©2017 ACJC History Department

Study Notes: Search for Political Stability

There are 4 main components in this topic:

1) Success/failures of democracy
2) Reasons for the rise of authoritarian/maximum governments
3) Role of the military
4) Role of communism
Please familiarize yourself especially with the case studies. They are rather repetitive but presented in various ways. Trust me, these notes are good
enough to last you all the way till the As. Feel free to clarify with me.

Question: Democracy in newly independent Southeast Asian states failed. How far is this claim true?
Interpretation: The establishment of democratic forms of government had failed to materialize in Southeast Asia.
(topic: success/failures of democracy)
Lines of Argument Case Studies
Supporting Argument 1 Case study 1

The difficult path faced by nations in their search for independence Indonesia’s struggle started even before the Japanese Occupation when
meant that they had to deal with insurmountable social-economic they faced the high-handed nature of Dutch rule which resulted in the

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challenges which became a hindrance to the smooth implementation creation of movements which further divided Indonesian society due to
of a democracy . their diverse aims . In addition, the Japanese Occupation resulted in
economic devastation and further created a divided society especially
amongst the secularists, Muslims and communists. The confrontational
nature of their decolonization process further aggravated their economic
and social plight which took away the focus from the establishment of an
efficient democracy.
Case study 2
The British decision to install minorities in key administrative positions
already created tensions within the Burmese society. Economically, the
Japanese Occupation and the confrontation between AFPFL and the
Japanese forces further devastated Burmese economic resources . The
rather tense relationship between the British and Burma after the war
took away the focus on establishing a smooth democratic process. In
addition, the assassination of Aung San removed the most able person
to exercise democracy in Burma.
Supporting Argument 2 Case study 1

Failure of democratic forms of government to resolve
problems/challenges leading to the rise of authoritarian regimes
instead
Ne Win (1962) would establish a military dictatorship after seizing
power from U Nu who failed to bring about political stability to Burma
despite adhering to a democratic system.
Case study 2
In Indonesia, between 1949 and 1955, there were 5 different cabinets
which was a clear sign of political instability as there was no one cabinet
which was able to stay in power long enough to make a sound political
decision. In addition, the 1955 elections in Indonesia saw support was
split between the PNI (anti-Western), Masyumi (moderate Islamist),

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Challenging Argument 1
Generally democratic forms of government were able to be
established successfully as a result of adequate colonial tutelage.
Nahdatul Islam (conservative Islamist) and PKI, who shared ¾ of the
257 parliamentary seats between them . This inability to establish a clear
consensus provided Sukarno with the justification to assume a dictatorial
position that he claimed would provide a clearer political direction for
Indonesia.
Case study 1
Philippines:
The democratic mission of the US highlighted through the Jones Act
(1916), Tydings-Mcduffie Act (1934) and the subsequent limited self-
government (1935) and the eventual independence of Philippines in
1946 highlighted the amicable nature of relationship between the US
and the Philippines which was continued even into independence.
Case study 2
Malaysia
British acknowledgement of the political rights of the indigenous Malays
since the colonial days through the protection of the power of the
Sultans and the preservation of Malay tradition and customs along with
the unanimous reaction against the Malayan Union in 1946 cemented a
collaborative relationship between the Malay elites and the British
government which survived despite the threat of the emergency . Upon
independence, Malaysia still continued with the Westminster
parliamentary system even after 2 years of maximum control from 1969-
1971.
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Most importantly, the amicable relationship meant that nationalist

leaders and elites had adequate time to concentrate and contemplate on
the establishment of a democratic form of government.

Challenging Argument 2 Case study 1

The introduction of the (Internal Security Act) ISA and enforcement

Generally democratic forms of government were able to address the
threat posed to them and thus able to preserve democratic practices
in their respective countries
actions like Operation Cold Store meant that the government had no
qualms about quashing perceived threats to national security. This posed
as a deterrence to potential threats to the government as well.
Case study 2
The suspension of parliament between 1969-71 to allow for the
establishment of the National Operations Council and the
empowerment of the military to restore social order highlighted the
willingness of democratic governments to wield high-handed measures
just to ensure the protection of the country.

Synthesis: Ultimately, democratic governments were only going to be successful when they have a generally peaceful process towards independence.
In addition, governments which were able to mix genuine democratic practices and authoritarian features in their acts of governance would ensure a
continuous survival of democracy in newly independent
Southeast Asian states

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Question: Cold War politics caused the rise of maximum/authoritarian governments (interchangeable) in independent Southeast Asia states from
1945-1975.

