(1038) Sheet 1 D and F Block Elements e PDF

d & f-block elements
Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Atomic
number 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Electronic configuration
1 2 2 2 3 2 5 1 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 10 1 10 2
M 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s
+ 1 1 2 1 3 1 5 5 1 6 1 8 1 10 10 1
M 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d74s1 3d 4s 3d 3d 4s
2+ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
M 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d
3+ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
M [Ar] 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d – –
Enthalpy of atomisation, ÄaH / kJ mol–1
326 473 515 397 281 416 425 430 339 126
Ionisation enthalpy / ÄiH– / kJ mol–1
ÄiH I 631 656 650 653 717 762 758 736 745 906

ÄiH II 1235 1309 1414 1592 1509 1561 1644 1752 1958 1734
ÄiH III 2393 2657 2833 2990 3260 2962 3243 3402 3556 3829
Metallic/ionic M 164 147 135 129 137 126 125 125 128 137
2+
radii/pm M – – 79 82 82 77 74 70 73 75
3+
M 73 67 64 62 65 65 61 60 – –
Standard
electrode – –1.63 –1.18 –0.90 –1.18 –0.44 –0.28 –0.25 +0.34 –0.76
Potential E
3+ 2+
/V M /M – –0.37 –0.26 –0.41 +1.57 +0.77 +1.97 – – –
Density/g
–3
cm 3.43 4.1 6.07 7.19 7.21 7.8 8.7 8.9 8.9 7.1
d-block Elements
Last electron enters in (n – 1)d subshell. d-block elements lie on middle of periodic table.
General Introduction
1. Occurrence Three of transition metals are very abundant in the earth’s crust.
th
Fe  4 most abundant elements in earth’s crust by weight.
th
Ti  5 most abundant elements in earth’s crust by weight.
Mn  12th most abundant elements in earth’s crust by weight.
Element with even atomic no. are in general more abundant than their neighbours
th
First row with odd atomic no. except for Mn Z = 25) but still 12 most abundant element by
weight.
st
Less abundant than 1 d- series elements.
2nd and 3rd row Tc  does not occur in nature.
nd rd
Last six members of 2 and 3 row occur less than 0.16 ppm in earth’s crust.
Coinage metals Cu, Ag and Au are called coinage metals.
Noble metals Cu, Ag, Au, Hg and Pt.

Total d-block elements – (40)
2. No. of elements Total transition elements – (36). If 112 elements are included in periodic table.
(Except Zn, Cd, Hg and Uub)
3. Groups IIIB to VIIB, VIII, IB, IIB or group 3 to 12 (IUPAC).
th
4th to 7
th
4. Period 4 period 3d- series (Sc - Zn )
5th period 4d- series (Y - Cd)
Corporate Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.) - 324005
Website: www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : contact@resonance.ac.in
AIPMTDBC-1
Toll Free : 1800 200 2244 | 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
th
6 period 5d- series (La – Hg)
7th period 6d- series (Ac – Uub)
Periodic trends and chemical properties
S.N. Properties DISCRIPTION
All the transition elements are metals, therefore they are showing all the
metallicproperties.
Good conductor of heat and electricity.
Metallic
1 Metallic lustre, strong and ductile.
character
With the exception of Zn, Cd, Hg, Mn all the transition metals have or more
regular metallic structure.
The transition metals are hard and have low volatility (except Zn, Cd and Hg).
Lattice Structures of Transition Metals (Table-1)
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
hcp hcp bcc bcc X bcc ccp ccp ccp X

(bcc) (bcc) (bcc,ccp) (hcp) (hcp) (hcp)
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
Hcp hcp bcc bcc hcp hcp ccp ccp ccp X
(bcc) (bcc) (hcp)
La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
hcp hcp bcc bcc hcp hcp ccp ccp ccp X
(ccp, bcc) (bcc)
bcc = body centred cubic ; hcp = hexagonal close packed
ccp = cubic close packed ; X = a typical metal structure
Electronic 1 – 10 1 or 2
2 (n – 1)d ns
configuration
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
3d Series Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
1 2 2 2 3 2 5 1 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 10 1
3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d104s2
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
4d Series Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
4d15s2 4d25s2 4d45s1 4d55s1 4d55s2 4d75s1 4d85s1 4d10 4d104s1 4d104s2
57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
5d Series La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
5d16s2 4f145d26s2 5d36s2 5d46s2 5d56s2 5d66s2 5d76s2 5d96s1 5d106s1 5d106s2
89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
6d Series Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
1 1
6d 7s
Electrons are being filled penultimate shells, thus outer electronic configuration
remains same , with exception in some cases, e.g.Cr and Cu.
AIPMTDBC-2
Cr and Cu attain extra stability of half-filled and full-filled electronic

configuration by changing the expected pattern of electronic configuration.
The electronic structure of 2nd and 3rd rows do not always follow the pattern of
the first row, e.g. Group 10
8 2
Ni 3d 4s
10 0
Pd 4d 5s
9 1
Pt 5d 6s
d-orbitals are complete at Cu, Pd, Ag, Au.
Ni (3d8 4s2) Cu(3d104s1) Zn(3d104s2)
Pd(4d105s0) Ag(4d105s1) Cd(4d105s2)
Even though ground state of the atom has a d configuration Pd and coinage
10
metals behaves as typical transition elements, as in their most common

oxidation states they have incomplete d-orbital.
A transition element is defined as the one which has incompletely filled d
orbitals in its ground state or in any one of its oxidation states.
10
Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury of group 12 have full d configuration in their
Transition
ground state as well as in their common oxidation states and hence, they are
elements
not regarded as transition metals.
All transition elements are d-block elements but all d-block elements
are not transition elements. (as per NCERT)
In the transition series (e.g. in the first transition series), the covalent radii of
Size of atoms
3 the elements decrease from left to right across a row until near the end when
and ions
the size increases slightly.
On moving from left to right, extra protons are placed in the nucleus and the
extra electron are added. The orbital electron shield the nuclear charge
incompletely. Thus the nuclear charge attracts all the electrons more strongly,
hence a contraction in size occurs. The radii of the elements from Cr to Cu,
are very close to one another because the extra electron being added
d-orbital increases the repulsion between the electrons and counter balances the
contraction increased nuclear charge on the outer electrons (4s). As a result of this, the
size of the atom does not change much in moving from Cr to Cu and for zinc
this repulsion even dominates the nuclear charge so size slightly increases.
Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Atomic
144 132 122 117 117 117 116 115 117 125
radius (pm)
As we move along the lanthanide series, the nuclear charge increases by one
unit at each successive element. The new electron is added into the same
subshell (4f). As a result, the attraction on the electrons by the nucleus
increases and this tends to decrease the size. Further, as the new electron is
added into the f-subshell, there is imperfect shielding of one electron by
Lanthanide
another in this subshell due to the shapes of these f-orbitals. This imperfect
Contraction
shielding in unable to counter balance the effect of the increased nuclear
charge. Hence, the net result is a contraction in the size though the decrease
is very small.
th th
Thus covalent and ionic radii of Nb (5 period) and Ta (6 period) are almost
same due to poor shielding of f-orbitals electrons.
AIPMTDBC-3
Ti < Zr  Hf (Lanthanide Contraction)

Sc < Y < La
Due to Lanthanide contraction elements of 4d and 5d series belong to a particular group
have almost same atomic radii. Ex. Zr Hf, Tc  Re, Nb Ta, Ru  Os etc.
Ionization
4 energies of
transition metals
-1
First ionization energies of the d-block elements (Numerical values are given in kJ mol ).
AIPMTDBC-4
(i)The first ionisation potential for the first four 3d-block elements (Sc,Ti,V &
Cr) differ only slightly from one another.
(ii) Similarly the value first ionisation energy of Fe, Co, Ni & Cu also are fairly
close to one another.
(iii) The value of first ionisation energy for Zn is considerably higher due to
the extra stability of 3d104s2 level which is completely filled in Zn atom.
(iv) The first ionization energy of Mn is slightly higher than adjacent elements
in 3d series due to half-filled stable configuration.
+
(v) Second ionisation energy value for Cr & Cu are higher as the Cr & Cu
5 10
ion are extra stable due to 3d and 3d Configuration.
(vi) In vertical columns, the ionisation energy decrease from first member to
the second member.
(vii) However the third member (5d series) has higher value than second
member
(4d-series) due to lanthanide contraction. I.E. (3rdT.S.) > I.E. (2ndT.S.) > I.E. (1st
T.S.)
5 Oxidation-State They show variable oxidation–state.
+1 +1
(a)
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3
(b)
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
+5 +5 +5
+6 +6 +6
+7
(a) Acidic medium (b) Basic medium
* Shaded states are popular once.
* Underline states are the most stable ones.
The oxidation states change in units of 1, unlike that in p-block elements,
where generally oxidation state differs by units of 2.
Trends of Oxidation state
Highest oxidation state of 3d-series elements can be calculated by n + 2
(where n = number of unpaired electrons) It is not applied for Cr and Cu.
The transition metal ions having stable configuration like d0, d5 or d10 are
+3 +4 +5 +3 +2 +2
more stable. Ex. Sc , Ti , V Fe , Mn , Zn etc.
Most common oxidation state among the transition elements is +2.
Highest oxidation state shown by transition elements of '4d' and '5d' series is
+8 by Ru (44) and Os (76).
The highest oxidation states (+4, +5, +6, +7, +8) are found in compounds of
oxide and oxyfluoride because fluorine and oxygen are most electronegative
elements and good oxidants.
7 6 6 4 6 6
e.g. MnO4 ,Cr 2 O72 ,Cr O24 ,MnO2 ,MnO 24 ,Cr O2F2
Lower oxidation states even negative (-2, -1, 0, +1) is stabilised by -bonding
ligands such as carbon monoxide and dipyridine due to phenomena of
synergic bonding Ni(CO)4 and Fe(CO)5, oxidation state of Ni and Fe is zero.
They form ionic compounds in low oxidation states and covalent compounds
in Higher oxidation state.
Formulas of Halides of 3d Metals
1 II III
Key: X = F →I; X = F → Br; X = F, Cl; X =Cl→I
O X I D AT I O N
NUMBER
+6 CrF6
+5 VF5 CrF5
1
+4 TiX4 VX 4 CrX4 MnF4
I
+3 TiX3 VX3 CrX3 MnF3 FeX 3 CoF3
AIPMTDBC-5
+2 TiX2III VX2 CrX2 MnX2 FeX2 CoX2 NiX2 CuX2II ZnX2

III
+1 CuX
Formulas of Oxides of 3d Metals (* mixed oxides)
OXID
ATIO
N Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
NUM
BER
+7 Mn2O7
+6 CrO3
+5 V2 O 5
+4 TiO2 V2 O 4 CrO2 MnO2
+3 Sc2O3 Ti2O3 V2 O 3 Cr2O3 Mn2O3 Fe2O3
Mn3O4* Fe3O4* Co3O4*
+2 TiO VO (CrO) MnO FeO CoO NiO CuO ZnO
Cu2O
Ionic and covalent compounds of many transition elements are coloured.
They form different coloured compounds. The compounds in which metal ion
has an unpaired electron that compound may be coloured. When an electron
6 Colour from a lower energy d-orbital is exited to a higher energy d-orbital, if the
energy of excitation lies in visible range, complimentary colour is observed.
MnO4- is coloured inspite of d0 configuration of Mn. It is not due to d-d
transition but it occurs due to charge transfer between Mn and O.
Oxidation
State
(I) Colurless
(II) Blue Pink Green Pink Green Blue Colurless
(III) Colurless Purple Green Green Violet Yellow Blue
(IV) Colurless Blue
Electrode
7
potential
There is no regular trend in these values. This is attributed to the irregular
0
EM 2
/M
variation of ionisation enthalpies (IE1 + IE2) , hydration energies and the
sublimation energies in the period.
 2+
Element (M) aHq (M)  f H1 1H2 
hydH (M )

E /V
Ti 469 661 1310 -1866 -1.63
V 515 648 1370 -1895 -1.18
Cr 398 653 1590 -1925 -0.90
Mn 279 716 1510 -1862 -1.18
Fe 418 762 1560 -1998 -0.44
Co 427 757 1640 -2079 -0.28
Ni 431 736 1750 -2121 -0.25
Cu 339 745 1960 -2121 0.34
Zn 130 908 1730 -2059 -0.76
AIPMTDBC-6
The stability of the half-filled d sub-shell in Mn2+ and the completely filled d10
2+
configuration in Zn are related to their E values, whereas E for Ni is
related to the highest negative hydration energy.
It may be noted that the electrode potentials of transition metals are low in
comparison to elements of group 2 (e.g., Ca = –2.87 V, the transition elements
have fairly large ionisation enthalpies and very large enthalpies of
atomisation). Compared to group 2 elements. These reduce their electrode
potentials though their hydration enthalpies are large.
0
EM 3
/ M2 
AIPMTDBC-7
Comparative
graph of
0
EM 2
/ M and
0
EM 3
/ M2 
0
Graph of ERe d
3+
The low value for Sc reflects the stability of Sc which has a noble gas
configuration.
The highest value for Zn is due to the removal of an electron from the stable
10 2+
d configuration of Zn .
2+ 5
The comparatively high value for Mn shows that Mn (d ) is particularly stable,
whereas comparatively low value for Fe shows the extra stability of Fe3+ (d5).
Across a period from left to right atomic volumes decreases and atomic
masses increases. Hence densities also increases across a period. The last
element zinc (Zn) is an exception, having large atomic volume and hence
8 Density
lower density.
Elements with highest densities are
Osmium (Os) = 22.51 g/cm3 , Iridium (Ir) = 22.61 g/cm3
High melting points are attributed to involvement of greater number of
electrons from (n–1)d in addition to the ns electrons in inter atomic metallic
bonding thus highest for d5, except for anamolous value for Mn, and Tc fall
regularly.
Melting and m.p. and b.p. are generally very high exceptions 
9
Boiling point  Zn (420ºC)
 Cd (321ºC)
 Hg liquid at room temperature.
last of each d-series element behave a typically because the d-shell is
complete and d-electrons do not participate in metallic bonding.
AIPMTDBC-8
They have high enthalpies

of atomization, which are
maximum at middle of
each series , indicates that
one unpaired e– per d-
orbital is particularly
favourable for strong
interatomic interaction.
Metals of 2nd and 3rd
transition series has
higher melting pt. bonding
pt. as well as enthalpy of
atomistation, than
corresponding elements
st
of the 1 series this is
due to metal-metal bonding of heavy transition metals.
Metals, which have unpaired electrons show paramagnetism.
Spin only magnetic moment  n(n  2) here n = no. of unpaired electron.
Diamagnetic substance is one which is slightly repelled by a magnetic field.
A paramagnetic substance is one which is
Magnetic attracted into a magnetic field.
10 In paramagnetic substance the magnetic field
character
lines of force travel easier than they travel in
vacuum. Thus it can be seen that a
paramagnetic material attracts lines of force,
if it is free to move, a paramagnetic material will move from a weaker to a
stronger part of the field.
Ferromagnetic materials may be regarded as special case of paramagnetism
Ferromagnetism in which the moments of individual domains becomes aligned and all points in the
same direction. Ferromagnetic materials  Fe, Co, Ni.
The transition metals and their compounds are known for their catalytic
Catalytic
11 activity. This is due to ability to adopt multiple oxidation states and to form
Properties
complexes.
Catalyst Used
Fe Haber's process for manufacture of NH3.
V2O5 Contact process for H2SO4 manufacture.
Pt Ostwald's process of nitric acid.
Ni Hydrogenation of oils.
FeSO4 & H2O2 Fenton's reagent for oxidising alcohol to aldehyde.
Cu Dehydrogenation of alcohols
Al2(C2H5)6 + TiCl4 Ziegler-Natta catalyst in the production of Polyethene.
FeCl3 For making CCl4 from CS2 and Cl2.
Pt/PtO Adams catalyst, used for reduction.
(i) Transition elements have maximum tendency to form alloys.
(ii) The reactivity of transition elements is very less and their sizes are almost
similar. Due to this a transition metal atom in the lattice can be easily replaced
FORMATION OF
12 by other transition metal atom and hence they have maximum tendency to
ALLOY
form alloys.
(iii) In the alloys, ratio of component metals is fixed.
(iv) These are extremely hard and have high melting point.
* Not to be memories
(a) Bronze Cu (75 - 90 %) +Sn ( 10 - 25 %)
(b) Brass Cu ( 60 - 80 %) +Zn (20 - 40 %)
SOME
(c) Gun metal (Cu + Zn + Sn) (87 : 3 : 10)
IMPORTANT
(d) German Silver Cu + Zn + Ni ( 2 : 1 : 1)
ALLOY
(e) Bell metal Cu (80 %) + Sn(20 %)
AIPMTDBC-9
(f) Nichrome (Ni + Cr + Fe)

(g) Alnico (Al, Ni,Co)
(h) Type Metal Pb + Sn + Sb
(i) Alloys of steel
• Vanadium steel V (0.2 - 1 %)
• Chromium steel Cr (2 - 4 %)
• Nickel steel Ni (3 -5 %)
• Manganese steel Mn (10 -18 %)
• Stainless steel Cr (12 - 14 %)& Ni (2 - 4 %)
• Tunguston steel W (10 - 20 %)
(o) 14 Carat Gold 54 % Au + Ag (14 to 30 %) + Cu (12 - 28 %)
(k) 24 Carat Gold 100 %Au
(i) Solder Pb + Sn
(m) Magnellium Mg (10%) + Al (90%)
(n) Duralumin (Al + Mn + Cu)
(o) Artificial Gold Cu (90 %) + Al (10%)
(p) Constantan Cu(60%) + Ni (40%)
% of Carbon in different type of Iron
Name % of C
(a) Wrought Iron 0.1 to 0.25
(b) Steel 0.25 to 2.0
(c) Cast Iron 2.6 to 4.3
(d) Pig Iron 2.3 to 4.6
1. Silver nitrate, AgNO3 (Lunar Caustic)
Physical Properties
(i) It is a colourless crystalline compound.
(ii) Soluble in water and alcohol.
(iii) It melts at 212°C.
Chemical Properties
(i) It possesses powerful corrosive action on organic tissues , which at turns black especially in
presence of light. The blackening is due to finely divided metalic silver, reduced by organic tissure
It is therefore, stored in colored Bottles.
(ii) Solutions of halides phosphates, sulfides chromates thiocyanates, sulphates and thiosulphates salt
with silver nitrate solution.
(iii) Ammonical silver nitrate is called as Tollen's reagent and used to identify reducing sugars and
aldehydes.
It is known as silver mirror test of aldehydes and reducing sugars.

