UNIT – 1

ENERGY SOURCES
Non renewable energy sources
Introduction:
A fuel is defined as naturally occurring or artificially manufactured combustible carbonaceous material
which serves particularly as source of heat and light and also in few cases as a source of raw material.
FUEL + O2 PRODUCTS + HEAT
More heat energy content Lesser heat energy content

Classification of chemical fuels:-

Fuels are classified into a two types
1) Based on their origin they are classified into
a) Primary fuels
b) Secondary fuels.
a) Primary Fuels: These are naturally occurring fuels which serves as source of energy without any
chemical processing.
Ex: Wood, Coal, Crude oil, Natural gas.
b) Secondary Fuels: - These are derived from primary fuels & serves as source of energy only after
subjecting to chemical processing.
Ex: Charcoal, Coke, producer gas, Petrol, Diesel etc.
2) Based on their physical states, fuel are classified into
a) Solid
b) Liquid
c) Gaseous fuel
Classification of Solid fuels Liquid fuels Gaseous fuels
chemical fuels
Primary fuels Wood, coal, peat, Crude oil Natural gas
anthracite.
Secondary Fuels Charcoal, Coke Petrol(gasoline), diesel, Gaseous, Producer gas,
kerosene coal gas, LPG
Calorific value :
Calorific value is defined as the amount of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuel is burnt completely in
presence of air or oxygen.
Calorific value is of two types as follows:
1) Higher calorific value. (HCV) or Gross calorific value. (GCV)
2) Lower calorific value. (LCV) or Net calorific value. (NCV)
1) HCV:
It is the amount of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuels burnt completely in the presence of air or oxygen
and the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature. Here it includes the heat liberated during
combustion and the latent heat of steam. Hence its value is always higher than lower calorific value.

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2) LCV:
It is amount of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuel is burnt completely in the presence of air or oxygen
and the product of combustion are let off completely into air. It does not include the latent heat of steam.
Therefore it is always lesser than HCV.
LCV = HCV – Latent heat of steam.
= HCV –0.09 x % H2 X 587 X 4.187 kJ/kg
= HCV- 0.09 x % H2 X 2457 kJ/kg
SI units of calorific value.
In SI system the unit of calorific value for solid fuels are expressed in kJ/Kg, for gaseous and liquid fuels are
expressed in kJ/m3.
Determination of calorific value of solid fuel using Bomb calorimeter:-
Construction
Bomb calorimeter consists of air tight sealed cylindrical stainless steel bomb in which combustion of fuel
takes place. Bomb has a lid, which is provided with two stainless steel rods and an oxygen inlet valve. To
one of the rod, a small ring is attached. In this ring a stainless steel crucible can be supported. The bomb is
placed in a copper calorimeter, which is surrounded by air jacket and water jacket to prevent heat losses due
to radiation. The copper calorimeter is provided with a mechanical stirrer for dissipation of heat and a
Beckmann’s thermometer to read accurately the temperature rise.
Working
A small quantity of a fuel is weighed accurately (M Kg) and is placed in the Bomb. The bomb is placed in
known amount water taken in a copper calorimeter. The initial temp of water is noted as t10c with the help of
thermometer. Oxygen gas is pumped under pressure 20 to 25 atm through the O2 valve provided.
The fuel is ignited by passing electric current through the wires provided. As the fuel undergoes
combustion and liberates heat, which is absorbed by surrounding water.
The water is stirred continuously to distribute the
heat uniformly and the final temp attained by water
is noted as t20c & gross calorific value of the fuel is
calculated as follows:-
Calculation:
Mass of the fuel = M Kg.
Weight of water taken in calorimeter= w Kg

Initial temp of the water = t10c , Final temp of the water = t20c
Change in temp = t = (t2 – t1)0 c
Specific heat of water = S
Water equivalent of calorimeter = W Kg.

(OR)

NCV= GCV-0.09 X %H2 X 2457 J/g

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CRACKING
Introduction:
Cracking is defined as “the decomposition of bigger, higher boiling hydrocarbons (of high mol. wt.) into
simpler, low boiling hydrocarbons (of low mol. Wt.).
Cracking

C10H22 C5H12 + C5H10

Decane n-Pentane Pentene
There are two different methods for cracking:
1. Thermal cracking
2. Catalytic cracking
Thermal cracking:
In thermal cracking heavy oils are subjected to high temperature and pressure (upto 4000C).In this process
the hydrocarbon molecules brake down into simpler molecules of alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen.
Catalytic cracking:
The cracking is carried out in the presence of catalyst like aluminum silicate or alumina at milder conditions
such as low temperature and low pressure.
Cracking by the Fluidized bed catalytic cracking process:
Cracking is a process that involves breaking of C-C and C-H bonds in the chains of high boiling
hydrocarbons of high molecular weight, to yield simpler, low boiling hydrocarbons of low molecular
weight.
Fluidized bed catalytic cracking method