Note: In discussing the rise of authoritarian/maximum regimes, please remember the following acronym : FICO.

F: Failure of democratic forms of government

I: Inability of governments to recognize the real threats posed by their subordinates (eg military)
C: Cold War politics
O: Opportunism and ambition of leaders
Lines of Argument Case Studies
Supporting Argument 1 Case study 1

The US fear of Communist encroachment via North Vietnam meant

Indeed, Cold War politics caused the rise of maximum governments
in Southeast Asia.
that the US had to install an anti-communist bulwark in the South. This
led to the rise of Ngo Dim Diem into Presidency. Ngo was high handed
towards the perceived threat of communism and ended up taking
punitive action which isolated him from the South Vietnamese masses
and shifted their sentiments more towards the communist North.
Case study 2
Marcos capitalized on Nixon’s paranoia of the Domino theory by
highlighting the supposed threat of communism in Southeast Asia ; the
subsequent US funding was used to bolster military operations against

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Challenging argument 1
However, maximum governments were also in power as a result of
the failure of democratic forms of government to establish political
stability.
Challenging argument 2
In addition, the failure of governments in power to recognize the
actual threats of their subordinates would result in the latter
eventually removing them from power, and establishing an
authoritarian regime.
those who were deemed as threats to his political position whether they
were Communists or otherwise . While Marcos was already in power
1965, this act of utilizing US support in 1972 effectively made his powers
as a dictator more absolute than ever before.
Case study 1
Ne Win (1962) would establish a military dictatorship after seizing
power U Nu who failed to bring about political stability to Burma
despite adhering to a democratic system.
Case study 2
In Indonesia, between 1949 and 1955, there were 5 different cabinets
which was a clear sign of political instability as there was no one cabinet
which was able to stay in power long enough to make a sound political
decision. In addition , the 1955 elections in Indonesia saw support was
split between the PNI (anti-Western), Masjumi (moderate Islamist),
Nahdatul Islam (conservative Islamist) and PKI, who shared ¾ of the
257 parliamentary seats between them. This inability to establish a clear
consensus provided Sukarno with the justification to assume a dictatorial
position which he claimed would provide a clearer political direction for
Indonesia.
Case Study 1
Ngo Dim Diem’s use of the army led by Marshal Ky to impose his
authoritarian and unpopular practices caused Ngo to lose ground
support which was a concern to the American government as this meant
the tide was turning in favour of the Communist North. As such,
America’s CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) and Marshal Ky’s military
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collaborated to assassinate Ngo and install a military government to take

on the Communist in the North . Ngo’s trust in Marshal Ky thus
backfired as his trusted personnel turned against him eventually.

Case Study 2
When Sukarno assumed power in Indonesia (1955 ) the military
became his strong arm in keeping the increasing communist influence of
PKI at bay while also deterring the Muslim factions such as Nahdatul
Islam and Masjumi from attempting a political manoeuvre at him. The
military was also the executioner of his aggressive foreign affair policies
as seen in his ability to seize West Iran from the Dutch in 1963 and also
provoking Malaysia and Singapore in 1963’s Konfrontasi ; acts which
further increased his demi-god stature in the eyes of the Indonesian
masses. However, his failure to address Indonesia’s inflation rate which
rose to 1500% and his increasingly amicable relationship with PKI (to
balance off the threat of Muslim factions and the military) led to the
military eventually seizing power from him in 1965 by placing his
general, Suharto in power and putting Sukarno under house arrest until
his eventual death.
Challenging Argument 3 Case study 1

Furthermore, it was the opportunism and ambition on the part of Ne Win was opportunistic as he saw U Nu’s poor decision making in
leaders which put them into power and thus enabling them to granting autonomy/independence for the Shan and making Buddhist a
exercise authoritarian practices. state religion as the perfect pretext for him to seize power.
Case study 2

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Sukarno saw how the democratic system caused too much confusion
and used the political incoherence to justify his ascendance into
leadership. (“clearer political direction for Indonesia”) Suharto himself
saw how Sukarno’s leadership caused further political divisions and
worsened Indonesia’s crumbling economy and used to opportunity to
elevate himself into power.

Case study 3
Marcos also cemented his position as dictator by capitalizing on the US
paranoia of the Domino Theory to gain more financial support to his
military.
Synthesis: Synthesis The failure of democratic forms of government set the foundations for the rise of the authoritarian and maximum governments
which was subsequently catalysed by Cold War politics and the inability of governments to perceive actual threats to their authority. The
opportunism of leaders was to trigger off the eventual takeover and rise of maximum governments to power.