Ag2O + HCHO2Ag + HCOOH.
Ag2O + C6H12O6 2Ag + C6H12O7.
AIPMTDBC-10
(iv) Reactions with Iodine :

6 AgNO3 (excess) + 3I2 +3H2O  AgO3 + 5Ag + 6HNO3
5 AgNO3 + 3I2 (excess) +3H2O HO3 + 5Ag + 5HNO3
Uses : It is used
(i) as a laboratory reagent for the identification of various acidic especially for Cl, Br and 
(ii) Tollen's reagent is used in organic chemistry for testing aldehydes reducing sugars etc.
(iii) for making AgBr, used in photography.
(iv) in the preparation of inks and hair dyes.
(v) in preparation of silver mirror.
2. Photography :
(i) A photographic film consists of a light sensitive emulsion of fine particles (grains) of silver salts in
gelatine spread on a clear celluloid strip or a glass plate. AgBr is mainly used as the light sensitive
material.
(ii) The film is placed in a camera. When the photograph is exposed, light from the subject enters the
camera and is focussed by the lens to give a sharp image on the film. The light starts a photochemical
reaction by exciting a halide ion, which loses an electron. The electron moves in a conduction band to
the surface of the grain, where it reduces a Ag+ ion to metallic silver.
light
2AgBr(s)   2Ag + Br2
(iii) In modern photography only a short exposure of perhaps 1/100th of a second is used. In this short
time, only a few atoms of silver (perhaps 10–50) are produced in each grain exposed to light. Parts of
the film which have been exposed to the bright parts of the subject contain a lot of grains with some
silver.
(iv) Next the film is placed a developer solution. This is a mild reducing agent, usually containing quinol.
Its purpose is to reduce more silver halide to Ag metal. Ag is deposited mainly where there are already
some Ag atoms. Thus the developing process intensifies the latent image on the film so it becomes
visible.
2AgBr(s) + 2OH–(aq) + HO OH (aq) 2Ag(s) + 2H2O() + O O + 2Br–(aq)
hydroquinol hydroquinone
(v) If the film was brought out into daylight at this stage, the unexposed parts of the emulsion would turn
black and thus destroy the picture. To prevent this happening any unchanged silver halides are
removed by placing the film in a fixer solution. A solution of sodium thiosulphate is used as fixer. It
forms a soluble complex with silver halides.
AgBr + 2Na2S2O3  Na3[Ag(S2O3)2] + NaBr
After fixing, the film can safely be brought out into daylight. This is called "negative".
Light is passed through the negative onto a piece of paper coated with AgBr emulsion. This is then
developed and fixed in the same way as before.
3. Potassium Permanganatic (KMnO4)
AIPMTDBC-11
Physical Properties :
Purple coloured crystalline compound.
Moderately soluble in water at room temperature.
Structure of manganate and permanganate ion.

Chemical Properties
(i) Heating effect
MnO42– in dilute alkaline, water and acidic solutions is unstable and disproportionates to give MnO4– and
MnO2.
3MnO42– + 4H+ 2MnO4– + MnO2 + 2H2O
3MnO42– + 2H2O  2MnO4– + MnO2+ 4OH–
or
3MnO42– + 3H2O 2MnO4– + MnO (OH)2 + 4OH–
On heating in current of H2 , solid KMnO4 gives MnO

2KMnO4 + 5H2 
 2KOH + 2MnO + 4H2O
(ii) On treatment with concentrated H2SO4 (KMnO4 is taken in excess), it forms manganese
heptoxide via permanganyl sulphate which decomposes explosively on heating.
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4  2KHSO4 + (MnO3)2SO4 + 2H2O
(MnO3)2SO4 + H2O  Mn2O7 + H2SO4
3
Mn2O7  2MnO2 + O
2 2
KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 (conc.) K+ + MnO3+ (green) + 3HSO4– + H3O+.
(iii) Potassium permanganate is a powerful oxidising agent.
Potassium permanganate acts as an oxidising agent in alkaline, neutral or acidic solutions.
A mixture of sulphur, charcoal and KMnO4 forms an explosive powder. A mixture of oxalic acid
and KMnO4 catches fire spontaneous after a few seconds. The same thing happens when
glycerine is poured over powdered KMnO4.
In alkaline & neutral medium :
In strongly alkaline medium KMnO4 is reduced to manganate.
2KMnO4 + 2KOH (conc.) 2K2 MnO4 + H2O + [O]
or e– + MnO4– MnO42–
However if solution is dilute then K2MnO4 is converted in to MnO2 which appears as a brownish
precipitate.
2K2MnO4 + 2H2O 2MnO2 + 4KOH + 2[O]
or 2e– + 2H2O + MnO42– MnO2 + 4OH–
AIPMTDBC-12
This type of behaviour is shown by KMnO4 itself in neutral medium.

3e– + 2H2O + MnO4–  MnO2 + 4OH–
In alkaline or neutral medium KMnO4 shows following oxidising properties.
(a) It oxidises ethene to glycol.
In alkaline medium KMnO4 solution is also known as Bayer’s reagent (1% alkaline KMnO4
solution).
(b) It oxidises iodide into iodate.
3e– + 2H2O + MnO4–  MnO2 + 4OH– × [2]
6OH– + –  O3– + 3H2O + 6e–
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
2MnO4– + – + H2O  2MnO2 + O3– + 2OH–
(c) H2S is oxidised into sulphur :
2MnO4– + 3H2S  2MnO2 + 2OH– +2H2O + 3S
(d) Manganous salt is oxidised to MnO2 ; the presence of zinc sulphate or zinc oxide catalyses
the oxidation :
2MnO4– + 3Mn2+ + 2H2O  5MnO2 + 4H+
(e) In neutral/ faintly alkaline solution thiosulphate is quantitatively oxidised to sulphate.

8MnO4– + 3S2O32– + H2O  8MnO2 + 6SO42– + 2OH–
(f) In the presence of sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphite is oxidised in to sodium sulphate.
2MnO4– + 3SO32– + 3H2O  2MnO(OH)2 + 3SO42– + 2OH–.

 In acidic medium (in presence of dilute H2SO4) :
Manganous sulphate is formed. The solution becomes colourless.
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4  K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5[O]
or MnO4¯ + 8H+ + 5e–  Mn2+ + 4H2O
This medium is used in quantitative (volumetric) estimations. The equivalent mass of KMnO4 in
Molecular mass
acidic medium is = .
5
(a) Ferrous salts are oxidised to ferric salts.
MnO4¯ + 5Fe2+ + 8H+  5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
(b) Iodine is evolved from potassium iodide.
2MnO4¯ + 10I¯ + 16H+  2Mn2+ + 5I2 + 8H2O
(c) H2S is oxidised to sulphur :
2MnO4– + 16H+ + 5S2–  2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5S
(d) SO2 is oxidised to H2SO4 :
2MnO4– + 5SO2 + 2H2O  5SO42– + 2Mn2+ + 4H+
(e) Nitrites are oxidised to nitrates :
2MnO4– + 5NO2– + 6H+  2Mn2+ + 3H2O + 5NO3–
(f) Oxalic acid is oxidised to CO2 :
This reaction is slow at room temperature, but is rapid at 60ºC.
Mn(II) ions produced catalyse the reaction; thus the reaction is autocatalytic.
60 ºC
2MnO4– + 16H+ + 5C2O42–   2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2
AIPMTDBC-13
(g) HCHO is oxidised to HCOOH

2MnO4– + 5HCHO + 6H+  2Mn2+ + 5HCOOH + 3H2O.
(h) It oxidises hydrogen halides (HCl, HBr or HI) into X2 (halogen)
2MnO4– + 16H+ + 10X–  2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5X2
(i) H2O2 is oxidised to O2.
2MnO4– + 6H+ + 5H2O2  5O2 + Mn2+ + 8H2O.
Uses : It is used
(i) KMnO4 is used as an oxidising agent in laboratory and industry.
(ii) Alkaline potassium permanganate is called Bayer's reagent. This reagent is used in
organic chemistry for the test of unsaturation. KMnO4 is used in the manufacture of
saccharin, benzoic acid, acetaldehyde etc.
(iii) KMnO4 is used in qualitative analysis for detecting halides, sulphites, oxalates, etc.
4. POTASSIUM DICHROMATE (K2Cr2O7) :
Preparation :
The chromite ore is roasted with sodium carbonate in presence of air in a reverberatory furnace.
Roasting
4FeO. Cr2O3 (chromite ore) + 8Na2CO3/K2CO3 + 7O2   8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2
in air
(yellow)
The roasted mass is extracted with water when Na2CrO4 goes into the solution leaving behind
insoluble Fe2O3. The solution is then treated with calculated amount of H2SO4.
2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O
(Orange)
The solution is concentrated when less soluble Na2SO4 crystallises out. The solution is further
concentrated when crystals of Na2Cr2O7 are obtained. Hot saturated solution of Na2Cr2O7 is then treated
with KCl when orange red crystals of K2Cr2O7 are obtained on crystallisation. Sodium dichromate is
more soluble than potassium dichromate.
Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCI K2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl
K2Cr2O7 is preferred over Na2Cr2O7 as a primary standard in volumetric estimation because Na2Cr2O7 is
hygroscopic in nature but K2Cr2O7 is not.
Properties
(a) Physical :
It is orange-red coloured crystalline compound. It is moderately soluble in cold water but freely soluble
in hot water. It melts at 398°C.
Structure of Chromate and Dichromate ion
(b) Chemical :
(i) Effect of heating :
On heating strongly, it decomposes liberating oxygen.
3
2K2Cr2O7 2K2CrO4 + Cr2O3 + O2
2
AIPMTDBC-14
On heating with alkalies, it is converted to chromate, i.e., the colour changes from orange to yellow. On
acidifying, yellow colour again changes to orange.
K2Cr2O7 + 2KOH 2K2CrO4 + H2O

Cr2O 72  (Orange) + 2OH¯ 2CrO 24  (Yellow)+ H2O
2CrO 24  (Yellow) + 2H+ Cr2O 72  (Orange) + H2O
Thus CrO4 2–
and Cr2O72– exist in equilibrium and are interconvertable by altering the pH of
solution.
2CrO 24  + 2H+ 2HCrO4– Cr2O 72  + H2O
In alkaline solution, chromate ions are present while in acidic solution, dichromate ions are
present.
(ii) K2Cr2O7 + 2H2SO4 (conc. & cold) 2CrO3 (bright orange/red) + 2KHSO4 + H2O
 2K Cr O 2 2 7
+ 8H2SO4 (conc. & Hot) 2K2SO4 + 8H2O + 2Cr2(SO4)3 + 3O2
(iii) Acidified K2Cr2O7 solution reacts with H2O2 to give a deep blue solution due to the formation of
CrO5.
Cr2O72– + 2H+ + 4H2O2 2CrO5 + 5H2O
Blue colour in aqueous solution fades away slowly due to the decomposition of CrO5 to
Cr3+ ions and oxygen. In less acidic solution K2Cr2O7 and H2O2 give salt which is violet coloured
and diamagnetic due to the formation of [CrO(O2)(OH)]–.
(iv) Potassium dichromate reacts with hydrochloric acid and evolves chlorine gas.
K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl  2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 7H2O + 3Cl2
(v) It acts as a powerful oxidising agent in acidic medium (dilute H2SO4)
Cr2O 72  + 14H+ + 6e– 2Cr+3 + 7H2O. (Eº = 1.33 V)
The oxidation state of Cr changes from + 6 to +3.
(a) Iodine is liberated from potassium iodide :
Cr2O 72  + 14H+ + 6e– 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
2– 2 + 2e– × [3]
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Cr2O 72  + 14H+ + 6¯ 2Cr3+ + 32 + 7H2O
(b) Ferrous salts are oxidised to ferric salts :
6Fe2+ + Cr2O 72  + 14H+ 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
(c) Sulphites are oxidised to sulphates :
Cr2O 72  + 3SO 32  + 8H+ 3SO 24  + 2Cr3+ + 4H2O
(d) H2S is oxidised to sulphur :
Cr2O 72  + 3H2S + 8H+ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 3S
(e) SO2 is oxidised to H2SO4 :
Cr2O72– + 3SO2 + 2H+ 2Cr3+ + 3SO42– + H2O ;
Chrome alum is obtained when acidified K2Cr2O7 solution is saturated with SO2.
T  70 ºC
 K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + 3SO2 + 23H2O    K2SO4 . Cr2(SO4)3 . 24H2O
(f) It oxidises ethylalcohol to acetaldehyde and acetaldehyde to acetic acid
[O ] [O ]
C2H5OH   CH3CHO  CH3COOH
ethyl alcohol acetaldehyde acetic acid
(g) It also oxidises nitrites to nitrates, arsenites to arsenates, HBr to Br2. HI to I2, etc.

