT = VB : voltage divider
R1 + R2

50 ms (open the switch again) < t

dx(t )
+ x (t ) = K S F
dvC
Step1 : RT C + vC = 0 t > 0 → τ
dt dt
( ) ( )
Step2 : vC t = 0 − = vC (t = 50ms )(from the solution above ) = vC* = vC t = 0 + , vC (t = ∞ ) = 0
Step3 : x = vC , τ = RT C , K S = 1, F = 0 where RT = R2 + R3
( ) ( )
Step4 : vC (t ) = (vC (t = 0 ) − vC (t = ∞ ))e −t τ + vC (t = ∞ ) = vC* e −t τ → vC (t ) = vC* e − (t −0.05 ) τ

15
 RC Charging & Discharging
Discharging
Charging: S1 closed & S2 opened
Discharging: S2 closed & S1 opened
Time constant (τ = RC)=0.1 sec Charging

Note: Capacitor voltage is continuous,

but capacitor current is not (many jumps).

[x(t = τ ) − x(t = 0)] = 1 − e −1 = 0.632

[x(t = ∞ ) − x(t = 0)]
16
 Second Order Transient Response
• Second-order circuit: two energy storage element w/wo
one energy loss element (e.g. RLC circuit, LC circuit)

vR
KCL : iS = iC + iL → = i L + iC
RT
KVL : − vT + v R + v L = 0 → v R = vT − v L and − vT + v R + vC = 0 → v R = vT − vC
vR 1  di  dv d  di 
= iL + iC →  vT − L L  = iL + C C = i L + C  L L 
RT RT  dt  dt dt  dt 
1  di L  d 2i L vT d 2iL L di L
 vT − L  = i L + LC 2 → = LC 2 + + iL
RT  dt  dt RT dt RT dt
17
Second Order Transient Response (cont.)
d 2 x(t ) dx(t ) 1 d 2 x(t ) 2ζ dx(t )
a2 + a1 + a0 x(t ) = b0 f (t ) → 2 + + x(t ) = K S f (t )
dt 2 dt ω n dt 2 ω n dt
where the constants ω n = a0 a 2 , ζ = (a1 2 ) 1 a0 a 2 and K S = b0 a0 termed the natural frequency, the damping ratio,
and the DC gain, respectively.
• The final value of 1 is predicted by the DC
gain KS=1, which tells us about the steady
state.

• The period of oscillation of the response is

related to the natural frequency wn=1 leads
to T=2 pi/wn = 6.28 sec.

• The reduction in amplitude of the

oscillation is governed by the damping
ratio. With large damping ratio, the
response not overshoots (oscillates) but
looks like the first order response.
ω n = 1, ζ = 0.1 and K S = 1

• Damping -> friction effect 18

 Second Order Response
1 d 2 x(t ) 2ζ dx(t )
+ + x(t ) = K S f (t )
ω n2 dt 2 ω n dt
Natural Response
1 d 2 x N (t ) 2ζ dx N (t )
+ + x N (t ) = 0
ω n2 dt 2 ω n dt
x N (t ) = α1e s1t + α 2 e s2t where s1, 2 = −ζω n ± ω n ζ 2 − 1
Case 1 : Real and distinct roots.(ζ > 1) → Overdamped response
→ Look like the first order system
s1, 2 = −ζω n ± ω n ζ 2 − 1
Case 2 : Real and repeated roots.(ζ = 1)
→ Critically overdamped response → Oscillation
s1, 2 = −ω n
Case 3 : Complex roots.(ζ < 1) → Underdamped response → Oscillation
s1, 2 = −ζω n ± jω n 1 − ζ 2
dx F (t )
Forced Response due to DC (where f (t ) = F ) : →0
dt
1 d 2 x F (t ) 2ζ dx F (t )
+ + x F (t ) = K S f (t ) t ≥ 0 → x F (t ) = K S F t ≥ 0
ω n2 dt 2 ω n dt
Complete Response
19
x(t ) = x N (t ) + x F (t ) α1 and α 2 is constants that will be determined by the initial conditions.
 Second Order Response (cont.)
• Procedures
– Write the differential equation of the circuit for t=0+, that is,
immediately after the switch has changed. The variable x(t) in the
differential equation will be either a capacitor voltage or an
inductor current. You can reduce the circuit to Thevenin or Norton
equivalent form. Rewrite the equation as the standard form.
– Identify the initial conditions x(t=0+) and dx/dt(t=0+) using the
continuity of capacitor voltages and inductor currents.
– Write the complete solution for the circuit in the form.
 −ζω +ω ζ 2 −1 t  −ζω −ω ζ 2 −1 t
   
Case 1 : Real and distinct roots.(ζ > 1) : x(t ) = α1e   + α e + x F (t )
n n n n

2

Case 2 : Real and repeated roots.(ζ = 1) : x( t = α1e (−ωn )t + α 2te (−ωn )t + x F t

) ()
 −ζω + jω 1−ζ 2 t  −ζω − jω 1−ζ 2 t
   
Case 3 : Complex roots.(ζ < 1) : x(t ) = α1e +α2 + x F (t )
n n n n
  e  

– Apply the initial conditions to solve for the constants α1 and α 2 .

20
 Example: Second Order Response
vR
Step1 : KCL : iS = iC = iL → = iL + iC
RT
KVL : − v S + v R + v L + vC = 0 → v R + v L + vC = v S
i L (t ′)
t
d 2i L
+ vC (t = 0 ) +
diL di i dv
iL R + L
dt C ∫
dt ′ = v S → L 2 + R L + L = S = 0
0
dt dt C dt

( ) ( ) (
Step2 : vC t = 0 − = 5 V = vC t = 0 + , iL t = 0 − = 0 A = iL t = 0 + ) ( )
( )
iL t = 0 + R + L
diL
dt
( ) ( ) (
t = 0 + + vC (t = 0 ) = v S → 1 L t = 0 + + 5 V = 25V → L t = 0 + = 20A/s
di
dt
di
dt
)
d 2i L d 2iL 1 d 2 x(t ) 2ζ dx(t )
+ x (t ) = K S f (t )
diL i L diL
Step3 : L +R + = 0 → LC 2 + RC + iL = 0 : 2 +
dt 2 dt C dt dt ω n dt 2 ω n dt
2ζ RCω n R C 5000 10 − 6
1
= LC → ω n =
1
=
1
= 1000 (rad/s ), = RC → ζ = = = = 2.5
ω n2 LC 10 −6 ωn 2 2 L 2 1
→ Overdamped response
iL (t ) = α1e s1t + α 2 e s2 t where s1, 2 = −ζω n ± ω n ζ 2 − 1
Complete Response (forced response = 0)
 −ζω +ω ζ 2 −1 t  −ζω −ω ζ 2 −1  t
   
iL (t ) = α1e  + α2
n n n n
 e 

Step4 : Using 0 A = iL t = 0 + ( ) and

diL
dt
( )
t = 0 + = 20A/s, determine the constants α1 and α 2

( )
iL t = 0 + = 0 = α1 + α 2
   ζ 2 −1 t
 −ζω n + ωn ζ −1 t
e  −ζω n −ω n
2

= α1  − ζω n + ω n ζ 2 − 1 e   + α  − ζω − ω
diL
2 n n ζ 2
− 1  
dt    
diL
dt
( )
t = 0 + = 20 = α1  − ζω n + ω n ζ 2 − 1  + α 2  − ζω n − ω n ζ 2 − 1 
   
21
Overdamped and Underdamped Circuit

22