Cooling Tower Project Report PDF

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Engro Fertilizers Limited | Daharki

Internship 2011 | Project Report
Cooling Tower
Chemistry and Performance Improvement
Prepared for
Training Department
Engro Fertilizers Limited (EFERT)
Daharki, District Ghotki, Sindh
Prepared by
Osama Hasan
Operations (URUT III) Intern
School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
Email: osama_hasan@hotmail.com
Contact: 03453034516
August 2011
Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

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1 Transmittal
August 24, 2011
Mr. Jehangir Alam Khan
Internship Coordinator
Training Department
Engro Fertilizers Daharki Limited
Dear Sir
Please find enclosed the internship report due August 24, 2011. The report as requisite by your
office has been drafted on the assigned project “Study the Cooling Tower Chemistry and
Identify Key Parameters for Improving Performance”. The report discusses the cooling tower
design, chemistry and performance parameters along with the suitable recommendations for
the assigned project. Feedback will be most appreciated.
Kind Regards
Osama Hasan
Intern Operation (URUT III)
Undergraduate Student at
School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
H – 12 Islamabad – 44000
2008 – NUST – BE – Chem – 27
Email: osama_hasan@hotmail.com
Mobile: 03453034516
Countersigned
Amer Ahmed Asim Rasheed Qureshi

(Mentor) (Group Leader)
Shift Supervisor URUT III Unit Manager URUT III

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2 Acknowledgement
Author is thankful to
Almighty Allah,
For His unlimited blessings and bounties,
And for keeping him sane, sound and successful;
His parents and friends,
For all their support and trust in him and his aims;
His teachers and guides,
For teaching him things he knew not;
NUST Career Development Centre,
For bringing the opportunity of this excellent learning and exposure;
And last and the most important
Management and Employees of Engro Fertilizers Limited
Especially his mentor Mr. Amer Ahmed and Unit Manager Mr. Asim Rasheed Qureshi
And all the shift coordinators, supervisors, trainee engineers, boardmen and area operators at Plant II
For their utmost help, guidance and time
Which made author make most of his internship at plant site;

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3 Table of Contents
1 Transmittal............................................................................................................................... 2
2 Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................... 3
3 Table of Contents..................................................................................................................... 4
4 List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... 6
5 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ 6
6 List of Equations ...................................................................................................................... 6
7 Abstract.................................................................................................................................... 7
8 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 8
9 Cooling Tower .......................................................................................................................... 9
9.1 Components ..................................................................................................................... 9
9.2 Materials ........................................................................................................................ 11
9.3 Types .............................................................................................................................. 12
9.3.1 Natural draft cooling tower .................................................................................... 12
9.3.2 Mechanical draft cooling tower .............................................................................. 12
9.3.3 Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers .............................................................................. 13
9.3.4 Hybrid Towers ......................................................................................................... 13
9.4 Performance ................................................................................................................... 15
9.5 Assessment..................................................................................................................... 18
9.6 Factors Affecting Performance ...................................................................................... 18
9.6.1 Design...................................................................................................................... 18
9.6.2 Fill media effects ..................................................................................................... 24
9.6.3 Water Distribution .................................................................................................. 25
9.6.4 Fans ......................................................................................................................... 25
9.7 General Improvement Procedures................................................................................. 26
10 Cooling Water Chemistry ................................................................................................... 28
10.1 Corrosion ........................................................................................................................ 28
10.1.1 Corrosion Control .................................................................................................... 29
10.1.2 Corrosion Inhibitors ................................................................................................ 29

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10.1.3 Inhibitor Selection ................................................................................................... 30

10.2 Scaling............................................................................................................................. 31
10.2.1 Types ....................................................................................................................... 31
10.2.2 Deposit Control Methods ....................................................................................... 32
10.3 Microbial Growth ........................................................................................................... 35
10.3.1 Problems ................................................................................................................. 35
10.3.2 Selection of Micro Biocides..................................................................................... 36
10.3.3 Oxidizing Toxicants ................................................................................................. 37
10.3.4 Non Oxidizing Biocides ............................................................................................ 40
10.4 Chemical Dosing at CT – 4 .............................................................................................. 40
11 Performance Improvement ............................................................................................... 42
11.1 Water Use....................................................................................................................... 42
11.1.1 Reduce water loss ................................................................................................... 42
11.1.2 Reduce blow down.................................................................................................. 43
11.1.3 Use alternative water supplies ............................................................................... 44
11.1.4 Reuse blow down .................................................................................................... 44
11.2 Water treatment ............................................................................................................ 44
11.2.1 Sulphuric “Acid” Treatment .................................................................................... 45
11.2.2 Side Stream Filtration ............................................................................................. 45
11.2.3 Ozone ...................................................................................................................... 46
11.2.4 Magnets .................................................................................................................. 46
11.2.5 Sonication ............................................................................................................... 47
11.2.6 Electro coagulation ................................................................................................. 47
11.2.7 Activated carbon ..................................................................................................... 47
11.2.8 Ultraviolet radiation (UV)........................................................................................ 47
11.2.9 Hydrocavitation....................................................................................................... 48
11.2.10 Radio frequencies................................................................................................ 48
12 Recommendation............................................................................................................... 49
13 References ......................................................................................................................... 50

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4 List of Figures
Figure 1 Schematic of an Induced Draft Cooling Tower ................................................................. 9
Figure 2 Cooling Tower Types ....................................................................................................... 14
Figure 3 Range and approach schematic ...................................................................................... 16
Figure 4 Tower size v/s approach ................................................................................................. 22
Figure 5 Tower size v/s wet-bulb .................................................................................................. 22
Figure 6 Tower size v/s head load................................................................................................. 23
Figure 7 Tower size v/s range variance ......................................................................................... 23
Figure 8 Corrosion cell .................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 9 Biofouled Heat Exchanger............................................................................................... 35
Figure 10 Hierarchy of opportunities............................................................................................ 42
Figure 11 Hydrocavitation system ................................................................................................ 48
5 List of Tables
Table 1 Types of Cooling Towers .................................................................................................. 15
Table 2 Design Values of Different Fills ........................................................................................ 24
Table 3 Chemical Dosing Rate ....................................................................................................... 41
Table 4 Chemical Dosing at CT 4 ................................................................................................... 41
Table 5 Treatment options comparison ....................................................................................... 46
6 List of Equations
Equation 1 CT Range ..................................................................................................................... 15
Equation 2 CT Approach ............................................................................................................... 16
Equation 3 CT Effectiveness .......................................................................................................... 16
Equation 4 Evaporation Loss ......................................................................................................... 17
Equation 5 Blow down .................................................................................................................. 17
Equation 6 Liquid/Gas ratio .......................................................................................................... 17
Equation 7 CT Range Def. 2........................................................................................................... 18
Equation 8 Water losses ............................................................................................................... 42
Equation 9 Cycle of Concentration C.O.C. .................................................................................... 43

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7 Abstract
Cooling towers are one of the most important industrial utilities used to dissipate the unwanted
process heat to the atmosphere through the cooling water in the heat exchangers across the
plant site. Cooling tower is one of the most expensive utility in terms of power consumption
and water circulation. Maintaining water quality in the circulation loops is one of the major
challenges in process optimization for most efficient performance. To identify the key
performance parameters with respect to perspective of the operations’ team, the water
chemistry is the most crucial level and demands proper understanding to maintain complete
control over the variations.
Latest technological developments have made the water conservation more efficient and use of
chemicals more limited by introducing “Recycling / reusing water practices” and “Chemical
free platforms”. With limited options available to the designed and operating cooling tower,
these areas could be explored for better and cost effective performance and environment
friendly impact.