(h) K2Cr2O7 + 2C (charcoal)  Cr2O3 + K2CO3 + CO 
AIPMTDBC-15
(vi) Chromyl chloride test : 4Cl– + Cr2O72– + 6H+ 2CrO2Cl2  (deep red) + 3H2O
CrO2Cl2 + 4OH– CrO42– (yellow) + 2Cl– + 2H2O
CrO42– (yellow) + Pb2+ PbCrO4  (yellow)
(vii) Cr2O7 (concentrated solution) + 2Ag+ Ag2Cr2O7  (reddish brown)
2–
boil
Ag2Cr2O7  + H2O  Ag2CrO4 + CrO42– + 2H+ .
(viii) Cr2O72– + Ba2+ + H2O 2BaCrO4+ 2H+
As strong acid is produced, the precipitation is only partial. But if NaOH or CH3COONa is
added, precipitate becomes quantitative.
Uses : It is used :
(i) as a volumetric reagent in the estimation of reducing agents such as oxalic acid,
ferrous ions, iodide ions, etc. It is used as a primary standard.
(ii) for the preparation of several chromium compounds such as chrome alum, chrome
yellow, chrome red, zinc yellow, etc.
(iii) in dyeing, chrome tanning, calico printing, photography etc.
(iv) as a cleansing agent for glass ware in the form of chromic acid.
(iv) in leather industry and as an oxidant for preparation of azo compounds.
f-block elements
Differentiating electrons enters in (n – 2)f subshell.
f-block elements lie on the Bottom portion of periodic table.
S.No. Properties DISCRIPTION
All the f-block elements are heavy metals.
General
1. It shows high melting and boiling point.
character’s
The most common oxidation state of these elements is +3.
No. of
2. Total number of f-block elements – (28)
elements
IIIB/3rd group is called longest group having 32 elements including 14
Lanthanides and 14 Actinides.
III B/ 3rd
3. Groups Sc
Y
La Lanthanides (14) Ce58 – Lu71
Ac Actinides (14) Th90 – Lr103
Lanthanide series 4f1 – 14 5d0 or 1 6s2

4. E.C.
Actinide series 5f1 – 14 6d0 or 1 7s2
Period III B/ 3rd
Sc
5. Period Y
th
6 period La Lanthanides (14) Ce58 – Lu71
7th period Ac Actinides (14) Th90 – Lr103
The elements in which all the three shells that is ultimate (n) penultimate (n– 1)
Inner and pre or antipenultimate (n – 2) shell are incomplete are called inner
6. transition transition elements.Ce58 = [Xe] 6s2, 5d1, 4f1
elements
Inner transition elements are divided into two series.
AIPMTDBC-16
Ce58 – Lu71 14 elements

(i)
Lanthanides are found rarely on earth so these are called rare earth metals.
Lanthanide
The first element of this series is Cerium and not Lanthanum.
series or
In these elements, last electron enters into 4f subshell.
Rare earth
They are present in IIIB group and 6th period of the periodic table.
elements or
Promethium (61Pm) is the only lanthanide which is synthetic and radioactive in
Lanthenones
nature.
Th90 – Lr10314 elements.
All the actinides are radioactive elements.
The first element of this series is Thorium and not Actinium.
In these elements, last electron enters into 5f subshell.
th
(ii) Actinide They are present in IIIB group and 7 period of the periodic table.
series or All the actinides are radioactive in nature.
Man made First three elements (Th, Pa, U) are found in nature while others are synthetic
elements or in nature.
Actinones Transuranic actinides are man-made elements (Np93 – Lw103)
After U92 i.e. from Np93 onwards elements are called transuranic elements
because
(i) They are heavier than uranium.
(ii) They are derived from uranium by nuclear reactions.
The Lanthanides : The names, symbols, electronic configurations of atomic and some ionic states and
atomic and ionic radii of lanthanum and lanthanide (for which the general symbol Ln is used) are given
in Table.
Electronic Configurations : It may be noted that atoms of these elements have electronic
2
configuration with 6s common but with variable occupancy of 4f level (Table). However, the electronic
configurations of all the tripositive ions (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanides) are of the
form 4fn (n = 1 to 14 with increasing atomic number).
Atomic and Ionic Sizes : The overall decrease in
atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to lutetium (the
lanthanide contraction). The shielding of one 4 f
electron by another is less than one d electron by
another with the increase in nuclear charge along the
series. There is fairly regular decrease in the sizes with
increasing atomic number. The cumulative effect of the
contraction of the lanthanide series, known as
lanthanide contraction, causes the radii of the
members of the third transition series to be very similar
to those of the corresponding members of the second
series. The almost identical radii of Zr (160 pm) and Hf
(159 pm), a consequence of the lanthanide
contraction.
Oxidation States : In the lanthanides, La(III) and
Ln(III) compounds are predominant species. However,
occasionally +2 and +4 ions in solution or in solid
compounds are also obtained.
This irregularity (as in ionisation enthalpies) arises
mainly from the extra stability of empty, half-filled or
IV
filled f subshell. Thus, the formation of Ce is favoured
by its noble gas configuration, but it is a strong oxidant
reverting to the common +3 state. The EÈ value for
Ce4+/ Ce3+ is + 1.74 V which suggests that it can
oxidise water. However, the reaction rate is very slow and hence Ce(IV) is a good analytical reagent.
2+
Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy also exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2. Eu is formed by losing the two s
7
electrons and its f configuration accounts for the formation of this ion.
AIPMTDBC-17
However, Eu2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the common +3 state. Similarly Yb2+ which has f
14 configuration is a reductant.
IV
Tb has half-filled f-orbitals and is an oxidant. The behaviour of samarium is very much like europium,
exhibiting both +2 and +3 oxidation states.
Table :- Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanides

Atomic Electronic configurations* Radii/pm
Name symbol
Number Ln Ln2+ Ln3+ Ln4+ Ln Ln3+
1 2 1 0
57 Lanthanum La 5d 6s 5d 4f 187 106
58 Cerium Ce 4f15d16s2 4f2 4f1 4f0 183 103
59 Praseodymium Pr 4f36s2 4f3 4f2 4f1 182 101
4 2 4 3
60 Neodymium Nd 4f 6s 4f 4f 4f2 181 99
61 Promethium Pm 4f56s2 4f5 4f4 181 98
62 Samarium Sm 4f66s2 4f6 4f5 180 96
63 Europium Eu 4f76f2 4f7 4f6 199 95
64 Gadolinium Gd 4f75d16s2 4f75d1 4f7 180 94
65 Terbium Tb 4f96s2 4f9 4f8 4f7 178 92
66 Dysprosium Dy 4f106s2 4f10 4f9 4f8 177 91
11 2 11 10
67 Holmium Ho 4f 6s 4f 4f 176 89
68 Erbium Er 4f126s2 4f12 4f11 175 88
69 Thulium Tm 4f136s2 4f13 4f12 174 87
70 Ytterbium Yb 4f146s2 4f14 4f13 173 86
71 Lutetium Lu 4f145d16s2 4f145d1 4f14 - - -
General Characteristics :
All the lanthanides are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air.
The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, samarium being steel hard.
Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but samarium melts at 1623 K.
They have typical metallic structure and are good conductors of heat and electricity. Density and other
properties change smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm.
Many trivalent lanthanide ions are coloured both in the solid state and in aqueous solutions. Colour of
these ions may be attributed to the presence of f electrons. Neither La3+ nor Lu3+ ion shows any colour
but the rest do so. However, absorption bands are narrow, probably because of the excitation within f
level.
The lanthanide ions other than the f° type (La3+ and Ce4+) and the f14 type (Yb2+ and Lu3+) are all
paramagnetic. The paramagnetism rises to maximum in neodymium.
The first ionisation enthalpies of the lanthanides are around
–1 –1
600 kJ mol , the second about 1200 kJ mol comparable
with those of calcium.
A detailed discussion of the variation of the third ionisation
enthalpies indicates that the exchange enthalpy
consideration (as in 3d orbitals of the first transition series),
appear to impart a certain degree of stability to empty, half-
filled and completely filled orbitals f level. This is indicated
from the abnormally low value of the third ionization enthalpy
of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium.
In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members

of the series are quite reactive similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic number, they behave more
like aluminium.
Values for E– for the half-reaction:

3+
Ln (aq) + 3e− → Ln(s) are in the range of –2.2 to –2.4 V except for Eu for which the value is – 2.0 V.
This is, of course, a small variation.
The metals combine with hydrogen when gently heated in the gas.
The carbides, Ln3C, Ln2C3 and LnC2 are formed when the metals are heated with carbon.
They liberate hydrogen from dilute acids and burn in halogens to form halides.
AIPMTDBC-18
They form oxides M2O3 and hydroxides M (OH)3. The hydroxides are definite compounds, not just
hydrated oxides.
They are basic like alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides.
The best single use of the lanthanides is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes. A well
known alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanide metal (~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of
S, C, Ca and Al. A good deal of mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint. Mixed oxides of lanthanides are employed as catalysts in petroleum cracking. Some
individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors in television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces.
The Actinides :
The actinides include the fourteen elements from Th to Lr. The names, symbols and some properties of
these elements are given in Table.
Table : Electronic Configurations and Radii of Actinium and Actinoids

Atomic Name Electronic configurations* Radii/pm
symbol
Number M M3+ M4+ M3+ M 4+
1 2 0
89 Actinium AC 6d 7s 5f 111
90 Thorium Th 6d27s2 5f1 5f0 99
91 Proctactiniium Pa 5f26d17s2 5f2 5f1 96
92 Uranium U 5f36d17s2 5f3 5f2 103 93
93 Neptunium Np 5f46d17s2 5f4 5f3 101 92
94 Plutonium Pu 5f67s2 5f5 5f4 100 90
95 Americium Am 5f77s2 5f6 5f5 99 89
96 Curium Cm 5f76d17s2 5f7 5f7 99 88
97 Berkelium Bk 5f97s2 5f8 5f7 98 87
98 Californium Cf 5f107s2 5f9 5f8 98 86
99 Einstenium Es 5f117s2 5f10 5f9 - -
100 Fermium Fm 5f127s2 5f11 5f10 - -
101 Mendelevium Md 5f137s2 5f12 5f11 - -
14 2 13
102 Nobelium No 5f 7s 5f 5f12 - -
103 Lawrencium Lr 5f146s17s2 5f14 5f13 - -
The actinides are radioactive elements and the earlier members have relatively long half-lives, the latter
ones have half-life values ranging from a day to 3 minutes for lawrencium (Z =103). The latter members
could be prepared only in nanogram quantities. These facts render their study more difficult.
Electronic Configurations :
2
All the actinides are believed to have the electronic configuration of 7s and variable occupancy of the
5f and 6d subshells.
The fourteen electrons are formally added to 5f, though not in thorium (Z = 90) but from Pa onwards the
5f orbitals are complete at element 103.
The irregularities in the electronic configurations of the actinides, like those in the lanthanides are
related to the stabilities of the f° , f7 and f14 occupancies of the 5f orbitals. Thus, the configurations of
Am and Cm are [Rn] 5f77s2 and [Rn] 5f7 6d1 7s2 .
Although the 5f orbitals resemble the 4f orbitals in their angular part of the wave-function, they are not
as buried as 4f orbitals and hence 5f electrons can participate in bonding to a far greater extent.
Ionic Sizes :
The general trend in lanthanides is observable in the actinides as well. There is a gradual decrease in
the size of atoms or M3+ ions across the series. This may be referred to as the actinide contraction (like
lanthanide contraction). The contraction is, however, greater from element to element in this series
resulting from poor shielding by 5f electrons.
Oxidation States :
There is a greater range of oxidation states, which is in part attributed to the fact that the 5f, 6d and 7s
levels are of comparable energies. The known oxidation states of actinides are listed in Table.
AIPMTDBC-19
Table : Oxidation States of Actinium and Actinides

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7
The actinides show in general +3 oxidation state.
The elements, in the first half of the series frequently exhibit higher oxidation states. For example, the
maximum oxidation state increases from +4 in Th to +5, +6 and +7 respectively in Pa, U and Np but
decreases in succeeding elements.
The actinides resemble the lanthanides in having more compounds in +3 state than in the +4 state.
However, +3 and +4 ions tend to hydrolyse.
Because the distribution of oxidation states among the actinides is so uneven and so different for the
earlier and latter elements, it is unsatisfactory to review their chemistry in terms of oxidation states.
General Characteristics and Comparison with Lanthanides :
The actinide metals are all silvery in appearance but display a variety of structures. The structural
variability is obtained due to irregularities in metallic radii which are far greater than in lanthanides.
The actinides are highly reactive metals, especially when finely divided. The action of boiling water on
them, for example, gives a mixture of oxide and hydride and combination with most non metals takes
place at moderate temperatures. Hydrochloric acid attacks all metals but most are slightly affected by
nitric acid owing to the formation of protective oxide layers; alkalies have no action.
The magnetic properties of the actinides are more complex than those of the lanthanides. Although the
variation in the magnetic susceptibility of the actinides with the number of unpaired 5 f electrons is
roughly parallel to the corresponding results for the lanthanides, the latter have higher values.
It is evident from the behaviour of the actinides that the ionisation enthalpies of the early actinides,
though not accurately known, but are lower than for the early lanthanides. This is quite reasonable
since it is to be expected that when 5f orbitals are beginning to be occupied, they will penetrate less
into the inner core of electrons. The 5f electrons, will therefore, be more effectively shielded from the
nuclear charge than the 4f electrons of the corresponding lanthanides. Because the outer electrons are
less firmly held, they are available for bonding in the actinides.
A comparison of the actinides with the lanthanides, with respect to different characteristics as
discussed above, reveals that behaviour similar to that of the lanthanides is not evident until the second
half of the actinide series. However, even the early actinides resemble the lanthanides in showing close
similarities with each other and in gradual variation in properties which do not entail change in oxidation
state. The lanthanide and actinide contractions, have extended effects on the sizes, and therefore, the
properties of the elements succeeding them in their respective periods. The lanthanide contraction is
more important because the chemistry of elements succeeding the actinides are much less known at
the present time.
Some Applications of d- and f-Block Elements :
Iron and steels are the most important construction materials. Their production is based on the
reduction of iron oxides, the removal of impurities and the addition of carbon and alloying metals such
as Cr, Mn and Ni.
TiO for the pigment industry and MnO2 for use in dry battery cells. The battery industry also requires Zn
and Ni/Cd.
The ‘silver’ UK coins are a Cu/Ni alloy.
AIPMTDBC-20
rRo Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
ijek.oh; la[;k 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
by sDVªkWfud vfHkfoU;kl
1 2 2 2 3 2 5 1 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 10 1 10 2
M 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s
+ 1 1 2 1 3 1 5 5 1 6 1 8 1 10 10 1
M 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d74s1 3d 4s 3d 3d 4s
2+ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
M 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d
3+ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
M [Ar] 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d – –
ijek.kqd rk d h ,UFksYih, ÄaH / kJ mol
 –1
326 473 515 397 281 416 425 430 339 126
vk;uu ,UFksYih / ÄiH– / kJ mol–1
ÄiH I 631 656 650 653 717 762 758 736 745 906
ÄiH II 1235 1309 1414 1592 1509 1561 1644 1752 1958 1734
ÄiH III 2393 2657 2833 2990 3260 2962 3243 3402 3556 3829
/kkfRod @vk;fud M 164 147 135 129 137 126 125 125 128 137
f=kT;k(pm) M 2+
– – 79 82 82 77 74 70 73 75
M3+ 73 67 64 62 65 65 61 60 – –
ekud by s DVªkWM – –1.63 –1.18 –0.90 –1.18 –0.44 –0.28 –0.25 +0.34 –0.76
foHko E / V
 3+
M /M
2+
– –0.37 –0.26 –0.41 +1.57 +0.77 +1.97 – – –
?kUkRo /g cm–3 3.43 4.1 6.07 7.19 7.21 7.8 8.7 8.9 8.9 7.1
d-Cy kW
d rRo
v fUre by sDVªkWu (n – 1)d mid ks'k esaizos'k d jrk gSA d-Cy kWd rRo v korZlkj.kh d se/; esafLFkr gksrsgSaA
lkekU; ifjp;
1. izkfIr rhu laØ e.k /kkrq,aHkwiiZVh esavf/kd izp wjrk esaik;h t krh gSA
Fe  Hkw
iiZVh esaHkkjkuql kj 4th lokZf/kd izp wj rRo gSA
iiZVh esaHkkjkuql kj 5th lokZf/kd izp wj rRo gSA
Ti  Hkw
Mn  HkwiiZVh esaHkkjkuql kj 12th lokZf/kd izp wj rRo gSA
izFke iafDr le ijek.kqØ ekad ;qDr rRo Mn Z = 25) fo"ke ijek.kqØ ekad ;qDr bud siM+kSl h rRoksa
lslkekU;r% vf/kd izp wj gksrsgSaA y sfd u Mn Hkkjkuql kj 12th lokZf/kd izp wj rRo gSA
f}rh; rFkk rr̀h; izFke d- Js.kh rRoksaeasd e izp wj