The catalyst such as Alumina or zeolite is finely powered and mixed with steam and it is pumped to
cracking chamber. The feedstock (gas oil, heavy oil) is preheated to 5000c and forced into the cracking
chamber along with the catalyst by a steam blast where a floating turbulent bed forms.
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 In cracking chamber the higher molecular weight hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler
fragments. The products are withdrawn and sent to fractionating column for separation.
Regeneration: The catalyst becomes inactive after certain usage. Then it is sent to catalyst activation
chamber (regeneration chamber) and it is activated by burning carbon deposited on the catalyst by air blast
at 6000c and oil vapors by a blast of steam. The catalyst can be used again and again and thus the process is
continuous.
SYNTHETIC PETROL:
It is said that 'Necessity is the mother of invention'. Countries that have shortage of petroleum resources
started producing petrol from non-petroleum sources. '
"Petrol obtained from non-petroleum source is called synthetic petrol".
Fischer-Tropsch Process:
This process essentially consists of reduction of carbon monoxide (CO) with hydrogen (H2) to get alkanes
and
olefins.

Coal is first destructively distilled to get coke. Coke is heated to red hot condition and
steam is passed over it. Water gas is produced
C + H2 O → CO + H2
Coke Steam Water Gas
Mixture of water gas and hydrogen at a temperature of around 200-300°C in presence
of iron or cobalt catalyst, gives mixture of alkanes and alkenes.
nCO + (2n+1)H2 → CnH2n+2 + nH2O
nCO + 2nH2 → CnH2n + nH2O
On fractional distillation of the product, gasoline is obtained as one of the fractions.
Octane number:-
Octane number is defined as the percentage of isooctane present in a standard mixture of isooctane and n-
heptane, which knocks at the same compression ratio as the petrol being tested.
Isooctane is the branched chain hydrocarbon has least knocking rate, hence its octane number is
arbitrarily fixed as 100. N-heptane a straight chain hydrocarbon has highest tendency to knock hence its
octane number is fixed as zero. Octane number of petrol is 80 means it contains 80% by volume isooctane
and 20% by volume n- heptane.

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Gasoline Knocking- Mechanism and harmful effects:-
Knocking: The explosive combustion of petrol and air mixture produces shock waves in I.C. engine, which
hit the walls of the cylinder and piston producing a rattling sound is known as knocking.
Mechanism of Knocking
Beyond a particular compression ratio the petrol mixture suddenly burns into flame. The rate of
flame propagation increases from 20-25 m/s to 2500 m/s, which propagates very fast, producing a rattling
sound. The activated peroxide molecules decomposes to give number of gaseous products which produces
thermal shock waves which hit the walls of the cylinder and piston causing a rattling sound which is known
as knocking. The reactions of normal and explosive combustion of fuel can be given as follows taking
ethane as an example