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8 Introduction
“You cannot create experience, you must undergo it”
Industrial internships are incomparable experience for an undergraduate student. With
fertilizer industry holding the maximum learning potential for a chemical engineer, Engro leaves
an impact of its own. The six week internship experience is unique in every sense of the word.
The learning opportunities and industrial exposure at the EFERT made not just possible to relate
the book knowledge to field application but also in developing a thorough understanding of
industrial practices and operating concepts.
Enven 1.3 – the world largest single train ammonia urea complex was an amazing experience
for the author. From the up to date urea complex technology to world’s tallest prilling tower, it
added many landmarks in list of experience. With internship project over cooling water
chemistry and performance improvement parameters, the author has compiled the information
on cooling water design, chemistry and operation; which could serve as a comprehensive study
aid on the subject. The recommendations generated are but most effective to date, which
should be considered with economical feasibility.

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9 Cooling Tower
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cooling
tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively inexpensive and
dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water source
is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the
cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other
units for further cooling.Cooling towers are able to lower the water temperatures more than
devices that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car, and are therefore more cost-
effective and energy efficient.
Figure 1 Schematic of an Induced Draft Cooling Tower
9.1 Components
The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water basin,
drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. These are described below.
a) Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures
(casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some
glass fibre units, the casing may essentially be the frame.

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b) Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by
maximizing water and air contact. There are two types of fill:
 Splash fill: Water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously
breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fills
promote better heat transfer than wood splash fills.
 Film fill: consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads,
forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,
honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides
same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.
c) Cold-water basin: The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of the tower, and it
receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has
a sump or low point for the cold-water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the
coldwater basin is beneath the entire fill. In some forced draft counter flow design,
however, the water at the bottom of the fill is channelled to a perimeter trough that
functions as the coldwater basin. Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to blow the air
up through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted on legs, providing easy access
to the fans and their motors.
d) Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise
would be lost to the atmosphere.
e) Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an
entire side of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of the
tower (counter-flow design).
f) Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to
equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow
tower designs do not require louvers.
g) Nozzles: These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is
essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed and
spray in a round or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as found in
some circular cross-section towers.

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h) Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally,
propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are
found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size, the type of propeller fans used is
either fixed or variable pitch. A fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades can be used
over a wide kW range because the fan can be adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the
lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response to
changing load conditions.
9.2 Materials
Originally, cooling towers were constructed primarily with wood, including the frame, casing,
louvers, fill and cold-water basin. Sometimes the cold-water basin was made of concrete.
Today, manufacturers use a variety of materials to construct cooling towers.
Materials are chosen to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and promote
reliability and long service life. Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fibre,
and concrete are widely used in tower construction, as well as aluminium and plastics for some
components.
a) Frame and casing. Wooden towers are still available, but many components are made of
different materials, such as the casing around the wooden framework of glass fibre, the
inlet air louvers of glass fibre, the fill of plastic and the cold-water basin of steel. Many
towers (casings and basins) are constructed of galvanized steel or, where a corrosive
atmosphere is a problem, the tower and/or the basis are made of stainless steel. Larger
towers sometimes are made of concrete. Glass fibre is also widely used for cooling tower
casings and basins, because they extend the life of the cooling tower and provide protection
against harmful chemicals.
b) Fill. Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers.
When water conditions require the use of splash fill, treated wood splash fill is still used in
wooden towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely used. Because of greater heat transfer

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efficiency, film fill is chosen for applications where the circulating water is generally free of
debris that could block the fill passageways.
c) Nozzles. Plastics are also widely used for nozzles. Many nozzles are made of PVC, ABS,
polypropylene, and glass-filled nylon.
d) Fans. Aluminium, glass fibre and hot-dipped galvanized steel are commonly used fan
materials. Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel. Propeller fans are
made from galvanized steel, aluminium, or moulded glass fibre reinforced plastic.
9.3 Types
9.3.1 Natural draft cooling tower
The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of the difference in temperature
between the ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As hot air moves upwards through
the tower (because hot air rises), fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an air inlet at
the bottom. Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and there is almost no circulation
of hot air that could affect the performance. Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height
of up to 200 m. These cooling towers are mostly only for large heat duties because large
concrete structures are expensive. There are two main types of natural draft towers:
 Cross flow tower: air is drawn across the falling water and the fill is located outside the
tower
 Counter flow tower: air is drawn up through the falling water and the fill is therefore
located inside the tower, although design depends on specific site conditions
9.3.2 Mechanical draft cooling tower
Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated water. The
water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the
water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of
mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters such as fan diameter and speed of
operation, fills for system resistance etc.

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9.3.3 Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers

One of the primary differentiations between cooling towers is whether it is an open or closed-
circuit tower. In open towers, the cooling water is pumped through the equipment where it
picks up thermal energy and then flows directly to the cooling tower where it is dispersed
through spray nozzles over the fill, where heat transfer occurs. Then, this same water is
collected in the tower sump and is sent back to the equipment to begin the process again. In an
open tower any contaminants in the water are circulated through the equipment being cooled.
In a closed-circuit tower, sometimes referred to as a fluid cooler, the cooling water flows
through the equipment as in the open tower. The difference is when the water is pumped to
the cooling tower, it is pumped through a closed loop heat exchanger that is internal to the
cooling tower, then returned to the equipment. In this application, water in the closed loop is
not in direct contact with the evaporative water in the tower, which means contaminants are
not circulated through the equipment. In a closed-circuit tower, a small pump, known as a
“spray pump” circulates a separate body of evaporative water from the tower sump, through
the spray nozzles and over the internal heat exchanger piping. This “open” evaporative body of
water is contained within the tower and needs to be regularly made up to replenish
evaporative and other losses. However, once water treatment in the closed cooling loop is
stabilized, the only time it needs to be made up or adjusted is if there is a leak.
9.3.4 Hybrid Towers

Hybrid towers are closed towers which can operate either in the sensible heat transfer mode
only (without evaporation) or a combination of sensible and latent heat transfer (with
evaporation). During periods of low load and/or low ambient temperature, the spray of water is
stopped and heat is sensibly transferred to the flow of air across the fins of the coils containing
the cooling fluid. During periods when this is not enough, a latent heat transfer system is
activated by switching on an evaporative cooler or water is sprayed across the dry coils to allow
for increased heat transfer through evaporation. These processes offer substantial savings in
water.