Tc  iz d f̀r esaizkIr ughagksrk
iafDr f}rh; rFkk rr̀h; iafDr d svfUre N% lnL; HkwiiZVh eas0.16 ppm lsd e izkIr gksrsgSaA
flDd k /kkrq,a Cu, Ag rFkkAu flDd k /kkrq ,ad gy krh gSaA
mRd `"B /kkrq,a Cu, Ag, Au, Hg rFkkPt
d qy d- Cy kWd rRo – (40)
2. rRoksad h l a[;k d qy laØ e.k rRo – (36). ;fn vkorZlkj.kh eas112 rRo lfEefy r gSaA
(Zn, Cd, Hg rFkkUub d ksNks M +d j)
3. oxZ IIIB lsVIIB, VIII, IB, IIB ;k 3 ls12 (IUPAC).
th
4th ls7
th
4 vkorZ 3d- Js
.kh(Sc - Zn )
th
4. v korZ 5 vkorZ 4d- Js
.kh(Y - Cd )
6th vkorZ 5d- Js
.kh(La - Hg )
7th vkorZ 6d- Js
.kh(Ac - Uub )
AIPMTDBC-1
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
v kofrZrk izof̀r rFkk jklk;fud xq

.k
Ø-
xq.k fooj.k
la-
lHkh laØ e.k rRo /kkrqgksrsgSaA blfy , ;g leLr /kkfRod xq.k n'kkZrsgSaA Å "ek rFkk
fo|qr d slqp ky d A /kkfRod ped ] izcy rFkk rU;A
1 /kkfRod xq.k Zn, Cd, Hg, Mn d sviokn d slkFk lHkh la Ø e.k /kkrq;sa--- ;k vf/kd fu;fer /kkfRod
lajpuk j[krh gSA
laØ e.k /kkrq;sad Bksj gksrh gSrFkk fuEu ok"i'khy rk j[krh gSA (viokn Zn, Cd rFkkHg)A
laØ e.k /kkrqv ksad h t ky d l ajpuk;sa¼l kj.kh&1½
hcp hcp bcc bcc X bcc ccp ccp ccp X

(bcc) (bcc) (bcc,ccp) (hcp) (hcp) (hcp)
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
Hcp hcp bcc bcc hcp hcp ccp ccp ccp X
(bcc) (bcc) (hcp)
La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
hcp hcp bcc bcc hcp hcp ccp ccp ccp X
(ccp, bcc) (bcc)
bcc = d k;d s
fUnzr ?kuh; ; hcp = "kV~d ks.kh; fufcM lad qy u
ccp = ?kuh; fufcM l ad qy u ; X = ,d izk: fid /kkfRod lajpuk
by sDVªkWfud
2 (n – 1)d1 – 10 ns1 or 2
v fHkfoU;kl
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
3d Series Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
1 2 2 2 3 2 5 1 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 10 1
3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d104s2
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
4d Series Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
1 2 2 2 4 1 5 1 5 2 7 1 8 1 10 10 1
4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 4d 4s 4d104s2
57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
5d Series La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
5d16s2 4f145d26s2 5d36s2 5d46s2 5d56s2 5d66s2 5d76s2 5d96s1 5d106s1 5d106s2
89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
6d Series Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
6d17s1
by sDVªkWu mikUr; d ks'k easHkjs t krsgSa] bl izd kj cká by sDVªkWfud vfHkfoU;kl leku
jgrk gS] d qN fLFkfr;ksaesaviokn d slkFk] mnk- Cr rFkkCu.
Cr rFkk Cu by sDVªkWu vfHkfoU;kl d h vkisf{kd O;oLFkk d ks cny us ls v) Ziwfjr rFkk

iw.kZiwfjr by sDVªkWfud vfHkfoU;kl d ksvfrfjDr LFkkf;Ro iznku d jrsgSaA
f}rh; rFkk rr̀h; iafDr d h by sDVªkWfud lajpuk lnSo izFke iafDr d h O;oLFkk d k
vuql j.k ughad jrh gS
mnk- oxZ10
AIPMTDBC-2
Ni 3d8 4s2
Pd 4d105s0
Pt 5d9 6s1
d-d {kd Cu, Pd, Ag, Au d sfy , iw
.kZgksrsgSaA
Ni (3d8 4s2) Cu(3d104s1) Zn(3d104s2)
Pd(4d 5s )
10 0
Ag(4d 5s )
10 1
Cd(4d105s2)
;|fi ijek.kqd h vk| voLFkk Pd d k d rFkk fl Dd k /kkrq;saizk: fid
10
laØ e.k rRoksad s
leku O;ogkj d jrh gSD;ksafd bud h lokZf/kd lkekU; vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk eas;g viw.kZ
d-d {kd j[krh gS aA
laØ e.k rRoksad ksbl izd kj ifjHkkf"kr d jrsgSafd og rRo t ksbld h vk| voLFkk eas;k
bld h fd lh Hkh ,d vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk easviw.kZiwfjr d- d {kd j[krk gSA
oxZ 12 d s ft ad ] d sM fe;e rFkk ed Zjh bld h vk| voLFkk esa o bld h lkekU;
l aØ e.k rRo vkWDl hd j.k voLFkk esaiw.kZd10 vfHkfoU;kl j[krh gSarFkk blfy , bUgsalaØ e.k rRoksad s
laxr ughaekursgSaA
lHkh laØ e.k rRo d- Cy kWd rRo gksrsgSay sfd u lHkh d- Cy kWd rRo laØ e.k rRo ugha
gksrsgSaA ( NCERT d svuql kj )
ijek.kqrFkk v k;uksa laØ e.k Js.kh esa (mnk- izFke laØ e.k Js.kh esa), rRoksa d h lgla;kst d f=kT;k fljs d s
3
d k v kd kj ut nhd igqap usrd ,d iafDr eascka;salsnka;h vksj ?kVrh gS] t c vkd kj d qN c<+rk gSA
ck;salsnk;sat kusij vfrfjDr izksVkWu ukfHkd easfLFkr gksrsgSarFkk vfrfjDr by sDVªkWu
bllsfey k;st krsgSaA d {kd by sDVªkWu ukfHkd vkos'k d ksviw.kZ: i lsifjjf{kr d jrsgSaA
bl izd kj ukfHkd h; vkos'k lHkh by sDVªkWuksa d ks vf/kd n`<+rk ls vkd f"kZr d jrk gSA
blfy , vkd kj easlad qp u izkIr gksrk gSA Cr ls Cu rd rRoksad h f=kT;k;sa,d nwl jsd s
vf/kd fud V gksrh gSA D;ksafd fey k;sx;svfrfjDr by sDVªkWu] by sDVªkWuksad se/; izfrd "kZ.k
d-d {kd l ad qp u d ksc<+krsgSarFkk x.kd (counter) cká re by sDVªkWuksa(4s) ij c<+sgq, ukfHkd h;vkos'k d ks
larqfy r d jrs gSaA bld s ifj.kkeLo: i Cr lsCu d h vksj xfr d jus ij ijek.kq d k
vkd kj vf/kd ifjofrZr ughagksrk gSrFkk ft ad d sfy , ;g izfrd "kZ.k ukfHkd h; vkos'k ij
izHkkoh gksrk gSvr% vkd kj d qN c<+t krk gSA
rRo Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
ijekf.o;
144 132 122 117 117 117 116 115 117 125
f=kT;k(pm)
t Sl s gh ge y sUFksukbM Js.kh d s vuqfn'k xfr d jrs gSa] rks izR;sd Ø ekxr rRo ij
ukfHkd h; vkos'k ,d bd kbZlsc<+rk gSA blh mid ks'k(4f) eas,d u;k by sDVªkWu fey k;k
t krk gSA ifj.kkeLo: i ukfHkd }kjk by sDVªkWuksa ij vkd "kZ.k c<+rk gS rFkk ;g izd f̀r
y SUFksukbM lad qp u vkd kj d ksd e d jrh gSA vkxst Sl sgh f-mid ks'k esau;k by sDVªkWu fey krsgSa] rksbu f-
mid ks'kksad h vkd f̀r d sd kj.k bl mid ks'k esavU; }kjk ,d by sDVªkWu viw.kZifjj{k.k
gksrk gSA ;g viw.kZifjj{k.k c<+sgq, ukfHkd h; vkos'k d sizHkko d sx.kd larqy u esavleFkZ
gksrk gSA blfy , d eh d s}kjk vkd kj easlad qp u d qy ifj.kke cgqr d e gksrk gSA
AIPMTDBC-3
Ti < Zr  Hf (y s
UFksukbM l ad qp u)
Sc < Y < La
y sUFksukbM l ad qp u d sd kj.k 4d rFkk5d Js.kh d srRo ,d fo'ks"k l ewg l sl EcfU/kr gksrsgSat ksizk;% l eku
ijek.oh; f=kT;k j[krk gSmnk- Zr Hf, Tc  Re, Nb Ta, Ru  Os etc.
laØ e.k /kkrqv ksad h
4
v k;uu Å t kZ,a
d-Cy kW
d rRoksad h izFke vk;uu Å t kZ;sa(la[;kRed eku kJ mol-1 esafn;sx;sgSaA ).
(i) iz
Fke pkj 3d-Cy kWd rRoksa(Sc,Ti,V rFkk Cr) d k izFke vk;uu foHko ,d nwl jsls
AIPMTDBC-4
d soy d qN fHkUu gksrk gSA

(ii) blh iz d kj Fe, Co, Ni rFkkCu izFke vk;uu Å t kZeku Hkh ,d nwl jsd svf/kd
fud V gksrsgSaA
(iii) Zn d h izFke vk;uu Å t kZd k eku 3d104s2 Lrj t ksZn ijek.kqeasiw.kZr% Hkj gksrk
gSA d svfrfjDr LFkkf;Ro d sd kj.k mPp ekuk t krk gSA
(iv) Mn d h iz Fke vk;uu Å t kZ v) Ziwfjr LFkk;h vfHkfoU;kl d s d kj.k 3d Js.kh esa
fud VorhZrRoksalsd qN mPp gksrh gSA
(v) Cr rFkk Cu d sfy , f}rh; vk;uu Å t kZeku mPp gks rsgSaD;ksafd Cr rFkk Cu+
5 10
vk;u 3d rFkk3d vfHkfoU;kl d sd kj.k vfrfjDr LFkk;h gksrsgSaA
(vi) mnxzLrEHkks aesavk;uu Å t kZizFke lnL; lsf}rh; lnL; rd ?kVrh gSA
(vii) ;|fi rr̀h; lnL; (5d JS .kh) y sUFksukbM lad qp u d sd kj.k f}rh; lnL; (4d-JS.kh)
lsmPp eku j[krk gSA
vk;uu Å t kZ¼rr̀h; laØ e.k JS.kh½ > vk;uu Å t kZ ¼f}rh; laØ e.k JS.kh½ > vk;uu
Å t kZ¼izFke laØ e.k JS.kh½
5 v kWDl hd j.k v oLFkk ;g ifjorZu'khy vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk n'kkZrsgSaA
+1 +1
(a)
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3
(b)
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
+5 +5 +5
+6 +6 +6
+7
(a) vEy h; ek/;e (b) {kkjh;
ek/;e
* Nk;kafd r voLFkk izfl) voLFkk;sagSaA
* v/kks
js[kkafd r voLFkk lokZf/kd LFkk;h voLFkk;sagSaA
vkWDl hd j.k voLFkk;sa 1 d h bd kb;ksa esa cny rh gS bld s foifjr p-Cy kWd rRoksa eas
vkWDl hd j.k voLFkk lkekU;r% 2 d h bd kb;ksalsfHkUu gksrh gSA
v kWDlhd j.k v oLFkk d h izof̀Rr
3d-JS .kh rRoksad h mPpre vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk d ksn + 2 }kjk ifjd fy r d j ld rsgSaA
(t gkan = v;q fXer by sDVªkWuksad h la[;k) ;g Cr rFkkCu d sfy , iz;qDr ughagksrh gSA
0 5 10
d , d ;kd d sleku LFkk;h foU;kl j[kusoky sla Ø e.k /kkrqvk;u vf/kd LFkk;h gksrs
gSaA mnk- Sc+3, Ti+4, V+5 Fe+3, Mn+2, Zn+2 bR;kf/kd
laØ e.k rRoksaesalokZf/kd lkekU; vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk +2 gSA
'4d' rFkk'5d' JS .kh d slaØ e.k rRoksa}kjk n'kkZ;h x;h mPpre vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk Ru
(44) rFkk Os (76) }kjk +8 gS A
mPpre vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk (+4, +5, +6, +7, +8) vkWDlkbM rFkk vkWDlh¶y ksjkbM d s
;kSfxd ksaesaik;h t krh gSA D;ksafd ¶y ksjhu rFkk vkWDlht u lokZf/kd oS| qr+_ .kh rRo rFkk
Js.kh vkWDlhd kjh gksrsgSaA
7 6 6 4 6 6
mnkgj.k MnO4 ,Cr 2 O72 ,Cr O24 ,MnO2 ,MnO 24 ,Cr O2F2
fuEu vkWd lhd j.k voLFkk ;|fi _ .kkRed (-2, -1, 0, +1) HkhNi(CO)4 rFkkFe(CO)5 d s
fluft Zd ca/ku d h ?kVuk d s d kj.k d kcZu eksuksv kWDl kbM rFkk MkbZfijhMhu izd kj d s
ca
/ku fy xs.Mksa}kjk LFkkuhd r̀ gksrh gSA Ni rFkk Fe d h vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk 'kwU; gksrh
gSA ;g fuEu vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk easvk;fud ;kSfxd rFkk mPp vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk esa
lgla;kst d ;kSfxd cukrsgSaA
3d /kkrq
v ksad sgSy kbM rRo
AIPMTDBC-5
d qat h : X = F →I; X1 = F → Br; XII = F, Cl; XIII =Cl→I