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Question: Analyze the role of the military in newly independent Southeast Asia states from 1945-1975.
Lines of Argument Case Studies
Formed the government Ne Win (1962) and Suharto (1965) would establish a military
dictatorship after seizing power from governments (U Nu in Burma &
Sukarno in Indonesia) which failed to bring about political stability to
their respective countries
Became the protectors of dictatorial regimes Case study 1
When Sukarno assumed power in Indonesia (1955) the military became
his strong arm in keeping the increasing communist influence of PKI at
bay while also deterring the Muslim factions such as Nahdatul Islam and
Masjumi from attempting a political manoeuvre at him. The military was
also the executioner of his aggressive foreign affair policies as seen in his
ability to seize West Irian from the Dutch in 1963 and also provoking
Malaysia and Singapore in 1963’s Konfrontasi; acts which further
increased his demi-god stature in the eyes of the Indonesian masses.
Case study 2
Marcos capitalized on Nixon’s paranoia of the Domino theory by
highlighting the supposed threat of communism in Southeast Asia; the
subsequent US funding was used to bolster military operations against
those who were deemed as threats to his political position whether they
were Communists or otherwise. Like Sukarno, the army became the
executioner of his policies which further bolstered his position.

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Removed authoritarian regimes to restore democratic structures and
practices (only 1 case study)
Military also helped to support and preserve the authority of
governments which practice democracy
Synthesis: The politics of independent Southeast Asia was shaped in different ways by the military, who could either play a more dominant and
direct role in affecting politics or a more subordinate role in supporting incumbent governments.
Having had enough of Marcos corrupt regime and his high-handedness
towards his own people, the military led by Secretary of Defence and
Deputy Chief of Staff of the Military, Fidel Ramos, pledged support to
opposition leader Corazon Aquino and staged a mutiny backed by
millions of civilians which saw the eventual removal of Marcos.
Case study 1
Malaysia’s military came under the National Operations Council and
managed to restore social order for the period between 1969-1971 after
the 1969 racial riots.
Case study 2
Ne Win (before becoming a military dictator) for the period between
1958-1960 played a fundamental role in restoring order by putting down
the threat posed by the Communists and minority factions in Burma
which allowed for U Nu to win the subsequent elections in 1960 with a
convincing margin.
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Question: Analyze the role of Communism in newly independent Southeast Asia states from 1945-1975.
Lines of Argument Case studies
Formed the government Became the government of North Vietnam in 1954 upon the withdrawal
of the French after the defeat at the battle of Dien Bien Phu *
Became the government of unified Vietnam in 1975 after the US
withdrawal
Became the government of Laos under Pathet Lao when the US
decided to withdraw from Indochina in 1975
Became threats to the independent Southeast Asian governments Case study 1
and were eventually put down MCP in Malaya during the Emergency between 1948-1960
Hukbalahaps were a prominent threat to the Philippines until the might
of the US backed Philippines military and Roman Magsaysay’s land
reform policies which won over the hearts of the peasantry decimated
them
Brought external influences into the region Case study 1
The fear of North Vietnam extending its influence into South Vietnam
prior to the 1956 referendum caused the US to physically interfere in
Vietnam’s domestic policies.
Case study 2
Similarly, the rise of the communist party, Pathet Lao in Laos meantthat
the US also extended its interference in Indochina from 1954-1975

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Contributed to the rise of maximum governments in Southeast Asia
Became the basis for the formation of a regional organization
Synthesis: The role of communism varied from a peripheral to a regional threat.
Case study 3
The paranoia on the part of the US administration of the
DominoTheory meant that there was significant US military presence in
Thailand as a precautionary measure especially in the late 60s and 70s.
Entertainment industries and outlets (eg red light districts) were
established to cater to the needs of these military personnel. Thai
economy experienced a boost.
Case study 1
Marcos capitalized on Nixon’s paranoia of the Domino theory by
highlighting the supposed threat of communism in Southeast Asia; the
subsequent US funding was used to bolster military operations against
those who were deemed as threats to his political position whether they
were Communists or otherwise.
Case study 2
U Nu’s failure to deal with the threat posed by National United Front
(NUF) gave legitimacy for Ne Win to eventually seize power and form a
military junta/regime .
ASEAN was founded in 1967 by anti-communist states to counter the
spread of communist influence in Southeast Asia.
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