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Figure 2 Cooling Tower Types

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Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range of capacities. Towers can be either
factory built or field erected – for example concrete towers are only field erected.
Many towers are constructed so that they can be grouped together to achieve the desired
capacity. Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies of two or more individual cooling towers or
“cells.” The number of cells they have, e.g., an eight-cell tower, often refers to such towers.
Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square, or round depending upon the shape of the individual
cells and whether the air inlets are located on the sides or bottoms of the cells.
Table 1 Types of Cooling Towers
Type Advantages Disadvantages

Forced draft  Suited for high air  Recirculation due to high air-
Air is blown through the tower by a fan located resistance due to entry and low air-exit
in the air inlet centrifugal blower fans velocities, which can be solved
 Fans are relatively quiet by locating towers in plant
rooms combined with
discharge ducts
Induced draft cross flow  Less recirculation than  Fans and the motor drive
 Water enters at top and passes over fill forced draft towers mechanism require weather-
 Air enters on one side (single-flow tower) or because the speed of proofing against moisture and
opposite sides (double-flow tower) exit air is 3-4 times corrosion because they are in
 An induced draft fan draws air across fill higher than entering air the path of humid exit air
towards exit at top of tower
Induced draft counter flow
 Hot water enters at the top
 Air enters bottom and exits at the top
 Uses forced and induced draft fans
9.4 Performance
These measured parameters and then used to determine the cooling tower performance in
several ways.
a) Range. This is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature.
A high CT Range means that the cooling tower has been able to reduce the water
temperature effectively, and is thus performing well. The formula is:
Equation 1 CT Range
𝑪𝑻 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 (°𝑪) = 𝑪𝑾 𝒊𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪) − 𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪)
b) Approach. This is the difference between the cooling tower outlet coldwater temperature
and ambient wet bulb temperature. The lower the approach the better the cooling tower

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performance; although, both range and approach should be monitored, the `Approach’ is a
better indicator of cooling tower performance.
Equation 2 CT Approach
𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉 (°𝑪) = 𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪) − 𝑾𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪)
Figure 3 Range and approach schematic
c) Effectiveness. This is the ratio between the range and the ideal range (in percentage), i.e.
difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature, or
in other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach). The higher this ratio, the higher the
cooling tower effectiveness.
Equation 3 CT Effectiveness
(𝑪𝑾 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 – 𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑)

𝑪𝑻 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 (%) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
(𝑪𝑾 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 – 𝑾𝑩 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑)
d) Cooling capacity. This is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass flow
rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.

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e) Evaporation loss. This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty. Theoretically the
evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3 for every 1,000,000 kCal heat rejected. The
following formula can be used (Perry):
Equation 4 Evaporation Loss
𝟑 𝟑
𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 (𝒎 𝒉𝒓) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟖 𝒙 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 (𝒎 𝒉𝒓) × (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )
T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and outlet water
f) Cycles of concentration (C.O.C). This is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to
the dissolved solids in makeup water.
g) Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation losses and is
given by formula:
Equation 5 Blow down
𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 =
𝑪. 𝑶. 𝑪. − 𝟏
h) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio. The L/G ratio of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and
the air mass flow rates. Cooling towers have certain design values, but seasonal variations
require adjustment and tuning of water and air flow rates to get the best cooling tower
effectiveness. Adjustments can be made by water box loading changes or blade angle
adjustments. Thermodynamic rules also dictate that the heat removed from the water must
be equal to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air. Therefore the following formulae can
be used:
𝐿 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻 𝟐 ) = 𝑮 (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 )
Equation 6 Liquid/Gas ratio
𝑳 (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 )
=
𝑮 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻 𝟐 )
Where:
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (°C)
T2 = cold-water temperature (°C)

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h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature

h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature
9.5 Assessment
The performance of cooling towers is evaluated to assess present levels of approach and range
against their design values, identify areas of energy wastage and to suggest improvements.
During the performance evaluation, portable monitoring instruments are used to measure the
following parameters:
 Wet bulb temperature of air

 Dry bulb temperature of air
 Cooling tower inlet water temperature
 Cooling tower outlet water temperature
 Exhaust air temperature
 Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
 Water flow rate
 Air flow rate
9.6 Factors Affecting Performance

9.6.1 Design
9.6.1.1 Capacity
Heat dissipation (in kCal/hour) and circulated flow rate (m3/hr) are not sufficient to understand
cooling tower performance. Other factors, which we will see, must be stated along with flow
rate m3/hr. For example, a cooling tower sized to cool 4540 m3/hr through a 13.9°C range might
be larger than a cooling tower to cool 4540 m3/hr through 19.5°C range.
9.6.1.2 Range
Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is serving. The range at the
exchanger is determined entirely by the heat load and the water circulation rate through the
exchanger and on to the cooling water.
Equation 7 CT Range Def. 2
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝒌𝑪𝒂𝒍/𝒉𝒓)

𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 °𝑪 =
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 (𝑳𝑷𝑯)

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Thus, Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system.
Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature to
another temperature at a certain wet bulb temperature. For example, the cooling tower might
be specified to cool 48000 m3/hr from 44°C to 34°C at 26.7°C wet bulb temperature.
𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉 (𝟓°𝑪) = 𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (𝟑𝟒°𝑪) − 𝑾𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (𝟐𝟗°𝑪)
As a generalization, the closer the approach to the wet bulb, the more expensive the cooling
tower due to increased size. Usually a 2.8°C approach to the design wet bulb is the coldest
water temperature that cooling tower manufacturers will guarantee. If flow rate, range,
approach and wet bulb had to be ranked in the order of their importance in sizing a tower,
approach would be first with flow rate closely following the range and wet bulb would be of
lesser importance.
The range increases when the quantity of circulated water and heat load increase. This means
that increasing the range as a result of added heat load requires a larger tower. There are two
possible causes for the increased range:
 The inlet water temperature is increased (and the cold-water temperature at the exit
remains the same). In this case it is economical to invest in removing the additional heat.
 The exit water temperature is decreased (and the hot water temperature at the inlet
remains the same). In this case the tower size would have to be increased considerably
because the approach is also reduced, and this is not always economical.
9.6.1.3 Heat Load

The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being served. The
degree of cooling required is controlled by the desired operating temperature level of the
process. In most cases, a low operating temperature is desirable to increase process efficiency
or to improve the quality or quantity of the product. In some applications (e.g. internal
combustion engines), however, high operating temperatures are desirable. The size and cost of
the cooling tower is proportional to the heat load. If heat load calculations are low undersized

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equipment will be purchased. If the calculated load is high, oversize and more costly,
equipment will result.
Process heat loads may vary considerably depending upon the process involved. Determination
of accurate process heat loads can become very complex but proper consideration can produce
satisfactory results. On the other hand, air conditioning and refrigeration heat loads can be
determined with greater accuracy.
9.6.1.4 Wet Bulb Temperature

Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in performance of evaporative water cooling
equipment. It is a controlling factor from the aspect of minimum cold water temperature to
which water can be cooled by the evaporative method. Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the
air entering the cooling tower determines operating temperature levels throughout the plant,
process, or system. Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the entering wet bulb
temperature, when operating without a heat load. However, a thermal potential is required to
reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water to the entering air wet bulb temperature, when a
heat load is applied. The approach obtained is a function of thermal conditions and tower
capability.
Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb temperature must be made on the
basis of conditions existing at the tower site. The temperature selected is generally close to the
average maximum wet bulb for the summer months. An important aspect of wet bulb selection
is whether it is specified as ambient or inlet. The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which
exists generally in the cooling tower area, whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb temperature
of the air entering the tower. The later can be, and often is, affected by discharge vapours being
re-circulated into the tower. Recirculation raises the effective wet bulb temperature of the air
entering the tower with corresponding increase in the cold water temperature. Since there is
no initial knowledge or control over the recirculation factor, the ambient wet bulb should be
specified. The cooling tower supplier is required to furnish a tower of sufficient capability to
absorb the effects of the increased wet bulb temperature peculiar to his own equipment.