v kWDlhd j.k l a[;k Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
+6 CrF6
+5 VF5 CrF5
+4 TiX4 VX14 CrX4 MnF4
+3 TiX3 VX3 CrX3 MnF3 FeXI3 CoF3
III II
+2 TiX2 VX2 CrX2 MnX2 FeX2 CoX2 NiX2 CuX2 ZnX2
+1 CuXIII
3d /kkrq
v ksad sv kWDlkbMksad slw=k (* fefJr v kWDl kbM )
v kWDlh
d j.k Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
l a[;k
+7 Mn2O7
+6 CrO3
+5 V2 O 5
+4 TiO2 V2 O 4 CrO2 MnO2
+3 Sc2O3 Ti2O3 V2 O 3 Cr2O3 Mn2O3 Fe2O3
Mn3O4* Fe3O4* Co3O4*
+2 TiO VO (CrO) MnO FeO CoO NiO CuO ZnO
Cu2O
vusd laØ e.k rRoksad svk;fud rFkk lgla;kst d ;kSfxd jaxhu gksrsgSaA ;g fofHkUu jaxhu
;kSfxd cukrsgSaA ;kSfxd ft uesa/kkrqvk;u v;qfXer by sDVªkWu j[krsgSa] og ;kSfxd jaxhu
gksld rsgSaA t c fuEu Å t kZd-d {kd ls,d by sDVªkWu mPp Å t kZd-d {kd esamRrsft r
6 jax
gksrk gS] ;fn mRrst u d h Å t kZn`'; ijkl esafLFkr gS] rkslEiwjd jax izsf{kr gksrk gSA
gSA Mn d s d10 d sckot wn MnO4- jaxhu gksrk gSA ,sl k d–d laØ e.k d sd kj.k ughagksrk
gSA y sfd u ,sl k Mn rFkkO d se/; vkos'k LFkkukUrj.k d sd kj.k lEiUu gksrk gSA
Oxidation
State
(I) Colurless
(II) Blue Pink Green Pink Green Blue Colurless
(III) Colurless Purple Green Green Violet Yellow Blue
(IV) Colurless Blue
7 by sDVªksM foHko
0 ;gkabu ekuksaesafu;fer izof̀r gksrh gSA ;g vk;uu ,UFksfYi;ksa(IE1 + IE2) ] t y ;kst u
EM 2
/M Å t kZv ksarFkk vkorZesam/oZikru Å t kZv ksad svfu;fer vUrj d h fo'ks"krk crkrk gSA
Element (M) aHq (M)  f H1 1H2 hydH (M2+) E /V
Ti 469 661 1310 -1866 -1.63
V 515 648 1370 -1895 -1.18
Cr 398 653 1590 -1925 -0.90
Mn 279 716 1510 -1862 -1.18
Fe 418 762 1560 -1998 -0.44
Co 427 757 1640 -2079 -0.28
Ni 431 736 1750 -2121 -0.25
Cu 339 745 1960 -2121 0.34
Zn 130 908 1730 -2059 -0.76
AIPMTDBC-6
2+
Mn esav) Ziwfjr d-mid ks'k rFkk Zn2+ esaiw.kZiwfjr 1010 foU;kl d k LFkkf;Ro bud sE
ekuksalslEcfU/kr gksrk gSt cfd Ni d sfy , E eku mPpre _ .kkRed t y ;kst u Å t kZ
lslEcfU/kr gksrk gSA
;g /;ku j[ksfd laØ e.k /kkrqv ksad k by sDVªkWM foHko oxZ2 (mnk- Ca = –2.87 V, laØ e.k
rRo vf/kd vk;uu ,UFksYih rFkk ijekf.o;d j.k d h cgqr vf/kd ,UFksYih j[krsgSaA½ d s
rRoksad h rqy uk esad e gksrk gSA oxZ2 d srRoksad h rqy ukea;g bud sby sDVªkWM foHkod ks
d e d jrsgSaft llsbud h t y ;kst u ,UFksYih vf/kd gksrh gSA
0
EM 3
/ M2 
AIPMTDBC-7
0
EM 2
/ M rFkk
0
EM 3
/ M2  d k
rq
y ukRed xzkQ
0
ERe d d k xz
kQ
Sc d k fuEu eku Sc3+ ] t ksmRd `"B xSl foU;kl j[krk gS] d sLFkkf;Ro d ksn'kkZrk gSA
Zn d k mPpre eku Zn+2 d sLFkk;h d10 foU;kl ls,d by sDVªkWu d sfud y usd sd kj.k
gksrk gSA
Mn d k rq y ukRed mPp eku Mn2+ (d5) fo'ks"kr% LFkk;h gksrk gSA Fe d k rqy ukRed U;wu
eku Fe3+ (d5) d svfrfjDr LFkkf;Ro d ksn'kkZrk gSA
vkorZesacka;salsnka;st kusij ijekf.o; vk;ru ?kVrk gSrFkk ijekf.o; nzO;eku c<+rk
gSA blfy , vkorZ eas ?kuRo Hkh c<+rs gSaA vfUre rRo ft ad (Zn) ,d viokn gS] t ks
8 ?kuRo vf/kd ijekf.o; vk;ru j[krk gSrFkk blfy , bld k fuEu ?kuRo gksrk gS
mPpre ?kuRo oky srRo gSa&
vkWfLe;e (Os) = 22.51 g/cm3 , bfjfM;e (Ir) = 22.61 g/cm3
mPp xy ukad vUrjkijekf.o; /kkfRod ca/ku esa ns by sDVªkWuksaesa DoFkukad (n–1)d d s
by sDVªkWuksad st qM+usd h fo'ks"krk crkrk gSA bl izd kj d5 d sfy , mPpre gksrk gS] Mn,
rFkk Tc d svlaxr eku d ksNksM +d j bud sfy , xy ukad fujUrj d e gksrk gSA xy ukad
xy ukad rFkk rFkk DoFkukad lkekU;r% cgqr vf/kd viokn j[krsgSaA 
9  Zn (420ºC)
DoFkukad
 Cd (321ºC)
 Hg nzo d ejsd srki ij
izR;sd d-JS.kh d k vfUre rRo ,d izk: fid O;ogkj d jrk gSD;ksafd d-d ks'k iw.kZgksrk gS
rFkk d-by sDVªkWu /kkfRod ca/ku esaHkkx ughay srsgSaA
AIPMTDBC-8
;g ijekf.o;d j.k d h mPp

,UFksYih j[krs gSa] t ks izR;sd
Js.kh d s e/; ij vf/kd re
gksrh gSA ;g bafxr d jrk gS
fd ,d v;qfXer e– izfr d-
d {kd vUrjkijekf.o;
vU;ksU; fØ ;k d s fy , fo'ks"k
: i lsgksrk gSA
f}rh; rFkk rr̀h; laØ e.k
Js.kh d h /kkrq;saizFke Js.kh d s
lEcfU/kr rRoksa d h vis{kk
mPp xy ukad ] DFkukad rFkk
ijekf.o;d j.k d h ,UFksYih j[krh gSA ,sl k Hkkjh laØ e.k /kkrqv ksad s/kkrq&/kkrqca/ku d s
d kj.k gksrk gSA
/kkrq,a] t ksv;qfXer by sDVªkWu j[krh gS] vuqp qEcd h; n'kkZrh gSA

d soy pØ .k pqEcd h; vk?kw.kZ  n(n  2) ;gkan = v;qfXer by sDVªkWuksad h la[;k
vuqp qEcd h; inkFkZ,sl k inkFkZgksrk gS] t kspqEcd h; {ks=k esavkd f'kZr gksrk gSA pqEcd h;
{ks=k cy js[kk;sa fuokZr d h vis{kk vuqp qEcd h; inkFkZ eas vklkuh ls xfr
d jrh gSA bl izd kj ;g ns[kk t k ld rk gS fd vuqp qEcd h; inkFkZ cy
10 pqEcd h; xq.k js[kkvksad ksvkd f"kZr d jrk gS] ;fn ;g xfr d jusd sfy , Lora=k gS] rks
vuqp qEcd h; inkFkZnqcZy lsizcy pqEcd h; {ks=k d h vksj xfr d jsxk
y kSg pqEcd h; inkFkZvuqp qEcd Ro d h fo'ks"k fLFkfr d s: i esagksld rsgSaA ft leasfo'ks"k

y kSgpqEcd Ro d k;Z {ks=k d k {k.k ,d lkFk gks t krk gS rFkk lHkh fcUnq leku fn'kk esa gksrs gSaA
y kSgpqEcd h; inkFkZ  Fe, Co, Ni.
laØ e.k /kkrq;sarFkk bud s;kSfxd bud h mRizsjd h; lfØ ;rk d sfy , t kust krsgSaA ,sl k
11 mRizsjd h; xq.k
cgqv kWDlhd j.k voLFkk xzg.k d jusrFkk lad qy cukusd h lkeF;Zd sd kj.k gksrk gS
mRizsjd mi;ksx
Fe NH3 d sfuekZ
.k d sfy , gscj izØ e d sfy ,
V2O5 H2SO4 d sfuekZ
.k d sfy , lEid Zd sfy ,
Pt ukbfVªd vEy d svkWLVokYM izØ e d sfy ,
Ni rsy ksad sgkbMªkst uhd j.k d sfy ,
FeSO4 & H2O2 ,Yd ksgy d k ,fYMgkbM easvkWDlhd j.k d jusd sfy , Q s.Vu
vfHkd eZd d s: i esa
Cu ,Yd ksgy ksad sfogkbMªkst uhd j.k d sfy ,
Al2(C2H5)6 + TiCl4 ikW y h,Fkhu d smRikn esaft xy j&ukVk mRizsjd d sf: i eas
FeCl3 CS2 rFkk Cl2 F lsCCl4 cukusd sfy ,
Pt/PtO ,Me mRizsjd vip;u d sfy , iz;qDr
(i) laØ e.k rRo feJ /kkrq;sacukusd h vf/kd re izof̀Rr j[krsgSa
feJ /kkrqv ksad k
12 (ii) la
Ø e.k rRo d h fØ ;k'khy rk cgqr d e gksrh gSrFkk bud k vkd kj izk;% leku gksrk
fuekZ.k
gSA bld sd kj.k t ky d easlaØ e.k /kkrqijek.kq] vU; laØ e.k /kkrqijek.kq}kjk vklkuh
AIPMTDBC-9
lsizfrLFkkfir gksld rk gSrFkk blfy , ;g feJ /kkrq;sacukusd h vf/kd re izof̀Rr j[krs

gSaA
(iii) feJ /kkrqv ksaeas?kVd ]/kkrqv ksad k vuqikr fuf'pr gksrk gSA
(iv) ;g iw .kZr% d Bksj gksrh gSrFkk mPp xy ukad j[krh gS
* Not to be memories
(a) d k¡l k Cu (75 - 90 %) +Sn ( 10 - 25 %)
(b) ihry Cu ( 60 - 80 %) +Zn (20 - 40 %)
(c) xu esVy (Cu + Zn + Sn) (87 : 3 : 10)
(d) t eZu flYoj Cu + Zn + Ni ( 2 : 1 : 1)
(e) ?kaVh (Bell) esVy Cu (80 %) + Sn(20 %)
(f) ukbØ kse (Ni + Cr + Fe)
(g) ,fYud ks (Al, Ni,Co)
(h) izd kj esVy Pb + Sn + Sb
(i) LVhy d h feJ /kkrq;sa
• osusfM;e LVhy V (0.2 - 1 %)
• Ø ksfe;e LVhy Cr (2 - 4 %)
• fud y LVhy Ni (3 -5 %)
• es xuht LVhy Mn (10 -18 %)
• LVs uy sl LVhy Cr (12 - 14 %)& Ni (2 - 4 %)
d qN egRoiw.kZfeJ • Va xLVu LVhy W (10 - 20 %)
/kkrq;sa (o) 14 d S jsV xksYM 54 % Au + Ag (14 to 30 %) + Cu (12 - 28 %)
(k) 24 d S jsV xksYM 100 %Au
(i) Vkad k Pb + Sn
(m) esXusfy ;e Mg (10%) + Al (90%)
(n) M;w jky qfeu (Al + Mn + Cu)
(o) d f̀=ke xks YM Cu (90 %) + Al (10%)
(p) d ksUlVsUVu Cu(60%) + Ni (40%)
fofHkUu izd kj d sv k;juksaeasd kcZu d k %
uke C d k%
(a) fiVokay ks gk 0.1 ls0.25
(b) LVhy 0.25 ls2.0
(c) <y okay ks gk 2.6 ls4.3
(d) d Ppk y ks gk 2.3 ls4.6
1. flYoj ukbVªsV, AgNO3 (y wukj d kfLVd )

HkkSfrd xq.k
(i) ;g jaxghu fØ LVy h; ;kSfxd gSA
(ii) ;g t y ,oa,Yd ksgkWy esafoy s; gSA
(iii) ;g 212°C ij xy uh; gS A
jklk;fud xq.k
(i) ;g d kcZfud mÙkd ksa ¼inkFkZ½ ij la{kkj.k d h {kerk j[krk gSA ft lls ;g d ky s jax esa ifjofrZr gks t krk gSA
fo'ks"kr% izd k'k d h mifLFkfr esabld k d ky k jax pwf.kZr /kkfRod flYoj d sd kj.k curk gSA blfy , blsjaxhu
cksry ksaesalaxzghr fd ;k t krk gSA
(ii) gs
y kbM] Q kWLQ sV] lYQ kbM Ø ksesV Fkk;ksl k;usV] lYQ sV rFkk Fkk;ks lYQ sV d s foy ;u vkfn flYoj ukbVªsV
foy ;u d slkFk laxr flYoj y o.k d k vo{ksi nsrsgSA
AIPMTDBC-10
(iii) veksfud r̀ flYoj ukbVªsV d ksVkWy su vfHkd eZd d grsgSA vfHkfØ ;kvksad sfy , bld k mi;ksx vipk;d 'kd Zjk
rFkk ,fYMgkbMks
ad h igpku d jusesafd ;k t krk gSA
blsvipk;d 'kd Zjk vkS

j ,fYMgkbMksad k jt r niZ.k ijh{k.k (silver mirror test) d grsgSA
Ag2O + HCHO2Ag + HCOOH.
Ag2O + C6H12O6 2Ag + C6H12O7.
(iv) v k;ksfMu d slkFk v fHkfØ ;k:
6 AgNO3 (vkf/kD;) + 3I2 +3H2O  AgO3 + 5Ag + 6HNO3
5 AgNO3 + 3I2 (vkf/kD;) +3H2O HO3 + 5Ag + 5HNO3
mi;ksx : ;g iz;qDr gksrk gS

(i) blsfofHkUu vEy h; ew y d fo'ks"kd j Dy ksjkbM] czksekbM rFkk vk;ksM kbM d ksigpkuusd sfy , iz;ksx'kky k vfHkd eZd
d s: i esad ke y srsgSA
(ii) VkW
y su vfHkd eZd d ksd kcZfud jlk;u esa,fYMgkbM] vipf;r 'kd Zjk bR;kfn d sijh{k.k d sfy , d ke esay srsgSA
(iii) flYoj ukbVs ªV d ksflYoj czksekbM cukusd sfy , d ke esay srsgSt ksfd Q ksVksxzkQ h esad ke esafy ;k t krk gSA
(iv) bld k mi;ks x L;kgh rFkk cky ksad sjat d cukusesafd ;k t krk gSA
(v) jt r niZ .k d sfuekZ.k esa
2. Q ksVksxzkQ h %
(i) ,d Q ks VksxzkfQ d fQ Ye] lkQ lsY;qy kWbM iV~Vhd k ;k d kWp d h Iy sV ij Q Sy h ft y sfVu fQ Ye esaflYoj y o.k d s
çd k'k losanh lw{e d .kksad k bey 'ku j[krh gSA Q ksVksxzkQ d sfy ;sd .kksad k vkd kj egRoiw.kZgSbld sd kj.k Q ksVksxzkQ
d h xq.kork çHkkfor gksrh gSA çd k'k losanh inkFkZd s: i esaAgBr d k mi;ksx d jrsgSA
(ii) fQ Ye d ksd S ejsesaj[krsgSt c Q ksVks[khap rsgSrksçd k'k oLrq(subject) lsd Sejsesavkrk gSrFkk y SUl }kjk
Q ksd l gksd j fQ Ye ij ,d çfrfcEc curk gSA çd k'k gSy kbM vk;u d ksmRrsft r d j izd k'k jklk;fud vfHkfØ ;k
izkjEHk d jrk gSA t ks,d by sDVªkWu eqDr d jrk gSA d .kksad h lrg ij by sDVªkWu pky d cS.Mksaesaxfr d jrsgSt gk¡;g
Ag+ vk;u d ks/kkfRod flYoj es acny rsgSA
çd k'k
2AgBr(s)   2Ag + Br2
(iii)vk/kqfud Q ksVksxzkQ h esa,d Q ksVks[khpusaesay xHkx ,d lsd .M d k 1/100 ok¡Hkkx y xrk gSA bl NksVsle;
vUrjky esaçR;sd d .k ij çd k'k fxjusij d soy ] flYoj d sd qN ijek.kq(y xHkx 10–50) d k mRiknu gksrk gSA
fQ Ye d k og Hkkx ft l ij oLrq(subject) d k ped hy k çd k'k fxjrk gS] ft lesad qN flYoj d .k d slkFk cgqr lkjs
d .k j[krk gS] fn[kkbZnsusoky sHkkx oLrq(subject) d svkl ikl d sHkkx ij d qN d .k d qN flYoj d slkFk jgrsgSA
(iv) vc fQ Ye d ks fod kld foy ;u es a j[kk t krk gS ;g ,d nqcZy vipk;d vfHkd eZd gksrk gS lkekU;r% ;g
fDouksy j[krk gSbld k mís'; vf/kd flYoj gSy kbM d ksflYoj /kkrqesavipf;r d juk gksrk gSA flYoj oghaij
vf/kd fu{ksfir gksrk gS] t gk¡ij igy slsgh flYoj mifLFkr gksrk gSA bl çd kj fod kl çØ e esafQ Ye ij ,d
vkHkklh çfrfcEc cu t krk gSrFkk ;g fn[kkbZnsusy xrk gSA
AIPMTDBC-11
2AgBr(s) + 2OH–(aq) + HO OH (aq) 2Ag(s) + 2H2O() + O O + 2Br–(aq)
gkbMªksD;wuksy gkbMªksD;wuksu
(v) ;fn fQ Ye d ksbl le; fnu d sçd k'k es ackgj fud ky y srksbey 'ku d k [kqy k Hkkx d ky k gkst krk gSo Q ksVks
[kjkc gkst krk gSA ,sl k gksuslscpkusd sfy ;srFkk vizHkkfor flYoj gSy kbM d ksiF̀kd d jusd sfy , fQ Ye d ks
LFkk;hd kjd foy ;u esaj[krsgSA lksfM;e Fkk;ksl YQ sV d sfoy ;u d k mi;ksx LFkk;hd kjd d s: i esad jrsgSA ;g
flYoj gSy kbM d slkFk foy s; lad qy cukrk gSA
AgBr + 2Na2S2O3  Na3[Ag(S2O3)2] + NaBr
fQ Ye d sLFkk;hd j.k d si'pkr~mlsfnu d sçd k'k esay k;k t k ld rk gSA fl Yoj }kjk cuk d ky k Hkkx okLrfod
Q ksVksd sgYd sHkkx d ksn'kkZrk gSa;g fuxsfVo gSA
çfrfcEc d ksçkIr d jusd sfy ;sgesamld k ,d fçUV cuk y suk pkfg;sA bld sfy , izd k'k d ksfuxsfVo lsgksd j]
d kxt d s,d isij ft l ij AgBr d k ik;l y xk gSij vkifrr d jrsgSA vc blsigy sd h rjg fod flr rFkk
LFkk;h fd ;k t krk gSA
3. ikSVsf'k;e ijesxusV (KMnO4)
HkkSfrd xq.k %
;g t kequh jax d k fØ LVy h; ;kS
fxd gSA
;g d ejsd srki ij] ikuh esalkekU; foy s; gSA
esxusV rFkk ijesxusV vk;u d h lajpuk

jklk;fud xq.k
(i) rki d k iz
Hkko
ruq{kkjh; foy ;u esa] t y esarFkk vEy h; foy ;u esaMnO42– vLFkk;h gksrk gSrFkk fo"kekuqikfrr gksd j MnO4– rFkk
MnO2 ns rk gSA
3MnO42– + 4H+ 2MnO4– + MnO2 + 2H2O
3MnO42– + 2H2O  2MnO4– + MnO2+ 4OH–
AIPMTDBC-12
or
3MnO42– + 3H2O 2MnO4– + MnO (OH)2 + 4OH–
H2 , d siz
okg esaxeZd jusij Bksl KMnO4 , MnO nsrk gSA