Harmful effects of knocking-

 It increases fuel consumption
 It decreases power output
 It produces undesirable rattling noise
 It causes mechanical damage to engine parts such as piston, spark plug and engine walls.
ANTIKNOCKING AGENTS-TEL
The substances added to petrol in order to prevent knocking in I.C. Engines are called as antiknocking
agents.
Ex: TEL  Tetra Ethyl lead.
TML  Tetra Methyl lead.
MTBE  Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether.
Tetraethyl lead (TEL), Pb (C2H5)4
It is an extensively used antiknocking agent. The petrol containing TEL or TML as anti knocking agents is
called leaded petrol. Tetra ethyl lead is added in the form of ethyl fluid which contains 63% TEL, 26%
dibromoethane and 9% dichloroethane. The halogen compounds converts the less volatile lead into more
volatile lead halides which escape into air along with exhaust gases.TEL forms Pb and PbO, which act as
free radical chain inhibitors and thus curtail the propagation of explosive chain reaction and minimize
knocking.TEL or TML are the very good anti knocking agents but has some disadvantages as follows.
a) After combustion lead is deposited as lead oxide on piston and engine walls it leads to
mechanical damage.
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 b) Lead is a poisonous air pollutant.
c) It spoils the catalyst used in catalytic converter.
UNLEADED PETROL:
Unleaded petrol does not contain any lead compound. To improve its octane number, the process of
reforming increases concentration of high-octane components. In addition to it, compounds like Methyl
tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is added to petrol, improve the octane number of petrol in IC engines, thereby
reducing considerably the formation of peroxy compounds which causes knocking.
POWER ALCOHOL (GASOHOL)
A mixture of ethyl alcohol and gasoline blend, which can be used as fuel in internal combustion engine, is
known as power alcohol or gasohol. Gasohol contains 10-85% ethanol and 90-15% gasoline (petrol) by
volume. Absolute alcohol is mixed with ether, benzene etc compounds and one volume of this is mixed with
four volumes of petrol and is used as a fuel.
Advantages:
 The power out put is good.
 It has better antiknock property.
 Ethanol is biodegradable; hence it is environmental friendly fuel.
 The use of ethanol in alcohol increases the oxygen content of the fuels and promotes more and complete
combustion of hydrocarbons in gasoline.
 It reduces carbon monoxide emission.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Alcohol lowers the calorific value of petrol.
 Alcohol is easily oxidized to acids, hence alcohol may cause corrosion.
 Alcohol absorbs moisture and as a result, separation of alcohol and petrol layers takes place specially at
low temperature.
BIODIESEL:
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil or animal fat based diesel fuel consisting of a long chain alkyl ester which
includes methyl, ethyl and propyl. It is produced from vegetable oils such as soybean, jatropha, corn,
sunflower, rapeseed, and cotton seed etc. using transesterification method.
PRODUCTION:
Biodiesel is commonly produced by the transesterification of vegetable or animal fat.
In this method oils, fats, waste vegetable oils, cooking oil and animal waste are heated with methyl alcohol
in the presence of NaOH. The resulting mixture of monoalkyl esters of fatty acid is referred to as biodiesel.

(Biodiesel)
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Advantages of biodiesel:
i) It has higher cetane number compared to diesel.
ii) It is biodegradable
iii) It is made using renewable sources
iv) Less emission of harmful gases
v) It reduces greenhouse gases
vi) It is non-toxic
Disadvantages of biodiesel:
i) Biodiesel fuel is more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel.
ii) As biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine, the dirt gets collected in the fuel filter and clogs. So
filters have to be changed after several hours of its usage.
iii) Biodiesel fuel distribution infrastructure needs improvement
Application:
 It has been used as an alternative fuel in diesel engine
 It can be used for domestic and commercial boilers

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

INTRODUCTION
SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION AND CONVERSION
A wide range of power technologies exist which can make use of the solar energy reaching earth and
converting them into different useful forms of energy. Solar energy utilization can be of two types - Direct
solar power and indirect solar power.
Direct solar power:
Direct solar power involves only one step transformation into a usable form.
Examples:
 Sunlight hits photovoltaic cell (also called a photoelectric cell) generating electricity.
 Sunlight hits the dark absorber surface of a solar thermal collector and the surface warms. The heat
energy may be carried away by a fluid circuit.
 Sunlight strikes a solar sail on a space craft and is converted directly into a force on the cause’s
motion of the craft.
Indirect solar power:
Indirect solar power involves more than one transformation to reach a usable form.
Examples:
 Vegetation uses photosynthesis to convert solar energy to chemical energy, which can later be
burnt as fuel to generate electricity (biofuel). Methane (natural gas) may be derived from the
biofuel.
 Hydroelectric dams and wind turbines are powered by solar energy through its interaction with the
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 Earth's atmosphere and the resulting weather phenomena.
 Ocean thermal energy production uses the thermal gradients that are present across ocean depths to
generate power. These temperature differences are ultimately due to the energy of the sun.
 Energy obtained from oil, coal, and peat originated as solar energy captured by vegetation in the
remote geological past and fossilized. Hence the term fossil fuel. The great time delay between the
input of the solar energy and its recovery means these are not practically renewable and therefore
not normally classified as solar power.
Advantages
 Solar power is relatively pollution free.
 Facilities can operate with little maintenance or intervention after initial setup.
 Solar power is becoming more and more economical as costs associated with production decreases,
and the technology becomes more effective in energy conversion.
 Solar power can be viewed as a local resource because of regional climatic variances.
 Some countries, regions, etc (such as island communities, desolate regions etc.) are harvesting solar
power as a viable energy resource than purchasing energy from other costly sources.
Disadvantages:
 It is only practical in certain areas with a favorable climate and latitude. That is, areas near the
tropics and which are relatively cloud free.
 It is not available at night and is reduced when there is cloud cover, decreasing the reliability of
peak output performance.
 It must be converted into some other form of energy to be stored for times when conditions are
prohibitive or to drive transport.
 Solar cell technologies produce DC power which must be converted to the AC power when used
in distribution grids.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL - CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
Photovoltaic cells or Solar cells are the semiconductor devices which converts sunlight into direct current
electricity.
Sunlight consists of Electromagnetic radiation of particles called Photons (hν).The photons carry a
certain amount of energy given by the Planck quantum equation,
E=hc / λ
Where h is Planck’s constant, c is the velocity of light and λ is the wavelength of the radiation.
The Solar cells or Photovoltaic cells are made out of semiconductors which have the capacity to
absorb light. When n-type and p-type semiconductor are bought together a semiconductor diode is formed.
The semiconductor diode separates and collects the carriers and conducts the generated electrical current
preferentially in a specific direction.