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It is very important to have the cold water temperature low enough to exchange heat or to
condense vapours at the optimum temperature level. By evaluating the cost and size of heat
exchangers versus the cost and size of the cooling tower, the quantity and temperature of the
cooling tower water can be selected to get the maximum economy for the particular process.
The Table 7.1 illustrates the effect of approach on the size and cost of a cooling tower. The
towers included were sized to cool 4540 m3/hr through a 16.67°C range at a 26.7°C design wet
bulb. The overall width of all towers is 21.65 meters; the overall height, 15.25 meters, and the
pump head, 10.6 m approximately.
The design wet bulb temperature is determined by the geographical location. For a certain
approach value (and at a constant range and flow range), the higher the wet bulb temperature,
the smaller the tower required. For example, a 4540 m3/hr cooling tower selected for a16.67°C
range and a 4.45°C approach to 21.11°C wet bulb would be larger than the same tower to a
26.67°C wet bulb. The reason is that air at the higher wet bulb temperature is capable of
picking up more heat. This is explained for the two different wet bulb temperatures:
 Each kg of air entering the tower at a wet bulb temperature of 21.1°C contains 18.86 kCal. If
the air leaves the tower at 32.2°C wet bulb temperature, each kg of air contains 24.17 kCal.
At an increase of 11.1°C, the air picks up 12.1 kCal per kg of air.
 Each kg of air entering the tower at a wet bulb temperature of 26.67°C contains 24.17 kCals.
If the air leaves at 37.8°C wet bulb temperature, each kg of air contains 39.67 kCal. At an
increase of 11.1°C, the air picks up 15.5 kCal per kg of air, which is much more than the first
scenario.
9.6.1.5 Tower Size

If heat load, range, approach and wet-bulb temperature are held constant, changing the fourth
will affect the tower size as follows:
a) Tower size varies inversely with approach. A longer approach requires a smaller tower.
Conversely, a smaller approach requires an increasingly larger tower and, at 5°F approach,

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the effect upon tower size begins to become asymptotic. For that reason, it is not
customary in the cooling tower industry to guarantee any approach of less than 5°F.
Figure 4 Tower size v/s approach
b) Tower size varies inversely with wet bulb temperature. When heat load, range, and
approach values are fixed, reducing the design wet-bulb temperature increases the size of
the tower. This is because most of the heat transfer in a cooling tower occurs by virtue of
evaporation (which extracts approximately 1000 Btu’s for every pound of water
evaporated), and air’s ability to absorb moisture reduces with temperature.
Figure 5 Tower size v/s wet-bulb
c) Tower size varies directly and linearly with heat load.

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Figure 6 Tower size v/s head load
d) Tower size varies inversely with range. Two primary factors account for this. First; increasing
the range—also increases the ITD (driving force) between the incoming hot water
temperature and the entering wet-bulb temperature. Second, increasing the range (at a
constant heat load) requires that the water flow rate be decreased—which reduces the
static pressure opposing the flow of air.
Figure 7 Tower size v/s range variance

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9.6.2 Fill media effects

In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above fill media and is cooled down through
evaporation as it flows down the tower and gets in contact with air. The fill media impacts
energy consumption in two ways:
 Electricity is used for pumping above the fill and for fans that create the air draft. An
efficiently designed fill media with appropriate water distribution, drift eliminator, fan,
gearbox and motor with therefore lead to lower electricity consumption.
 Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by surface area of heat exchange,
duration of heat exchange (interaction) and turbulence in water effecting thoroughness of
intermixing. The fill media determines all of these and therefore influences the heat
exchange. The greater the heat exchange, the more effective the cooling tower becomes.
There are three types of fills:

a) Splash fill media. Splash fill media generates the required heat exchange area by splashing
water over the fill media into smaller water droplets. The surface area of the water droplets
is the surface area for heat exchange with the air.
b) Film fill media. In a film fill, water forms a thin film on either side of fill sheets. The surface
area of the fill sheets is the area for heat exchange with the surrounding air. Film fill can
result in significant electricity savings due to fewer air and pumping head requirements.
c) Low-clog film fills. Low-clog film fills with higher flute sizes were recently developed to
handle high turbid waters. Low clog film fills are considered as the best choice for sea water
in terms of power savings and performance compared to conventional splash type fills.
Table 2 Design Values of Different Fills
Splash fill Film fill Low clog film fill

Possible L/G ratio 1.1 – 1.5 1.5 – 2.0 1.4 – 1.8
Effective heat exchange area 30 – 45 m2/m3 150 m2/m3 85 - 100 m2/m3
Fill height required 5 – 10 m 1.2 – 1.5 m 1.5 – 1.8 m
Pumping head required 9 – 12 m 5–8m 6–9m
Quantity of air required High Lowest Low

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9.6.3 Water Distribution

9.6.3.1 Optimize cooling water treatment
Cooling water treatment (e.g. to control suspended solids, algae growth) is mandatory for any
cooling tower independent of what fill media is used. With increasing costs of water, efforts to
increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by cooling water treatment would help to reduce make
up water requirements significantly. In large industries and power plants improving the COC is
often considered a key area for water conservation.
9.6.3.2 Install drift eliminators

It is very difficult to ignore drift problems in cooling towers. Nowadays most of the end user
specifications assume a 0.02% drift loss. But thanks to technological developments and the
production of PVC, manufacturers have improved drift eliminator designs. As a result drift
losses can now be as low as 0.003 –0.001%.
9.6.4 Fans
The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air through the system.
The fan has to overcome the system resistance, which is defined as the pressure loss, to move
the air. The fan output or work done by the fan is the product of air flow and the pressure loss.
The fan output and kW input determines the fan efficiency.
The fan efficiency in turn is greatly dependent on the profile of the blade. Blades include:
a) Metallic blades, which are manufactured by extrusion or casting processes and therefore it
is difficult to produce ideal aerodynamic profiles
b) Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) blades, are normally hand moulded which makes it easier to
produce an optimum aerodynamic profile tailored to specific duty conditions. Because FRP
fans are light, they need a low starting torque requiring a lower HP motor, the lives of the
gear box, motor and bearing is increased, and maintenance is easier.
A 85-92% efficiency can be achieved with blades with an aerodynamic profile, optimum twist,
taper and a high coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop ratio. However, this efficiency is
drastically affected by factors such as tip clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape, etc.

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Cases reported where metallic or glass fibber reinforced plastic fan blades have been replaced
by efficient hollow FRP blades. The resulting fan energy savings were in the order of 20-30%and
with simple payback period of 6 to 7 months (NPC).
9.7 General Improvement Procedures

The following could be fruitful options to improve energy efficiency of cooling towers:
i. Follow manufacturer’s recommended clearances around cooling towers and relocate or

modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust
ii. Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis
iii. Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance
iv. In old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square spray
nozzles that do not clog
v. Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill
vi. Install nozzles that spray in a more uniform water pattern
vii. Clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles regularly
viii. Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins
ix. Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to fouling
x. Optimize the blow down flow rate, taking into account the cycles of concentration
(COC)limit
xi. Replace slat type drift eliminators with low-pressure drop, self-extinguishing PVC cellular
units
xii. Restrict flows through large loads to design values
xiii. Keep the cooling water temperature to a minimum level by (a) segregating high heat loads
like furnaces, air compressors, DG sets and (b) isolating cooling towers from sensitive
applications like A/C plants, condensers of captive power plant etc. Note: A 1°Ccooling
water temperature increase may increase the A/C compressor electricity consumption by
2.7%. A 1oC drop in cooling water temperature can give a heat rate saving of 5 kCal/kWh in
a thermal power plant