2KMnO4 + 5H2 
 2KOH + 2MnO + 4H2O
(ii) lkUnzH2SO4 d slkFk mipkfjr d jusij ¼KMnO4 vkf/kD; esafy ;k gS½ ;g ijeSxukby lYQ sV d si'pkr~
eSxuht gsIVkWDlkbM cukrk gS] t ksfd xeZd jusij foLQ ksV d slkFk fo?kfVr gkst krk gSA
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4  2KHSO4 + (MnO3)2SO4 + 2H2O
(MnO3)2SO4 + H2O  Mn2O7 + H2SO4
3
Mn2O7  2MnO2 + O
2 2
KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 (lkUnz
) K+ + MnO3+ (gjk) + 3HSO4– + H3O+.
(iii) iksVsf'k;e ijeSaXusV ,d izcy vkWDlhd kjd gSA
iksVsf'k;e ijeSaXusV] {kkjh;] vEy h; vFkok mnklhu foy ;u esaizcy vkWDlhd kjd d s: i esad k;Zd jrk gSA
lYQ j] pkjd ksy ,oaKMnO4 d k feJ.k ,d foLQ ksVd pw.kZcukrk gSA vkDlsfy d vEy rFkk KMnO4 d k
feJ.k d qN gh lSd .M esaLor% gh vkx id M+y srk gSA ,sl k rc Hkh gksrk gSt c fXy ljhu d kspwf.kZr KMnO4
ij Mky k t krk gSA
{kkjh; rFkk mnkl hu ek/;e esa:
izcy {kkjh; ek/;e esaKMnO4 esxusV esavipf;r gksrk gSA
2KMnO4 + 2KOH (lkUnz ) 2K2 MnO4 + H2O + [O]
;k e– + MnO4– MnO42–
t c ;fn foy ;u ruqfd ;k t krk gSrc K2MnO4 , Hkwjsjax d svo{ksi d s: i esaMnO2 esaifjofrZr gkst krk
gSA 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O 2MnO2 + 4KOH + 2[O]
;k 2e + 2H2O + MnO42– MnO2 + 4OH–
–
bl rjg d k O;ogkj KMnO4 Lo;ad s}kjk mnklhu ek/;e esaHkh iznf'kZr d jrk gSA
3e– + 2H2O + MnO4–  MnO2 + 4OH–
KMnO4 {kkjh; ;k mnklhu ek/;e esafuEufy f[kr vkWDlhd kjd xq.k n'kkZrk gSA
(a) ;g ,Fkhu d ksXy kbd kW
y esavkWDlhd r̀ d jrk gSA
{kkjh; ek/;e esaKMnO4 foy ;u d kscs;j vfHkd eZd d grsgSA (1% {kkjh; KMnO4 foy ;u)
(b) ;g vk;ksM kbM d ksvk;ksM sV esavkWDlhd r̀ d jrk gSA
3e– + 2H2O + MnO4–  MnO2 + 4OH– × [2]
6OH– + –  O3– + 3H2O + 6e–
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
2MnO4– + – + H2O  2MnO2 + O3– + 2OH–
(c) H2S lYQ j esavkWDlhd r̀ gksrk gSA

2MnO4– + 3H2S  2MnO2 + 2OH– +2H2O + 3S
(d) eSxuht y o.k] MnO2 esavkWDlhd r̀ gksrk gS( ZnO ;k ZnSO4 d h mifLFkfr vkWDLkhd j.k d ksmRizsfjr
d jrh gSA 2MnO4– + 3Mn2+ + 2H2O  5MnO2 + 4H+
(e) mnklhu@nqcZy {kkjh; foy ;u esaFkk;ksl YQ sV ek=kkRed : i lslYQ sV esavkWDlhd r̀ gkst krk gSA
8MnO4– + 3S2O32– + H2O  8MnO2 + 6SO42– + 2OH–
(f) lksfM;e gkbMªksDl kbM d h mifLFkfr esa] lksfM;e lYQ kbV] lksfM;e l YQ sV esavkWDl hd r̀ gkst krk gSA
2MnO4– + 3SO32– + 3H2O  2MnO(OH)2 + 3SO42– + 2OH–.
AIPMTDBC-13
v Ey h; ek/;e esa(ruqH2SO4 d h mifLFkfr esa) :

eSxul lYQ sV curk gSA foy ;u jaxghu gkst krk gSA
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4  K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5[O]
;k MnO4¯ + 8H+ + 5e–  Mn2+ + 4H2O
;g vEy h; ek/;e esa ek=kkRed ¼vk;rukRed ½ fu/kkZj.k esa iz;qDr gksrk gSA vEy h; ek/;e esa KMnO4
d k rqY;kad nzO;eku vkf.od nzO;eku gSA
5
(a) Q s
jl yo.k] Q sfjd y o.kksaesavkWDl hd r̀ gksrsgSA
MnO4¯ + 5Fe2+ + 8H+  5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
(b) vk;ks
M hu d ks] iksVsf'k;e vk;ksM kbM lsfu"d kflr d jrsgSA
2MnO4¯ + 10I¯ + 16H+  2Mn2+ + 5I2 + 8H2O
(c) H2S , lYQ j esavkWDlhd r̀ gksrh gSA
2MnO4– + 16H+ + 5S2–  2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5S
(d) SO2 , H2SO4 es
avkWDlhd r̀ gksrh gSA
2MnO4– + 5SO2 + 2H2O  5SO42– + 2Mn2+ + 4H+
(e) ukbVª
kbV] ukbVsªV esavkWDl hd r̀ gksrk gS:
2MnO4– + 5NO2– + 6H+  2Mn2+ + 3H2O + 5NO3–
(f) vkW
Dt sfy d
vEy CO2 esavkWDlhd r̀ gksrk gS%
d ejsd srki ij ;g vfHkfØ ;k /kheh gksrh gSA t cfd 60ºC rki ij rhozrk lslEiUu gksrh gSA
Mn(II) vk;u vfHkfØ ;k d ksmRiz
sfjr d jrsgSA bl izd kj vfHkfØ ;k Lor% mRizsfjr vfHkfØ ;k cu t krh gSA
60 ºC
2MnO4– + 16H+ + 5C2O42–   2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2
(g) HCHO, HCOOH es avkWDlhd r̀ gkst krk gSA
2MnO4– + 5HCHO + 6H+  2Mn2+ + 5HCOOH + 3H2O.
(h) ;g gkbMªkst u gSy kbM (HCl, HBr vFkok HI) d ksX2 (gSy kst u) esavkWDlhd r̀ d jrk gSA
2MnO4– + 16H+ + 10X–  2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5X2
(i) H2O2, O2 es
avkWDl hd r̀ gkst krk gSA
2MnO4– + 6H+ + 5H2O2  5O2 + Mn2+ + 8H2O.
(i) iz;ksx'kky k rFkk m|ksx esaKMnO4 ,d vkWDlhd kjd d h rjg d ke d jrk gSA
(ii) {kkjh; iksVsf'k;e ijeSxusV cs;j vfHkd eZd d gy krk gSA ;g vfHkd eZd d kcZfud jlk;u esa
vlarÌrrk d sijh{k.k d sfy , d ke vkrk gSA KMnO4 d kslSd sjhu] csat kWbd vEy ] ,flVsfYMgkbM
bR;kfn d sfuekZ.k esami;ksx esay srsgSA
(iii) KMnO4 d ksgS y kbM] lYQ kbV] vkWDt sy sV bR;kfn d sfu/kkZj.k d sfy , xq.kkRed fo'y s"k.k esaiz;ksx
d jrsgSaA
4. iksVsf'k;e MkbØ kses
V (K2Cr2O7) :
fojpu :
Ø ksekbV v;Ld d kslksfM;e d kcksZusV d slkFk ijkorZuh HkV~Vh esaok;qd slkFk Hkft Zr fd ;k t krk gSA
4FeO. Cr2O3 (Ø ks ekbV v;Ld ) + 8Na2CO3/K2CO3 + 7O2  ok;q esa 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2
Hkt Zu
(ihyk)
Hkft Zr nzO;eku d kst y d slkFk fu"d f"kZr fd ;k t krk gSt c Na2CrO4 vfoy s; Fe2O3 d ksihNsNksM +rsgq, foy ;u esa
py k t krk gSA ckn esafoy ;u d ksH2SO4 d h ifjd fy r ek=kk lsmipkfjr fd ;k t krk gSA
2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O
(ukja
xh)
AIPMTDBC-14
lkfUnzr foy ;u esad e foy s;'khy Na2SO4 fØ LVy esacny d j iF̀kd gkst krk gSA foy ;u d k vkxsfQ j lkUnz.k
d jusij gesNa2Cr2O7 d sfØ LVy izkIr gksrsgSA t c Na2Cr2O7 d sxeZlràIr foy ;u d ksKCl d slkFk mipkfjr
fd ;k t krk gSrksK2Cr2O7 d sy ky &ukjaxh fØ LVy izkIr gksrsgSA lksfM;e MkbØ ksesV] ikSVsf'k;e MkbØ ksesV lsvf/kd
?kqy u'khy gksrk gSA
Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCI K2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl
K2Cr2O7d ksNa2Cr2O7 ij iz kFkfed ekud foy ;u d s: i esavk;rukRed ekiu esaojh;rk nh t krh gSA D;ksafd
Na2Cr2O7 vknz
Zrkxzkgh gSijUrqK2Cr2O7 ughaA
xq.k
(a) HkkS
frdxq.k:
;g ukjaxh&y ky jax d k fØ LVy h; ;kSfxd gSA ;g 'khry t y esavYi foy s; gSijUrqxeZt y esaiw.kZr;k foy s; gSA
;g 398°C ij xy uh; gSA
Ø ksesV rFkk MkbØ ksesV v k;u d h l ajpuk
(b) jkl k;fud xq.k :

(i) m"eh; izHkko :
izcy : i lsblsxeZd jusij ;g fo?kfVr gksd j vkWDlht u xSl eqDr d jrk gSA
3
2K2Cr2O7 2K2CrO4 + Cr2O3 + O
2 2
{kkj d slkFk xeZd jusij ;g Ø ksesV esacny t krk gSvFkkZr~ukjaxh lsihy sjax d sifjofrZr gkst krk gSA vEy hd r̀
d jusij ;g iqu% ihy slsukjaxh gkst krk gSA
K2Cr2O7 + 2KOH 2K2CrO4 + H2O
Cr2O 72  (ukja
xh) + 2OH¯ 2CrO 24 (ihy k)+ H2O
2CrO 24 (ihy k) + 2H+ Cr2O 72  (ukja
xh) + H2O
bl izd kj CrO42– rFkk Cr2O72– ,d lkE;koLFkk esa jgrs gS t ks foy ;u d h pH ifjorZu d s vuql kj]
vUrifjofrZr gksld rsgSA
2CrO 24 + 2H+ 2HCrO4– Cr2O 72  + H2O
 {kkjh; foy ;u esaØ ksesV vk;u mifLFkr gS] t cfd vEy h; ek/;e esaMkbØ ksesV vk;u mifLFkr gSA
(ii) K2Cr2O7 + 2H2SO4 (lka nzrFkk B.Mk) 2CrO3 (ped hy k ukjaxh@y ky ) + 2KHSO4 + H2O
 2K Cr O 2 2 7
+ 8H2SO4 (lka
nzrFkk xeZ) 2K2SO4 + 8H2O + 2Cr2(SO4)3 + 3O2
(iii) vEy hd r̀ K2Cr2O7 foy ;u H2O2 d slkFk fØ ;k d jd sCrO5 d sfuekZ.k d sd kj.k ,d xgjk uhy k foy ;u
nsrk gSA
Cr2O72– + 2H+ + 4H2O2 2CrO5 + 5H2O
uhy k jax /khjs& /khjsgYd k gkst krk gSD;ksafd CrO5] Cr3+ vk;u rFkk vkWDlht u esafo?kfVr gkst krk gSA d e
vEy h; foy ;u esaK2Cr2O7 rFkk H2O2 y o.k nsrsgS] ft ld k jax cSaxuh gksrk gSrFkk ;g [CrO(O2)(OH)]– d s
fuekZ.k d sd kj.k izfrpqEcd h; gSA
AIPMTDBC-15
(iv) iksVsf'k;e MkbØ ksesV] gkbMªksDy ksfjd vEy d slkFk fØ ;k d jd sDy ksjhu xSl eqDr d jrk gSA
K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl  2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 7H2O + 3Cl2
(v) ;g vEy h; ek/;e (ruqH2SO4) esaizcy vkWDlhd kjd d s: i esad k;Zd jrk gSA
Cr2O 72  + 14H+ + 6e– 2Cr+3 + 7H2O. (Eº = 1.33 V)
Cr d h vkW Dlhd j.k voLFkk + 6 ls+3 esaifjofrZr gksrh gSA
(a) iks
Vsf'k;e vk;ksM kbM lsvk;ksMhu eqDr gksrh gSA
Cr2O 72  + 14H+ + 6e– 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
2– 2 + 2e– × [3]
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Cr2O 72  + 14H+ + 6¯ 2Cr3+ + 32 + 7H2O
(b) Q s
jl y o.k] Q sfjd y o.kksaesavkWDlhd r̀ gkst krsgSA
6Fe2+ + Cr2O 72  + 14H+ 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
(c) lYQ kbV] lYQ s V esavkWDlhd r̀ gkst krsgSA

Cr2O 72  + 3SO 32  + 8H+ 3SO 24 + 2Cr3+ + 4H2O
(d) H2S, lYQ j esavkWDl hd r̀ gkst krk gSA

Cr2O 72  + 3H2S + 8H+ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 3S
(e) SO2 , H2SO4 esavkWDlhd r̀ gkst krk gSA

Cr2O72– + 3SO2 + 2H+ 2Cr3+ + 3SO42– + H2O ;
t c vEy hd r̀ K2Cr2O7 foy ;u d ksSO2 d slkFk larÌr fd ;k t krk gSrc Ø kse fQ Vd jh izkIr gksrh gSA
T  70 ºC
 K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + 3SO2 + 23H2O    K2SO4 . Cr2(SO4)3 . 24H2O
(f) ;g ,fFky ,Yd ks

gky d ks,flVsfYgkbM esarFkk ,flVsfYMgkbM d ks,flfVd vEy esavkWDlhd r̀ d jrk gSA
[O ] [O ]
C2H5OH   CH3CHO   CH3COOH
,fFky ,Yd ksgky ,flVsfYgkbM ,flfVd vEy
(g) ;g ukbVªkbV d ksukbVsªV esa] vklsZukbV d ksvklsZusV esa] HBr d ksBr2 esa, HI d ksI2 esavkWDlhd r̀ d jrk gSA
(h) K2Cr2O7 + 2C (pkjd ks y ) 
 Cr2O3 + K2CO3 + CO 
(vi) Ø ksfey Dy ksjkbM ijh{k.k : 4Cl + Cr2O72– + 6H+ 2CrO2Cl2  (xgjk y ky ) + 3H2O
–
CrO2Cl2 + 4OH– CrO42– (ihy k) + 2Cl– + 2H2O