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 A typical silicon photovoltaic cell is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra thin layer of
phosphorus doped (n-type) silicon on top of boron doped (p-type) silicon. Hence a p-n junction is formed. A
metallic grid forms one of the electrical current contacts of the diode and allows light to fall on the
semiconductor between the grid lines. An antireflective layer between the grid lines increases the amount of
light transmitted to the semiconductor. The cell’s other electrical contact is formed by a metallic layer on the
back of the solar cell.
When light radiation falls on the p-n junction diode, electron – hole pairs are generated by the
absorption of the radiation. The electrons are drifted to and collected at the n-type end and the holes are
drifted to p-type end. When these two ends are electrically connected through a conductor, there is a flow of
current between the two ends through the external circuit. Thus photoelectric current is produced.

Advantages and disadvantages of PV cells

The advantages of solar cells are
 Make use of renewable source of energy.
 Need no recharging.
 Have no movable parts and hence do not suffer from wear and tear.
 Operate at ambient temperature.
 Do not corrode.
 Use renewable source of energy, produce no pollution and therefore, environmental friendly.
 Quick installation.

Disadvantages
 Work only in presence of sunlight.
 The efficiency of solar cells depends on the seasonal variations, latitude and climate
 Conversion efficiency per square meter of the panel surface is around 14-19%. A 30% efficient
gallium arsenide or indium selenide multi-junction cell are expensive
 Space is a constraint that is space required to generate unit power output is relatively more.
 Dust often accumulates on the panel thus reducing its efficiency.
 High installation cost.
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PRODUCTION OF SOLAR GRADE SILICON (UNION CARBIDE PROCESS)
The following steps are involved in the process:
Silica (SiO2) is reduced to silicon using carbon (coal) in an electric arc furnace heated at
1500 - 2000°c.
SiO2 + C 1500 - 2000°C Si + 2CO
Molten Si obtained above is treated with air and fresh silica as a flux to remove the
impurities Al, Mg and Ca.
4Al + 3SiO2 → 2Al2O3+ 3Si
2Mg + SiO2 → 2MgO + Si
2Ca + SiO2 → 2CaO + Si

Oxides of Al, Mg and Ca form insoluble slag with excess of silica which is separated as
molten Si.
For example: MgO + SiO2 → MgSiO3 (slag)
Silicon obtained after this step is called as metallurgical grade Si (98%).
Metallurgical grade Si is treated with dry HCI at 300°c to obtain trichlorosilane
and tetrachlorosilane.
Si + 3HCl → HSiCl3 + H2
Trichlorosilane

Si + 4HCl → SiC14 + 2H2

Tetrachlorosilane
Trichlorosilane is removed by distillation and tetrachlorosilane is converted into
trichlorosilane by hydrogenating in a reactor at 1000°c.
SiCl4 + H2 → HSiCl3 + HCl
Trichlorosilane is converted into silane by passing through fixed bed columns
containing quaternary ammonium ion exchange resin as catalyst. Silane obtained
in each step is removed by distillation.
6HSiCl3 → 3H2SiCl2 + 3SiCl4
Dichlorosilane
3H2SiCl2 → SiH4 + 2HSiCl3
Silane
Tetrachlorosilane and trichlorosilane obtained in the above steps are again passed through
reactor and fixed bed columns respectively and finally converted to silane.
Silane obtained in the above step is subjected to pyrolysis in a reactor at high temperature. In
pyrolysis reactor, pure Si rods are used for heating. Si formed by decomposition of silane gets
deposited over these pure Si rods.

Si thus obtained can be further purified by zone refining.

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PURIFICATION OF SILICON (ZONE REFINING)

Silicon of 99.99% purity can be obtained by zone refining.

The principle of zone refining is that when a solid is melted, the
impurities tend to concentrate in the molten zone.

A vertical zone refiner is used in the purification of silicon.