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xiv. Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity to continuously optimize the cooling
tower performance, but consider seasonal variations and side variations
xv. Monitor liquid to gas ratio and cooling water flow rates and amend these depending on the
design values and seasonal variations. For example: increase water loads during summer
and times when approach is high and increase air flow during monsoon times and when
approach is low.
xvi. Consider COC improvement measures for water savings
xvii. Consider energy efficient fibre reinforced plastic blade adoption for fan energy savings
xviii. Control cooling tower fans based on exit water temperatures especially in small units
xix. Check cooling water pumps regularly to maximize their efficiency

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10 Cooling Water Chemistry

Cooling towers are dynamic systems because of the nature of their operation and the
environment they function within. Tower systems sit outside, open to the elements, which
makes them susceptible to dirt and debris carried by the wind. Their structure is also popular
for birds and bugs to live in or around, because of the warm, wet environment. These factors
present a wide range of operational concerns that must be understood and managed to ensure
optimal thermal performance and asset reliability. Below is a brief discussion on the four
primary cooling system treatment concerns encountered in most open re-circulating cooling
systems.
10.1 Corrosion
Corrosion is an electrochemical or chemical process that leads to the destruction of the system
metallurgy. Figure illustrates the nature of a corrosion cell that may be encountered throughout
the cooling system metallurgy. Metal is lost at the anode and deposited at the cathode. The
process is enhanced by elevated dissolved mineral content in the water and the presence of
oxygen, both of which are typical of most cooling tower systems.
Figure 8 Corrosion cell
There are different types of corrosion encountered in cooling tower systems including pitting,
galvanic, microbiologically influenced and erosion corrosion Loss of system metallurgy, if
pervasive enough, can result in failed heat exchangers, piping, or portions of the cooling tower
itself.

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10.1.1 Corrosion Control

10.1.1.1 Cathodic Polarization
Process of changing the anodic or cathodic potential or both to reduce the driving force of the
corrosion reaction is called “polarization”. Polarization reduces the driving force of the
corrosion reaction and minimizes metal loss by changing the potential of either the anode or
the cathode or both so that the difference in potential between them is reduced to a minimum.
If the amount of oxygen diffusion to the metal surface can be controlled, the corrosion reaction
can be polarized. This is achieved by cathodic corrosion inhibitors. They form a film, which
prevents the diffusion of oxygen to the cathode side.
10.1.1.2 Anodic Polarization

Anodic surfaces can be polarized by formation of an oxide layer. This film formation is
accomplished by a mechanism known as chemisorption. Stainless steel naturally forms such
films. This unfortunately is not always the case with all metals. Most metals must be aided by
the addition of such anodic corrosion inhibitors as chromate, nitrite, etc.
10.1.1.3 Passivation
When corrosion reactions are completely polarized, the metal is said to be at “passive state” At
this point there is no difference in potential between the anode and cathode areas, and
corrosion ceases. When polarization is disrupted in a passive metal at a given point, a very
active anodic site is set up, with resultant accelerated local corrosion, particularly if the metal
was strongly anodically polarized.
10.1.2 Corrosion Inhibitors

The principal method of controlling corrosion in cooling water system is by means of chemical
corrosion inhibitors. Their function in preventing corrosion lies in their ability to insulate the
electric current between the cathode and anode. If the insulation effect occurs at the anodic
site, then the inhibitor is classified as an anodic inhibitor and if the cathodic site is insulated
then the inhibitor is classified as a cathodic inhibitor.
Corrosion inhibitors are classified as anodic, cathodic or both depending upon the corrosion
reaction each controls. Inhibition usually results from one or more of three general

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mechanisms. In the first, the inhibitor molecule is adsorbed on the metal surface by the process
of chemisorption, forming a thin protective film either by itself or in conjunction with metallic
ions. In second mechanism inhibitors however merely cause a metal to form its own protective
film of metal oxides, by increasing its resistance. In the third type inhibitor reacts with a
potentially corrosive substance in the water.
Anodic inhibitors build a thin protective film along the anode increasing the potential at the
anode and slowing the corrosion reaction, the film is initiated at the anode although it may
eventually cover the entire metal surface. Because this film is not visible to the naked eye so
the appearance of the metal will be left unchanged.
Cathodic inhibitors are generally less effective than the anodic type. But they often form a
visible film along the cathode surface, which polarizes the metal by restricting the access of
dissolved oxygen to the metal substrate. The film also acts to block hydrogen evolution sites
and prevent the resultant depolarizing effect.
Examples include:
 Chromates
 Orthophosphates
 Zinc
 Polyphosphates
 Synergic Blends like
o zinc-chromates
o chromate-polyphosphates
o chromate-orthophosphate
10.1.3 Inhibitor Selection

It is often difficult to make a proper choice between the many cooling water corrosion
inhibitors unless there is some understanding of their properties. Choice of the proper inhibitor
is determined by:
 Design parameters
 Water composition
 Metals in the system

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 Stress conditions
 Treatment level required
 pH
 Dissolved oxygen content
 Salts and SS composition
10.2 Scaling
Scaling is the precipitation of dissolved minerals components that have become saturated in
solution. Factors that contribute to scaling tendencies include water quality, pH, and
temperature. Scale formation reduces the heat exchange ability of the system because of the
insulating properties of scale, making the entire system work harder to meet the cooling
demand. Deposits typically consist of mineral scales (i.e.CaCO3. CaSO4, Ca3(PO4)2, CaF2, etc),
corrosion products (i.e. Fe2O3, Fe3O4, CuO etc), particular matter (i.e. clay, slit), and
microbiological mass.
10.2.1 Types
10.2.1.1 Waterborne salts
Precipitated salts of calcium and magnesium often form dense scales and sludge’s which are
usually quite adherent and therefore difficult to remove. In addition they are effective heat
insulators, which reduce process efficiency. Calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium and
magnesium silicates and calcium phosphate are some of the more prevalent compounds found
in cooling water systems.
10.2.1.2 Waterborne foulants

A variety of such materials as suspended mud, sand, silt, clay, biological matter or even oil may
enter a cooling water system through its make up supply. They usually accumulate in low flow
areas, or in locations at which an abrupt change in flow velocity occurs. Therefore the most
sedimentation is found in such places as cooling tower basins and heat exchangers. To control
sedimentation it is necessary to control the suspended particulate matter. The control of
particle size and density is accomplished by use of modern deposit control materials. To a
certain degree mud, sand, slit, dirt and clay are suspended in most make up supplies. However
the amount of these constituents is usually much greater for surface waters.