CrO42– (ihy k) + Pb2+ PbCrO4  (ihy k)
(vii) Cr2O72– (lkfUnz r foy ;u) + 2Ag+ Ag2Cr2O7  (y ky Hkwjk)
Ag2Cr2O7  + H2O mcky uk
   Ag2CrO4 + CrO42– + 2H+ .
(viii) Cr2O72– + Ba2+ + H2O 2BaCrO4+ 2H+
t Sl sizcy vEy curk gS] rc d soy vkaf'kd vo{ksi.k gksrk gSA y sfd u ;fn NaOH vFkok CH3COONa
fey krsgSrc vo{ksi.k ek=kkRed : i lsgksrk gSA
(i) ;g vipk;d kst S l svkWDt sfy d vEy ] Q sjl vk;u] vk;ksM kbM vk;u vkfn d svuqekiu esavk;rukRed
vfHkd eZd d s: i esa] ;g ,d izkFkfed ekud d s: i esad ke vkrk gSA
(ii) ;g d bZØ ks
fe;e ;kSfxd t Sl sØ kse ,y e] Ø kse ihy k] Ø kse y ky ] ft ad ihy k vkfn d ksrS;kj d jusesad ke
vkrk gSA
(iii) ;g ja
xusesa] Ø kse Vsfuax esa] d sfy d ksNikbZesa] Q ksVksxzkQ h vkfn esaiz;qDr gksrk gS
(iv) ;g Ø ksfed vEy d s: i esa] t ksfd d k¡p d scrZuksad kslkQ d jusesad ke vkrk gSA
(v) peM+ sd sm|ksx esarFkk vkst ks;kSfxd ksad sfuekZ.k d sfy , vkWDlhd kjh d s: i esaA
AIPMTDBC-16
f-Cy kW
d rRo
v od y t by sDVªkWu (n – 2)f mid ks'k esaizos'k d jrsgSaA
f-Cy kW
d rRo v korZlkj.kh d sv k/kkj Hkkx ij fLFkr gksrsgSaA
Ø -la- xq.k fooj.k
lHkh f-Cy kWd rRo Hkkjh /kkrq,agksrh gSaA
1. l kekU; xq.k ;g mPp xy ukad rFkk DoFkukad n'kkZrsgSaA
bu rRoksad h lokZf/kd lkekU; vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk +3 gSA
2. rRoksad h la[;k f-Cy kWd rRoksad h d qy la[;k – (28)
IIIB/3rd oxZ 14 y s UFksukbM rFkk 14 ,fDVukbM ;qDr 32 rRoksa oky k nh?kZre lewg
d gy krk gSA
III B/ 3rd
3. oxZ Sc
Y
La y sUFksukbM (14) Ce58 – Lu71
Ac ,fDVukbM (14) Th90 – Lr103
by sDVªkWfud y sUFksukbM Js.kh4f1 – 14 5d0 or 1 6s2
4.
v fHkfoU;kl ,fDVukbM Js.kh5f1 – 14 6d0 or 1 7s2
v korZ III B/ 3rd
Sc
5. v korZ Y
th La
6 vkorZ y sUFksukbM (14) Ce58 – Lu71
7th vkorZ Ac ,fDVukbM (14) Th90 – Lr103
,sl s rRo ft uesa lHkh rhuksa d ks'k t ks vfUre (n) ;k mikUr; (n– 1) rFkk iwoZ ;k izfr
v Ur%laØ e.k mikUr; (n – 2) d ks'k viw.kZgS] gksrsgSa] vUr% laØ e.k rRo d gy krsgSaA Ce58 = [Xe] 6s2,
6. 5d1, 4f1
rRo
vUr%laØ e.k rRoksad ksnksJs.kh esafoHkkft r fd ;k t krk gSA
Ce58 – Lu71 14 rRo
y sUFksukbM iF̀oh ij nqy ZHk : i easik;st krsgSablfy , ;g nqy ZHk eǹk /kkrq,ad gy krsgSaA
(i) y sUFksukbM bl Js.kh d k izFke rRo flfj;e gS] u fd y sUFksueA
Js.kh ;k nqy ZHk bu rRoksaesavfUre by sDVªkWu 4f mid ks'k esaizos'k d jrk gSA
eǹk rRo ;k ;g vkorZlkj.kh d sIIIB oxZrFkk 6th vkorZesamifLFkr gksrsgSaA
y sUFksuksu lHkh ,fDVukbM jsfM;ksl fØ ; izd f̀r d sgksrsgSaA
izksfefFk;e (61Pm) d soy ,sl k y sUFksukbM gSt ksla'y sf"kr gksrk gSrFkk jsfM;ksl fØ ; izd f̀r
j[krk gSA
Th90 – Lr10314 rRo
lHkh ,fDVukbM jsfM;ksl fØ ; rRo gksrsgSa
bl Js.kh d k izFke rRo Fkksfj;e gSa] u fd ,fDVfu;eA
bu rRoksaesa5f mid ks'k esaizos'k d jrk gSA
(ii) ,fDVukbM
;g vkorZlkj.kh d sIIIB oxZrFkk 7th vkorZesamifLFkr gksrsgSaA
Js.kh ;k ekuo
lHkh ,fDVukbM jsfM;ksl fØ ; izd f̀r d sgksrsgSaA
fufZeZr rRo ;k
izFke rhu rRo (Th, Pa, U) izd f̀r esaik;st krsgSat cfd vU; la'y sf"kr fd ;st krsgSaA
,fDVuksu
Vªkal ;wjsfud ,fDVukbM ekuo fufeZr rRo (Np93 – Lw103) gSa
U92 d si'pkr vFkkZ r~Np93 lsvkxsoky srRo Vªkal ;wjsfud rRo d gy krsgSaD;ksafd
(i) ;s;w jsfu;e lsHkkjh gksrsgSaA
(ii) ;sukfHkd h; vfHkfØ ;kvks a}kjk ;wjsfu;e lsO;qRiUu fd ;st krsgSaA
AIPMTDBC-17
y sUFksukbM : ijek.oh; rFkk mPp vk;fud voLFkkvksad suke] lad sr] by sDVªkWfud foU;kl ,oay sUFksue rFkk y sUFksukbM
¼bld sfy, lkekU; lad sr Ln iz;qDr gksrk gS) d h ijek.oh; rFkk vk;fud f=kT;k;salkj.kh esanh xbZgSA
by sDVªkWfud v fHkfoU;kl : bu rRoksad sijek.kqd k by sDVªkWfud vfHkfoU;kl 6s2 lkekU; d slkFk gksrk gSy sfd u 4f ry
¼lkj.kh½ d h ifjorZu'khy rk fuosf'kr gksrh gSA T;ksafg lHkh f=k/kuh; vk;uksa ¼lHkh y sUFksukbMksa d h lokZf/kd LFkk;h
vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk½ d k by sDVªkWfud vfHkfoU;kl] 4fn : i (ijek.kqØ ekad d h of̀) d slkFk n = 1 ls14 rd ) esagksrk
gSA
ijek.oh; rFkk v k;fud v kd kj : y s UFksue lsy qfVfj;e rd ijek.oh;
o vk;fud f=kT;k esa d eh vkrh gS ¼y sUFksukbM lad qp u½A
ijek.oh; f=kT;k es a d eh vfu;fer gksrh gS ;| fi Js.kh esa
ukfHkd h; vkos'k d sc<+usd sd kj.k 4f esa,d e– ij nwl jse–
d k ifjj{k.k izHkko d h rqy uk es ad-e– d k nwl jse– esaifjj{k.k
izHkko vis{kkd r̀ d e gksrk gSA Js.kh esa c<rs gq, ukfHkd h;
vkos'k d sd kj.k ijek.kqØ ekad esaof̀) d slkFk ;gk¡vkd kj esa
fu;fer : i lsd eh vkrh gSA y sUFksukbM Js.kh d slad qp u d s
lEiw.kZ izHkko d ks y sUFksukbM lad qp u d grs gSa ft ld s d kj.k
rr̀h; laØ e.k Js.kh d slnL;ksad h f=kT;k f}rh; Js.kh d slaxr
lnL;ksad h f=kT;k d sleku gksrh gSA Zr (160 pm) rFkk Hf
(159 pm) d h y xHkx leku f=kT;k y s UFksukbM lad qp u d s
ifj.kkeLo: i gSA ;g mud sizd f̀Ùk esa,d lkFk gksuso mud ks
iF̀kd d juk eqf'd y gS] d kscrkrk gSA
v kWDl hd j.k v oLFkk : y s
UFksukbM esa La(III) o Ln(III) ;kSfxd
egRoiw.kZLih'kht gSA ;|fi foy ;u esavFkok Bksl ;kSfxd esa
vf/kd ka'kr% +2 o +4 vk;u Hkh izkIr gksrsgSaA
;g vfu;ferrk (t Sl k d h vk;uu ,UFksYih esa) fjDr] v) ZHkjs
o iw.kZHkjsf mid ks'k d svfrfjDr LFkkf;Ro d sd kj.k vkrh gSA
bl iz d kj CeIV d k mRd `"V xSl vfHkfoU;kl bld s cuus esa
lgk;d gksrk gS] y sfd u ;g ,d izcy vkWDl hd kjh gksrk gSt ks
lkekU; +3 vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk izkIr d jrk gSA Ce4+ /Ce3+ d sfy , E° d k eku + 1.74 V gSt kscrkrk gSfd ;g
t y d ks vkWDlhd r̀ d jrk gSA ;|fi vfHkfØ ;k nj cgqr /kheh gksrh gS rFkk blfy , Ce(IV) ,d vPNk fo'y s"k.k
vfHkd eZ d gSA
Pr, Nd, Tb rFkk Dy +4 voLFkk Hkh iz nf'kZr d jrsgSay sfd u d soy MO2 vkWDlkbM esaA Eu2+ d soy nksby sDVªkWuksad ks
[kksd j curk gSrFkk bl vk;u d sfuekZ.k d ksf7 vfHkfoU;kl lscrk;k t krk gSA ;|fi Eu2+ ,d izcy vipk;d gS
t ks+3 lkekU; vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk esaifjofrZr gkst krk gSA blh izd kj Yb+2 t ksfd f14 vfHkfoU;kl j[krk gS,d
vipk;d gksrk gSA TbIV v) Z Hkjs f-d {kd gksrk gS o ,d vkWDlhd kjh ¼oxidant½ gksrk gSA lsesfj;e d k O;ogkj
;wjksfi;e d h rjg gksrk gS+2 o +3 vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk nksuksaiznf'kZr d jrk gSA
lkj.kh:- y sUFksue rFkk y sUFksukbMksad k by sDVªkWfud foU;kl rFkk f=kT;k,a

ijek.oh; by sDVªkWfud v fHkfOkU;kl * f=kT;k /pm
uke lad sr 2+ 3+ 4+ 3+
l a[;k Ln Ln Ln Ln Ln Ln
57 y sUFksue La 5d16s2 5d1 4f 0
187 106
1 1 2 2 1 0
58 lhfj;e Ce 4f 5d 6s 4f 4f 4f 183 103
3 2
59 fizfl;ksfMfe;e Pr 4f 6s 4f3 4f2 4f1 182 101
4 2 4 3 2
60 fu;ksfMfe;e Nd 4f 6s 4f 4f 4f 181 99
5 2 5 4
61 izksfefFk;e Pm 4f 6s 4f 4f 181 98
62 lsesfj;e Sm 4f66s2 4f6 4f5 180 96
7 2 7 6
63 ;wjksfi;e Eu 4f 6f 4f 4f 199 95
64 xsM ksfy fu;e Gd 4f75d16s2 4f75d1 4f7 180 94
AIPMTDBC-18
9 2 9 8 7
65 VfcZ;e Tb 4f 6s 4f 4f 4f 178 92
10 2 10 9 8
66 fMLizksfl;e Dy 4f 6s 4f 4f 4f 177 91
11 2 11 10
67 gksfYe;e Ho 4f 6s 4f 4f 176 89
12 2 12 11
68 bfcZ;e Er 4f 6s 4f 4f 175 88
13 2 13 12
69 Fkwfy ;e Tm 4f 6s 4f 4f 174 87
14 2 14 13
70 bVfcZ;e Yb 4f 6s 4f 4f 173 86
14 1 2 14 1 14
71 y wVsfV;e Lu 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 4f - - -
lkekU; v fHky {k.k :
lHkh y sUFksukbM flYoj d h rjg 'osr o uje /kkrq,¡gksrh gSa] rFkk ok;qesarst h lscnjax ¼efy u½ gkst krsgSaA ijek.kq
Ø ekad of̀) d slkFk d Bksjrk esaof̀) gksrh gSblfy , lsesfj;e] LVhy d sleku d Bksj gksrk gSA LVhy d k xy ukad
ijkl 1000 ls1200 K rd gksrh gSy sfd u lsesfj;e 1623 K ij fi?ky rk gSA mud h t fVy /kkfRod lajpuk rFkk
Å "ek o oS| qr d svPNspky d gksrsgSaA Eu o Yb d ksNksM d j o d Hkh d Hkh Sm o Tm d ksNksM d j ?kuRo o vU; xq.k
esafuckZ/k ifjorZu gksrk gSA d bZf=kla;kst h y sUFksukbM vk;u Bksl voLFkk o t y h; foy ;u nksuksaesajaxhu gksrsgSaA f
by sDVªkWu d h mifLFkfr d sd kj.k bu vk;uksad k jax izkIr gksrk gSA u rksLa3+ vkSj uk gh Lu3+ vk;u d ksbZjax n'kkZrk
gSy sfd u 'ks"k n'kkZrsgSaA ;|fi vo'kks"k.k cSaM lad js¼NksVs½ gksrsgSabld k d kj.k f mid ks'k d svUrxZr mRrsft r gksuk
gSA bl izd kj f° izd kj (La+3 o Ce4+) o f14 izd kj (Yb2+ o Lu3+) d ks
NksM d j lHkh y sUFksukbM vk;u vuqp qEcd h; gksrs gSaA fuvksM kbfu;e esa
vuqp qEcd Ro vf/kd re gksrh gSA
y sUFksukbM d h izFke vk;uu ,UFksYih 600 kJ mol–1 d sy xHkx gksrh gS]
f}rh; 1200 kJ mol–1 d sy xHkx gksrh gSA ft ld h d SfY'k;e lsrqy uk
d h t k ld rh gS A
rr̀h; vk;uu ,UFksYih d h ifjorZu'khy rk bafxr d jrh gS fd fofue;
,UFksYih voy ksd u ¼ t Sl k izFke laØ e.k Js.kh d s 3d d {kd ksa) fjDr]
v) ZHkjso iw.kZHkjsf ry d sd {kd ksad ksd qN lhek rd LFkkf;Ro iznku
d jusesaiznf'kZr d jrsgSA blsy sUFksue] xSMksfy fu;e o Y;qfVf'k;e d s
rr̀h; vk;uu ,UFksYih d svlkekU; fuEu eku lsbafxr fd ;k t krk gSA
bld sjklk;fud O;ogkj esa] lkekU; : i esaJs.kh d sizkjfEHkd lnL;] d SfY'k;e d sleku y xHkx lfØ ; gksrsgSa
y sfd u bld sfy , ijek.kqØ ekad esaof̀) gksrh gSA os,Y;qfefu;e d sleku O;ogkj d jrsgSaA
v ) Zv fHkfØ ;k d sfy , E– d seku :