A rod of silicon to be purified is clamped as shown in Fig. and is
heated by a RF coil to the melting point of silicon in the presence
of argon gas. The heater is moved very slowly from top to bottom.This is said to be one zone pass.
Impurities move with the molten part of the material as the RF coil moves down. Pure silicon solidifies at
the upper portion. When the process is complete, the bottom portion where the impurities are concentrated is
removed. The rod is subjected to several zone passes to get ultrapure silicon.
WIND ENERGY
The energy from moving air (blowing wind) used by wind mills is referred as wind energy.The rapid
depletion of fossil fuels, environmental pollution from industrial effluents and the threat of greenhouse gases
pose a depressing scene on the energy front. Even nuclear power, thought to be a key element in reducing
greenhouse emissions, does not lend itself to a defined progress.
Although renewable energy is a resourceful option for the crisis, like the solar energy, wind energy
is a very important non-conventional source of energy. The wind has got the capacity to serve as a
renewable source of energy for the benefit of human beings.
The harnessing technology of wind energy is simple. The strike of the blowing wind on specially
designed blades of a windmill’s rotor causes both to rotate. This rotation, which is the mechanical energy,
when coupled to a turbine, drives the power generator. The wind energy thus delivers on the spot small
quantities of energy which is free from pollution and environmental degradation. An Ideal wind speed for
wind turbine is considered to be in the range of 4.0 to 25 m/sec.
ADVANTAGES OF WIND POWER
Some of the advantages of wind power plant over conventional systems are:
a) The gestation period is low and power generation starts from commissioning. Once generation
starts, cost free power is available.
b) Installing wind turbines is flexible because each generator’s capacity is relatively small and can
generate power immediately after installation.
c) Power generation is cheaper because there is no shortage of input cost and recurring expenses are
almost nil.
d) Wind energy is environment friendly and pollution free.

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Installation of wind turbines involves an initial investment of about 3.6 cores per MW without allowed
depreciation. Once the turbines start generating power, they remain operational upto about 20 years.
Investment is paid back over 7 years. Thereafter, power is procured at 40 paisa per unit without any
investment. Power generated from wind turbines is exempted from sales tax.
DISADVANTAGES OF WIND POWER
Wind power can be significant only if there are large coastal, hill and desert areas where wind energy can be
usefully exploited for generation of electricity and water pumping. The future for India in harnessing wind
energy is very high because of the existence of large coastal, hill and desert areas.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:
The heat from the underground streams or the heat stored in the hot rocks beneath the earth’s surface is
called geothermal energy. Heat from the molten core of the earth offers a huge and sustainable energy
source. This geothermal energy can be used for space heating or for boiling water and regenerate steam to
drive turbo generators. In volcanic regions of the earth, the hot rock is relatively close to the surface. Also,
in such regions sometimes, the natural ground water comes in contact with the hot rock and the heated water
or steam may find its way to the surface through natural steam vents. In such regions, holes can be drilled
into the hot rock-ground –water structure and make the rising steam to drive turbo generators to produce
electric power. The world’s largest geothermal energy production facility exists at a location known as
“The Geysors” near San Francisco in U.S. The electrical output from this facility in the year 1988 was
about 2000 megawatts, which is equivalent to the power produced by two large nuclear power plants.
Similar geothermal facilities exist in the Philippines, Mexico, Japan, Italy and Iceland, generating a total
power of about 3,000 megawatts.
However, the problems with the Geysers was that while the source of heat is unlimited, the amount
of ground water is not. This is the reason why power output from the Geysers has been steadily declining
since 1988. What is happening at the Geysers is similar to the “pot” boiling dry. Attempts are underway to
inject water into it but the results are not conclusive.
Natural steam vents occur only in a few regions whereas hot dry rock structures are available in
almost all places if we can drill deep enough (about 5 to 6 km) to reach them. Two parallel holes can be
drilled into the hot rock and fractures created between the two holes. Water is forced down one of the holes
which gets heated as it seeps through the fractures and the steam so formed comes out from the other hole.
This steam can be used to drive turbines to produce electricity. Attempts are in progress to solve the
technological problems involved in such an approach.
1. Geothermal power production may be accompanied with the following problems:
2. Hot steam and water coming to the surface are usually contaminated with salts and other
pollutants such as sulphur compounds. Some of these contaminants are highly corrosive to
turbines and other equipment. They may also cause air pollution if the steam escapes into the
atmosphere. SO2 pollution from a geothermal plant may be as much as that of a high--
Sulphur-coal based thermal power plant.
3. Hot brine released into surface waters may be ecologically hazardous.

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