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Microbiological growth may be a particularly troublesome foulant in the makeup supply. The
microbiological population in a towers make up supply often approaches or exceeds the control
limit for proper tower operation. Oil often adheres to metal; surfaces and acts as a deposit
binder. Oil films serve as insulators and can seriously retard heat transfer. In addition oil acts as
a nutrient for microbes, therefore increasing microbiological activity, fouling and slime binding.
Also oil films prevent corrosion inhibitors from reaching and passivating metal surfaces.
10.2.1.3 Airborne foulants

The air in contact with open cooling water systems contains many of the same suspended
materials found in the makeup water. Sand, slit, clay, dirt, bacteria etc. entering with the air
add to the overall fouling of the system. Airborne contamination by gases also helps in
deposition. Oxygen and carbon dioxide accelerate corrosion, leading to deposition and further
corrosion by the under-deposit mechanism. Since pick up of both gases occur continuously,
near saturation levels of these dissolved gasses are present in the water. Gaseous
contaminants such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia may also be absorbed
from the air. The first two reduce oxidizing corrosion inhibitors (e.g. chromates) to insoluble
foulants. Hydrogen sulphide is very corrosive and quickly forms iron sulphide deposits, which
lead to further corrosion. Ammonia selectively corrodes copper and its alloys leading to the
deposition of copper corrosion products.
10.2.2 Deposit Control Methods

10.2.2.1 Conventional treatments
 Softening (sodium or hydrogen zeolite exchange, lime softening and demineralization all
remove the ions that cause scale formation)
 Acid feed (acid neutralizes alkalinity in the water, thereby preventing carbonate formation)
 Side stream filtration (Side stream filters are used in some cooling tower applications, with
1 to 5 % of the cooling water flow passing through the filter. Several type of media are used
but sand is the most common, operating at a 10 % to 20 % efficiency level. For greater
efficiency, anthracite or mixed media can be substituted. If the suspended solids are in the
range of 10 to 30 ppm, 50~75 % removal can be achieved, and in highly turbid waters, 90 %
removal is possible. In general a side stream filter allows cooling water turbidity to

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approach the turbidity of the filter effluent. With oil contamination side stream filters are
impractical because of rapid fouling of the filter medium.)
10.2.2.2 Use of Polymeric Deposit Control Agents

A polymer is defined as macromolecule consisting of a number of repeating units of “building
blocks”. These units are referred to as monomers. Modern technology has made it possible to
build chains of various lengths and compositions by varying the polymerization conditions and
the monomer groups incorporated into the structure. The behaviour of a polymer results
primarily from two factors: its chain length or molecular weight and its functional group.
These polymeric deposit control agents include, Scale inhibitors, Dispersants, Flocculants
10.2.2.3 Scale Inhibitors

Scale inhibitors are important to the performance of many treatment programs. Scale inhibitors
function by adsorbing on to suspended solids/scaling particles and adsorbing on to solids/
surfaces in the system, thereby acting to prevent growth of scale/deposits and enhancing
performance of corrosion inhibitors.
These polymers have the ability of adsorbing on active sites of the crystal to prevent any further
growth of crystal. Some of the functional groups of the scale inhibitor adsorbed on the crystals
but the rest of them are free from the adsorption and give electrical charge to the crystals.
Thus, the static electrical repelling force of the crystals is increased and the crystals are kept in
a dispersed condition.
Certain polymers can distort scale crystals by disrupting their lattice structure and normal
growth patterns. The inclusion of a relatively large irregularly shaped polymer in the scale
lattice tends to prevent the deposition of a dense uniformly structured crystalline mass on the
metal surface. These crystals can develop internal stresses which increase as the crystal grows,
with the result that deposit breaks away from the metal surface. Anionic polymers such as
polyacrylates, polymethacrylates and maleic anhydride derivatives are excellent scale control
agents. Also polyphosphate, phosphate esters and phosphonates can control scale.

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10.2.2.4 Dispersants
“The principal role of a dispersant is to reduce the tendency for small particles to agglomerate”.
Dispersants are polymers, which control particles by increasing charge on the particle surface,
thereby keeping the particles repelled and suspended. A polymer can be adsorbed on foulant
surface imparting a like charge to them and thereby causing the particles to remain in
suspension because of charge repulsion.
Dispersant polymer is a common component of cooling water treatment programs. These

polymers prevent deposit because they keep suspended particles from adhering to pipes,
tubes, or other surfaces in the cooling systems and are removed with the water by blow down.
In order to be effective the polymers must strongly adhere to the particle surfaces so that the
polymer’s fate is the same as the particle it is bound to. The amount of polymer necessary is a
complex function of hardness, temperature, pH, and many other factors. Much of this is due to
the increased thermodynamic “driving force” for precipitation of calcium carbonate or calcium
phosphate. At high bulk water temperatures (>60 °C), high calcium concentrations (>750mg/lit
as CaCO3), or low flow rates (<1 m/sec), the tendency for scale formation, even with cooling
water treatment programs, is greatly increased.
10.2.2.5 Flocculants
A high molecular weight polymer can attach itself to many foulant particles creating a low
density floc. With an increase in the overall size of suspended material, there is a corresponding
decrease in the surface area available for attachment, which reduces the extent of deposition
possible.
Much of suspended matter found in cooling water has a negative surface charge. This charge
keeps the suspended matter separated. If the surface charge of the particles can be reduced,
the particle will agglomerate into light, fluffy flocs with little tendency to adhere to metal
surfaces. This can be accomplished by adding a long chain oppositely charged (cationic)
polymer to the cooling water, which neutralizes the negative charge of the suspended material.

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10.3 Microbial Growth

Microbiological activity is microorganisms that live and grow in the cooling tower and cooling
system. Cooling towers present the perfect environment for biological activity due to the warm,
moist environment. There are two distinct categories of biological activity in the tower system.
The first being plank tonic, which is bioactivity suspended, or floating in solution. The other is
sessile bio-growth, which is the category given to all biological activity, biofilms, or bio-fouling
that stick to a surface in the cooling system. Bio films are problematic for multiple reasons.
They have strong insulating properties, they contribute to fouling and corrosion, and the bi-
products they create that contribute to further micro-biological activity. They can be found in
and around the tower structure, or they can be found in chiller bundles, on heat exchangers
surfaces, and in the system piping. Additionally, bio films and algae mats are problematic
because they are difficult to kill. Careful monitoring of biocide treatments, along with routine
measurements of biological activity are important to ensure bio-activity is controlled and
limited throughout the cooling system. Cooling water microorganisms include: Algae, Fungi,
and Bacteria etc
Figure 9Biofouled Heat Exchanger
10.3.1 Problems
Continued accumulation and growth of microorganisms in a cooling water system causes a
number of problems. Good corrosion and deposit control programs are incumbent upon a

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successful microbial control program. A plant unable to control microbial growth will
experience increased difficulty in controlling corrosion and deposition. Another problem
associated with microbial growth is the deterioration of cooling tower lumber this reduces the
efficiency of the cooling tower operation and increases operating cost of the plant.
Microbiological growth also causes environmental pollution.
10.3.1.1 Microbiological Induced Corrosion, (MIC)

Any corrosion initiated or propagated by the action of microorganisms either directly or
indirectly is called MIC.
Many microorganisms found in cooling water utilize hydrogen in their metabolic processes,
which often results in the cathodic depolarization of the corrosion reaction. Many microbial
species present special corrosion problems, in addition to those inherent in the basic nature of
their actions. Sulphate reducing bacteria produce extremely dangerous hydrogen sulphide gas,
which corrodes metals by low pH attack and by the formation of ferrous sulphide.
Sulphate oxidizing bacteria produce sulphuric acid and produce localized low pH areas in the
system. Corrosion proceeds very rapidly in these low pH areas. Nitrifying bacteria nullify the
effectiveness of nitrite corrosion inhibitors by oxidizing nitrite to nitrate. This is the most
serious in closed re-circulating systems which commonly use nitrite as a corrosion inhibitor in
the systems where NH3 is present in water.
10.3.1.2 Deposit Problems

Deposit of microbial matter may lead to physical problems in the system, culminating in loss of
efficiency, heat transfer and production. The accumulation of bio matter on the internal
sections of cooling towers can seriously reduce the units efficiency e.g. deposition on splash
plates will increase the water droplet size and will reduce the effective surface area. Algae can
plug the holes in the distribution deck of a cooling tower producing uneven distribution of
water over the tower packing, resulting in a serious loss in efficiency.
10.3.2 Selection of Micro Biocides