v) ZvfHkfØ ;k Ln3+ (aq) + 3e–1 Ln(s) d sfy , E° d k eku –2.2 ls–2.4 V d h ijkl esagksrk gSy sfd u
vioknLo: i Eu d sfy , –2.0 V eku gksrk gSA ;g okLro esa,d NksVk lk ifjorZu gSA /kkrq] gkbMªkst u d slkFk
la;ksft r gksrk gSt c blsxSl esaeUn : i lsxeZfd ;k t krk gSA
d kckZbM] Ln3C] Ln2C3 rFkk LnC2 cursgSat c /kkrqv ksad ksd kcZu d slkFk xeZd jrsgSaA
;g ruqvEy ksalsgkbMªkst u fu"d kflr d jrsgSarFkk gsy kst uksaesat y kusij gSy kbM cukrsgSaA
;g vkWDlkbM M2O3 rFkk gkbMªkWDlkbM M(OH)3 cukrsgSaA
gkbMªkWDlkbM fuf'pr ;kSfxd gS a] ;g iw.kZ: i lst y ;ksft r vkWDlkbM ughagksrsgSaA
;g {kkjh; eǹk /kkrqvkWDl kbMksarFkk gkbMªkWDlkbMksad sleku {kkjh; gksrsgSaA
gkbMªkWDlkbM d soy gkbMªsVsM vkWDlkbM u gksd j ,d fuf'pr ;kSfxd gksrsgSaA
os{kkjh; eǹk /kkrqv ksa] vkWDlkbM o gkbMªkWDlkbMksad h rjg {kkjh; gksrsgSaA
Iy sV o ikbi d sfeJ /kkrqbLikr d smRiknu esaiz;qDrA mnkgj.k feJ /kkrqt ksy SUFkukWbM /kkrq(~95%) o vk;ju
(~5%) rFkk y s 'kek=k S,C,Ca rFkk Al lscuh gksrh gSA feJ /kkrqd ksMg esaiz;qDr d j eqy Hkwr /kkrqlscqy sV] d op o
gYd k f¶y aV cukusesafd ;k t krk gSA isVªksfy ;e Hkat u esamRizsjd d s: i esay sUFksukbM d sfefJr vkWDlkbM d ksiz;qDr
fd ;k t krk gSA d qN ,d kd h Ln vkWDlkbM d ksQ kWLQ ksjl d s: i esaVsfy fot u LØ hu esao leku izfrfnIrh i`"B esa
iz;qDr fd ;k t krk gSA
AIPMTDBC-19
,fDVukbM :
,fDVukbM Th lsLr rd pkSng rRoksad kslfEefy r d jrk gSA bu rRoksad suke] lad sr rFkk d qN xq.k lkj.kh esafn;s
x;sgSaA
lkj.kh: ,fDVfu;e rFkk ,fDVuksbMksad k by sDVªkWfud v fHkfoU;kl rFkk f=kT;k,a

ijek.oh; by sDVªkWfud v fHkfoU;kl * f=kT;k /pm
uke lad sr 3+ 4+ 3+ 4+
la[;k M M M M M
89 ,fDVfu;e AC 6d17s2 5f0 111
2 2 1 0
90 Fkksfj;e Th 6d 7s 5f 5f 99
91 izksDVsfVfu;e Pa 5f 6d 7s2
2 1
5f2 5f1 96
3 1 2 3 2
92 ;wjsfu;e U 5f 6d 7s 5f 5f 103 93
93 usIpwfu;e Np 5f46d17s2 5f4 5f3 101 92
94 Iy wVksfu;e Pu 5f67s2 5f5 5f4 100 90
7 2 6 5
95 vesfjfl;e Am 5f 7s 5f 5f 99 89
96 d wfj;e Cm 5f 6d 7s2
7 1
5f7 5f7 99 88
9 2 8 7
97 cd sZfy ;e Bk 5f 7s 5f 5f 98 87
98 d sfy Q ksfuZ;e Cf 5f 7s2
10
5f9 5f8 98 86
11 2 10 9
99 baLVsfu;e Es 5f 7s 5f 5f - -
12 2 11 10
100 Q feZ;e Fm 5f 7s 5f 5f - -
101 es.Msfy fo;e Md 5f137s2 5f12 5f11 - -
14 2 13 12
102 ukscsfy ;e No 5f 7s 5f 5f - -
103 y ksjsfUl;e Lr 5f146s17s2 5f14 5f13 - -
,fDVukbM jsfM;kslfØ ; rRo gSrFkk izkjfEHkd lnL; vkisf{kd : i lsnh/kZv) Zvk;qlslEcfU/kr gksrsgSarFkk ckn
oky sesay kWjsfUl;e (Z =103) d sfy , v) Zvk;qijkl ,d fnu ls3 fefuV rd gksrh gSA
by sDVªkWfud v fHkfoU;kl : lHkh ,fDVukbM d k by sDVªkWfud vfHkfoU;kl 7s2 gksrk gSrFkk 5f o 6d mid ks'k d sfy ,
ifjorZu'khy rk fuosf'kr gksrh gSA
pkSng rRo 5f mid ks'k esafuosf'kr fd ;st krsgSa] y sfd u bUgsFkksfj;e (Z = 90) lsu 'kq: d jd sPa ls'kq: fd ;k
t krk gSo 103 rRo ij iw.kZ: i ls;g fuosf'kr gksrsgSaA
,fDVukbM d sby sDVªkWfud vfHkfoU;kl esavfu;ferrk y sUFksukbM d sleku 5f d {kd d sf°, f7 o f14 d sLFkkf;Ro ls
lEcfU/kr gksrh gSA bl izd kj Am o Cm d k vfHkfoU;kl [Rn] 5f7 7s2 o [Rn] 5f76d17s2 gksrk gSA
;|fi 5f d {kd rjax Q y u d sbud sd ks.kh; Hkkx esa4f d {kd ksad ks,d f=kr d jrsgSafQ j Hkh ;g
v k;fud v kd kj : y sUFksukbM esalkekU; izof̀Ùk ,fDVukbM esaHkh izsf{kr d h t krh gSaA ;gk¡Js.kh d h vksj ijek.kqd s
vFkok M3+ vk;u d s vkd kj esa y xkrkj d eh vkrh gSA ;g ,fDVukbM laØ e.k ¼fy UFksukbM laØ e.kd s leku½ ls
lEcfU/kr gksuk pkfg;sA 5f by sDVªkWu d snqcZy ifjj{k.k d sifj.kkeLo: i bl Js.kh esa,d rRo lsnwl jsrRo d h vksj
lad qp u esamÙkjksÙkj of̀) d jrk gSA
v kWDl hd j.k v oLFkk : ;gk¡vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk d h ijkl og̀n~gksrh gSat ksbl rF; d kscrkrh gSfd 5f , 6d o 7s
ry d h Å t kZ,¡lerqY; gksrh gSA ,fDVukbMksad h Kkr vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk,alkj.kh esalwp hc) gSaA
AIPMTDBC-20
l kj.kh: ,fDVfu;e rFkk ,fDVukbMksad h v kWDl hd j.k v oLFkk,a

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7
,fDVukbM lkekU;r% +3 vkWDl hd j.k voLFkk n'kkZrh gSA rRo Js.kh d sizFke v) ZesamPp vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk iznf'kZr
d jrh gSA mnkgj.k Th esavkWDlhd j.k voLFkk +4 vf/kd re gksrh gSt ksPa, U o Np esaØ e'k% +5, +6 o +7 rc gks
t krh gSA y sfd u ckn d srRoksaes
ad eh gksrh gSA ,fDVukbM o y SUFkukWbMksaesa;g lekurk gSfd +4 vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk
d h vis{kk +3 vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk esavf/kd ;kSfxd cursgSaA ;|fi +3 o +4 vk;u d k t y vi?kfVr gksusd h izof̀r
gksrh gSA
D;ksafd ,fDVukbMksaeasvkWDlhd j.k voLFkkvksad k forj.k fo"ke gksrk gSrFkk blfy, igy soky srRoksad sfy, rFkk ckn
oky srRoksad sfy , vkWDlhd j.k voLFkk,afHkUu gksrh gSA vkWDlhd j.k voLFkkvksad sin esabud h jklk;fud h d ks;g
Li"V d jusesavlarq"V gksrh gSA
lkekU; v fHky {k.k rFkk y SUFkukWbM d slkFk rqy uk :

,fDVukbM /kkrq lHkh fn[kus esa flYojh 'osr gksrs gSa y sfd u fofHkUu lajpukvksa d ks crkrs gSaA /kkfRod f=kT;k esa
vfu;ferrk izkIr gksusd k d kj.k lajpukRed ifjorZu'khy rk gSt ksfd y sUFksukbM d h vis{kk cgqr vf/kd gSA
,fDVukbM mPp : i lslfØ ; /kkrqgksrsgSafo'ks"kd j t c mud kslw{e : i lsfoHkkft r d j t y d ksmcky k t krk gS
mnkgj.k d sfy , vkWDlkbM o gkbMªkWbM d k ,d feJ.kA vf/kd re /kkrqd sla;ksat u d kslkekU; rkieku ij fd ;k
t krk gS] lHkh /kkrqv ksaij gkbMªksDy ksfjd vEy d h fØ ;k d jk;h t krh gSA j{kd vkWDlkbM ijr d sfuekZ.k d sd kj.k
ukbfVªd vEy vkaf'kd : i ls/kkrqv ksalsfØ ;k d jrk gSA {kkj d ksbZfØ ;k ughad jrk gSA
,fDVukbMksad spqEcd h; xq.k y SUFksukbMksad spqEcd h; xq.kksalsvf/kd t fVy gksrsgSaA ;|fi v;qfXer 5f by sDVªksuksad h
la[;k ;qDr ,fDVukbMksad spqEcd h; O;ogkj easvUrj gksrk gSA fQ j Hkh ;g y sUFksukbMksad sfy , bud sifj.kke d sd qN
lekukUrj gksrsgSa] bud sckn oky srRo mPp eku j[krsgSaA
y SUFkukWbMksa d sO;ogkj ls;g Li"V gSfd izkjfEHkd ,fDVukbMksad h vk;uu ,UFksYih ¼;|fi lgh : i lsKkr ugh gS½
izkjfEHkd y SUFkukWbMksalsd e gSaA ;g mfpr Hkh izrhr gksrk gSA D;ksafd t c 5f d {kd Hkjuk izkjEHk gksxsarksosby sDVªkWuksa
d svkarfjd Ø ksM esad e Hksnu d jsxsaA blfy , 5f by sDVªkWu ukfHkd d svkos'k laxr y SUFksukbMksad s4f by sDVªkWuksad h
rqy uk esavf/kd izHkkoh : i lsifjjf{kr gksxsaA ,fDVukbMksaesacká by sDVªkWu d e n`<rk lst d Msvkca/ku d sfy ,
miy C/k gksrsgSaA
Å ij fopkj fd ;sx;sfofHkUu vfHky {k.kksad slaxr y sUFksukbMksad slkFk ,fDVukbMksad h rqy uk crkrh gSfd y s UFksukbMksa
d k leku O;ogkj ,fDVukbM Js.kh d sf}rh; vk/ksHkkx rd izekf.kr ughagSA ;|fi iwoZd s,fDVukbM rRo ,d &nwl js
d slkFk y sUFksukbMksad sln`'; vf/kd lekurk,an'kkZrsgSarFkk xq.kksaesavkaf'kd vUrj gksrk gS] t ksvkWDlhd j.k voLFkk
esa vUrj d ks vko';d ugha cukrs gSaA y sUFksukbM rFkk ,fDVukbM lad qp u vkd kj ij vf/kd izHkko j[krs gSa rFkk
blfy , rRoksad sxq.k bud slaxr vkorksZaesad ke vkrsgSaA y sUFksukbM lad qp u vf/kd egRoiw.kZgSD;ksafd orZeku le;
ij rRoksad k jlk;u ,fDVukbM d sckjsesad kQ h d e t kurk gSA
d- rFkk f- Cy kWd rRoksad sd qN v uqiz;ksx
vk;ju rFkk LVhy lokZf/kd egRoiw.kZ fuekZ.k d k;Z oky s inkFkZgSaA bud k mRiknu vk;ju vkWDlkbM d s vip;u]
v'kqf) ;ksad ksgVkusrFkk d kcZu d s;ksx rFkk Cr, Mn o Ni d sleku feJ /kkrqv ksaij vk/kkfjr gSaA
TiO o.kZm|ks x esarFkk MnO2 'kq"d csVjh lSy ksaesaiz;qDr gksrk gSA csVjh m|ksx esaZn rFkk Ni/Cd d h Hkh vko';d rk
gksrh gSA
^^flYoj ** UK flDd sCu/Ni feJ /kkrq,agksrh gSA
AIPMTDBC-21

(1038) Sheet 1 D and F Block Elements e PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(1038) Sheet 1 D and F Block Elements e PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

d & f-block elements

Noble metals Cu, Ag, Au, Hg and Pt.

Periodic trends and chemical properties

S.N. Properties DISCRIPTION

Lattice Structures of Transition Metals (Table-1)

hcp hcp bcc bcc X bcc ccp ccp ccp X

89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

Cr and Cu attain extra stability of half-filled and full-filled electronic

metals behaves as typical transition elements, as in their most common

Ti < Zr  Hf (Lanthanide Contraction)

+2 TiX2III VX2 CrX2 MnX2 FeX2 CoX2 NiX2 CuX2II ZnX2

They have high enthalpies

(f) Nichrome (Ni + Cr + Fe)

It is known as silver mirror test of aldehydes and reducing sugars.

(iv) Reactions with Iodine :

3. Potassium Permanganatic (KMnO4)

Structure of manganate and permanganate ion.

This type of behaviour is shown by KMnO4 itself in neutral medium.

(a) It oxidises ethene to glycol.

(e) In neutral/ faintly alkaline solution thiosulphate is quantitatively oxidised to sulphate.

2MnO4– + 3SO32– + 3H2O  2MnO(OH)2 + 3SO42– + 2OH–.

(g) HCHO is oxidised to HCOOH

Structure of Chromate and Dichromate ion

K2Cr2O7 + 2KOH 2K2CrO4 + H2O

Lanthanide series 4f1 – 14 5d0 or 1 6s2

Ce58 – Lu71 14 elements

Table :- Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanides

In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members

Values for E– for the half-reaction:

Table : Electronic Configurations and Radii of Actinium and Actinoids

Table : Oxidation States of Actinium and Actinides

f}rh; rFkk rr̀h; izFke d- Js.kh rRoksaeasd e izp wj

v kofrZrk izof̀r rFkk jklk;fud xq

hcp hcp bcc bcc X bcc ccp ccp ccp X

89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

Cr rFkk Cu by sDVªkWu vfHkfoU;kl d h vkisf{kd O;oLFkk d ks cny us ls v) Ziwfjr rFkk

d soy d qN fHkUu gksrk gSA

d qat h : X = F →I; X1 = F → Br; XII = F, Cl; XIII =Cl→I

;g ijekf.o;d j.k d h mPp

/kkrq,a] t ksv;qfXer by sDVªkWu j[krh gS] vuqp qEcd h; n'kkZrh gSA

y kSg pqEcd h; inkFkZvuqp qEcd Ro d h fo'ks"k fLFkfr d s: i esagksld rsgSaA ft leasfo'ks"k

lsizfrLFkkfir gksld rk gSrFkk blfy , ;g feJ /kkrq;sacukusd h vf/kd re izof̀Rr j[krs

1. flYoj ukbVªsV, AgNO3 (y wukj d kfLVd )

blsvipk;d 'kd Zjk vkS

mi;ksx : ;g iz;qDr gksrk gS

2AgBr(s) + 2OH–(aq) + HO OH (aq) 2Ag(s) + 2H2O() + O O + 2Br–(aq)

3. ikSVsf'k;e ijesxusV (KMnO4)

esxusV rFkk ijesxusV vk;u d h lajpuk

(c) H2S lYQ j esavkWDlhd r̀ gksrk gSA

v Ey h; ek/;e esa(ruqH2SO4 d h mifLFkfr esa) :

(b) jkl k;fud xq.k :

(c) lYQ kbV] lYQ s V esavkWDlhd r̀ gkst krsgSA

(d) H2S, lYQ j esavkWDl hd r̀ gkst krk gSA

(e) SO2 , H2SO4 esavkWDlhd r̀ gkst krk gSA

(f) ;g ,fFky ,Yd ks

CrO2Cl2 + 4OH– CrO42– (ihy k) + 2Cl– + 2H2O

lkj.kh:- y sUFksue rFkk y sUFksukbMksad k by sDVªkWfud foU;kl rFkk f=kT;k,a

v ) Zv fHkfØ ;k d sfy , E– d seku :

lkj.kh: ,fDVfu;e rFkk ,fDVuksbMksad k by sDVªkWfud v fHkfoU;kl rFkk f=kT;k,a

l kj.kh: ,fDVfu;e rFkk ,fDVukbMksad h v kWDl hd j.k v oLFkk,a

lkekU; v fHky {k.k rFkk y SUFkukWbM d slkFk rqy uk :

You might also like