A number of factors will determine the proper choice of micro biocide or combination of micro
biocides, oxidizing and non-oxidizing micro biocide. The selection of a micro biocide involves

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several factors. First it must be effective in inhibiting almost all -microbial activity. Second, it
must be economical in a treatment programme. This is often accomplished by combining a
small amount of an expensive but highly effective, micro biocide with another less expensive
one resulting in broad spectrum control at reasonable cost. Environmental discharge and
disposal considerations constitute another factor, which determines the choice of micro
biocides. Disposal problems caused by toxicity have limited the use of certain micro biocides in
many areas. The micro biocide chosen must be easily detoxified before cooling system bleed off
reaches receiving streams. The operating parameters of the cooling water system will also
affect the choice of a micro biocide. Temperature, pH and system design are fundamental
considerations in a decision involving oxidizing or non oxidizing toxicants. Other considerations
may include,
 The nature of treatments being used for control of scale and corrosion
 Whether to apply the biocide continuously, intermittent, or as a periodic shock dose.
 The appropriate dose required
 Location of point of addition.
10.3.3 Oxidizing Toxicants

10.3.3.1 Chlorination
The most commonly used oxidizing micro biocide is Chlorine. It is the most effective of all
halogens. Chlorine is an excellent algaecide and sporicide. It is also an excellent bactericide in
most circumstances. Free residual chlorine at levels of 0.5 ppm and slightly above are usually
enough to control most microbial growth. A number of factors determine the amount of
chlorine required in an open cooling water system. These include chlorine demand, contact
time, pH, and temperature of the water.
When chlorine gas is fed to water, it hydrolyzes to form two acids, hypochlorous acid (biocide)
and hydrochloric acid, respectively.
Cl2 + H2O  HOCl + HCl

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Hypochlorous acid is very weak acid but an extremely powerful oxidizing agent. It easily diffuses
through the cell walls of microorganisms, and reacts with the cytoplasm to produce chemically
stable nitrogen chlorine bonds with the cell proteins.
Some quantity of Hypochlorous acid will ionize into hypochlorite ions according to this
reversible reaction.
HOCl H+ + OCl-
The PH of the cooling water is directly responsible for the extent of ionization of hypochlorous
acid. The acid state is favoured by low pH .At pH 7.5 there will be approximately equal amounts
of acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine becomes ineffective as a micro biocide at pH 9.5 or
greater as a result of total ionization. A, pH range of 6.5~7 is considered practical for chlorine
based microbial control programme. Hypochlorous acid is estimated to be twenty times more
reactive (effective) as a micro biocide than the hypochlorite ions.
If ammonia is present in cooling water then chlorine reacts with ammonia to form chloramines
(NH2Cl etc) due to which there is a decrease in the residual chlorine within the system.
Chloramines are poor biocides and are more harmful environmentally than chlorine itself due
to very long half life.
Because the amount of chlorine added to the system is directly proportional to the alkalinity
reduction. Many plants find it necessary to suspend acid feed during chlorination periods in
order to avoid low PH excursions. Chlorine is destroyed by sunlight and by aeration so, its
dosing is preferred at night to prolong its effect.
Other oxidizing biocides include ozone, chlorine dioxide and hypochlorites.
 Hypochlorites are salts of hypochlorous acid. They are composed of sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl) and calcium hypochlorite (Ca (OCl) 2) when they are added to cooling water system
function in much the same way as chlorine gas.
 Chlorine dioxide is a gas produced at site from sodium chlorite with chlorine gas. It does not
form hypochlorous acid in water like chlorine it exists as dissolved chlorine dioxide in

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solution and is generally less reactive as a micro biocide but more effective than chlorine at
higher PH ranges.
 Ozone is a powerful and naturally unstable gas. As a micro biocide it reacts in much the
same manner as the other oxidizers” by combining with protein and inactivating enzymes
that are essential to cell respiration”.
10.3.3.2 Bromination
For systems, operating at above 7.0 pH i.e. alkaline media like Phosphate treatment system,
bromine is more efficient than chlorine as a biocide. Because 50 % of hypochlorous acid, HOCl
(biocide) formed due to chlorination, ionize into hypochlorite ions (OCl-) at pH 7.5. Hypochlorite
ions as a biocide are twenty times less effective than HOCl. At pH 8.0, Chlorination will yield
only 20 % HOCl& 80 % OCl ions. But at this pH bromination will yield 80 % HOBr (micro biocide)
& 20 % OBr ions-. That is why at alkaline pH bromination is more effective than chlorination in
the control of microbiological growth. At pH (8~9.3), only a small percentage of chlorine is
available as the active toxicant, hypochlorous acid.
Target bromination is one of the most effective oxidizing biocide treatments for cooling water
systems. This is achieved by feeding sodium bromide with a chlorine- based oxidant in a 1:1
molar ratio to achieve bromination.
Bulab-6040 used at FFC for bromination is a sodium bromide salt. It has no oxidizing capability
until it is activated by reacting it with hypochlorous acid to yield hypobromous acid.
Hypochlorous acid is generated through addition of sodium hypochlorite or chlorine in water
as,
Cl2 + H2 O  HOCl + HCl
NaOCl + H2O  HOCl + NaOH
This HOCl reacts with NaBr as,
HOCl + NaBr → HOBr + NaCl

Page 40 of 51
In the presence of NH3 bromamines are formed which are more effective than chloramines in
the control of bacteria. Also bromamines breakdown more quickly than chloramines in the
environment and has lower long- term environmental toxicity.
10.3.4 Non Oxidizing Biocides

Non-oxidizing biocides can be more effective than oxidizing biocide because of their overall
control of algae, fungi, and bacteria. They have also greater persistence, as many of them are
PH independent. They are used in conjunction with oxidizing micro biocides for broad control.
Most of plants chlorinate intermittently and add a non -oxidizer once or twice a week or as per
requirement. Their mode of activity is to inhibit cell growth by preventing the transfer of
energy or life sustaining chemical reactions occurring within the cell.
Organic sulphur compounds include a wide variety of different biocides, Methylene

bisthiocynate` (MTB) is most common, which is effective in controlling algae, Fungi and
bacteria.
10.4 Chemical Dosing at CT – 4

The chemical dosing at cooling tower 4 are recommended and monitored by the service
provider Buckman. Keeping in view the basic medium of operation the company has
recommended the appropriate service dosing and their quantity at the operating C.O.C. The
tables here explain the dosing, their rates and applications.

Page 41 of 51
Table 3 Chemical Dosing Rate
Chemicals Product Product Product Status Frequency Drop Rate

(PPM) (Kg) (Lit)
Bulab 9063 18 95 73 Neat 24 hrs 50 ml /59 Sec
Bulab 7024 20 106 94 Neat 24 hrs 50 ml /46 Sec
Bulab 9067 18 95 79 2x 24 hrs 110ml / min
Diluted
Bulab 8006 5 26 24 Neat 24 hrs 17ml / min
Bulab 6041 * 200 149 With Hypo @ 70 Lit /hr 583ml / 30 Sec
Bulab 3847 82 1000 Neat Monthly N/A
Table 4 Chemical Dosing at CT 4
Chemicals Trade Name Intended Application

Zinc and inorganic BULAB 9063 Provides both anodic and cathodic corrosion
phosphate protection
Zinc BULAB 9050 Protection of mild steel piping and equipment in
cooling water systems
Bromine oxidizing biocide BULAB 6041 Used pH above 7.2
Surfactant BULAB 3847 Prevents growth of Bacteria, Fungi, Algae and
Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB); Proven
effectiveness in ammonia containing CW
Hypochlorite - Kills the bacteria
Bio-dispersant BULAB 8006 Designed to inhibit slime build up; enhances the
effectiveness of microorganism control
Polymer BLS 9067 Controls the precipitation of calcium phosphate
& stabilize the Zinc
Phosphonate and Polymer BULAB 7024 Controls the precipitation of calcium carbonate
and deposition due to silt or other particulate
material

Page 42 of 51
11 Performance Improvement
11.1 Water Use
The hierarchy of opportunities approach can be used to identify and prioritise water efficiency
opportunities.
1
• Reduce water loss
2
• Reduce blow down
3
• Use alternative water supplies
4
• Reuse blow down
Figure 10 Hierarchy of opportunities
11.1.1 Reduce water loss

Reducing water losses reduces the quantity of make-up water required for the system.
Potential opportunities to reduce water loss include:
• Fixing leaks
• Reducing splash
• Optimising overflow
• Eliminating drift – drift losses should be maintained at less than 0.002% of cooling water
circulation rate. Repair or install new systems to achieve best practice.
Equation 8 Water losses
𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐚𝐤𝐞 − 𝐮𝐩 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫

𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐋𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬 = − 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐝𝐨𝐰𝐧
𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

Page 43 of 51
11.1.2 Reduce blow down

11.1.2.1 Increase cycles of concentration
As water evaporates from cooling towers the contaminants, salts and minerals measured as
total dissolved solids (TDS) that accumulate can cause biological growth, corrosion and scale
resulting in tower damage, poor heat transfer and possibly the growth of harmful bacteria such
as Legionella. The sources of contaminants include:
• Salts and minerals already in the make-up water

• Chemicals added to reduce corrosion, scale and biological growth
• Pollutants entering the water during the evaporation phase from the surrounding air such
as dust.
To reduce the build up of these contaminants, a portion of the water in the tower is bled off
(blow down). This water loss from the tower is then replaced with fresh incoming make-up
water. A conductivity probe or sensor in the tower basin initiates blow down when the levels of
dissolved solids exceed a set value. ‘Cycles of concentration’ (C.O.C.) compare the level of
dissolved solids in the tower’s make-up water to the level of dissolved solids in the tower’s
bleed water.
Equation 9 Cycle of Concentration C.O.C.
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐤𝐞 − 𝐮𝐩 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫

𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐂. 𝐎. 𝐂 =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫
Increasing the number of C.O.C. will reduce the volume of blow down and consequently the
volume of make-up water required by the tower. The maximum C.O.C. for a tower will depend
on the quality of the make-up water and the corrosion resistance of the tower’s basin and
condenser. C.O.C. over 5 is considered to be efficient but this is not always achievable. Scale
forming ions such as calcium and magnesium can often be precipitated out (by water softeners)
or kept in solution (by acids) through effective water treatment enabling the tower to operate
at higher cycles of concentration.
According to the Queensland Water Commission, a cooling tower is considered inefficient if:

Page 44 of 51
• The system is operating at less than 5 COC or 1850 mg/L TDS/2750 μs/cm conductivity
(allowed only in documented instances of high-TDS make-up water); and/or
• System losses are greater than 8% of the make-up water.
11.1.3 Use alternative water supplies

Alternative water supplies have the potential to reduce potable water requirements in cooling
towers, through direct substitution and by reducing the cycles of concentration. Alternative
water supply options include recycled water, process or rainwater. Note that health risks need
to be considered when assessing the viability of alternate water supplies. Additional water
treatment may also be required depending on the quality of water available.
11.1.4 Reuse blow down

Potential opportunities to reuse cooling tower blow down include:
• Toilet and urinal flushing (treatment may be required)

• Landscape irrigation (may require dilution with potable or rainwater due to salt content or
treatment)
• Cleaning (health risk assessment may be required and the impacts of corrosion should Be
considered).
11.2 Water treatment

Almost all well-managed cooling towers use a water treatment program. The goal of a water
treatment program is to maintain a clean heat transfer surface and preserve capital while
minimizing water consumption and meeting discharge limits. Critical water chemistry
parameters that require review and control include pH, alkalinity, conductivity, hardness,
microbial growth, biocide and corrosion inhibitor levels. Depending on the quality of the make-
up water, treatment programs may include corrosion and scaling inhibitors, such as organo-
phosphate types, along with biological fouling inhibitors. Historically, chemicals have been fed
into the system by automatic feeders on timers or actuated by conductivity meters. Automatic
chemical feeding tends to decrease chemical dosing requirements. Current technology allows
chemicals to be monitored and controlled online 24-7 in proportion to demand. This ensures
results and can allow cycles to be increased. Where overfeed is prevalent, it can reduce

Page 45 of 51
chemical feed, too. Water treatment is required in cooling towers to prevent corrosion of the
system, build up of scale and for microbiological control. Typically this is carried out through
one of the following:
• Direct chemical dosing (to prevent scale and prohibit corrosion)

• Acid dosing (to control ph and scale)
• Ozone dosing (or other microbial treatment to prevent microbial growth)
• Pre-treatment of make-up water (e.g. Water softening, reverse osmosis)
• Side stream filtration (to prevent solid build up)
• Cover exposed areas of cooling towers (to reduce algal growth).
11.2.1 Sulphuric “Acid” Treatment

Sulphuric acid can be used in cooling tower water to help control scale build-up. When properly
applied, sulphuric acid will lower the water’s pH and help convert the calcium bicarbonate scale
to a more soluble calcium sulphate form. In central North Carolina, most plants will be able to
operate six to 10 cycles of concentration without acid feed. Along our coasts, acid can be used
to increase cycles as water tends to be harder and higher in alkalinity. The same can be said if
hard alkaline well water is used as tower make-up. Important precautions need to be taken
when using sulphuric acid treatment. Because sulphuric acid is an aggressive acid that will
corrode metal, it must be carefully dosed into the system and must be used in conjunction with
an appropriate corrosion inhibitor. Workers handling sulphuric acid must exercise caution to
prevent contact with eyes or skin. All personnel should receive training on proper handling,
management and accident response for sulphuric acid used at the facility.
11.2.2 Side Stream Filtration

In cooling towers that use make-up water with high suspended solids, or in cases where
airborne contaminants such as dust can enter cooling tower water, side stream filtration can be
used to reduce solids build up in the system. Typically, five to 20 per-cent of the circulating flow
can be filtered using a rapid sand filter or a cartridge filter system.
Rapid sand filters can remove solids as small as 15 microns in diameter while cartridges are
effective to remove solids to 10 microns or less. High efficiency filters can remove particles

Page 46 of 51
down to 0.5 microns. Neither of these filters are effective at removing dissolved solids, but can
remove mobile mineral scale precipitants and other solid contaminants in the water. The
advantages of side stream filtration systems are reduced particle loading on the tower. This
ensures heat transfer efficiency and may reduce biocide or dispersant demands.
11.2.3 Ozone
Ozone can be a very effective agent to treat nuisance organics in the cooling water. Ozone
treatment also is reported to control the scale by forming mineral oxides that will precipitate
out to the water in the form of sludge. This sludge collects on the cooling tower basin, in a
separation tank or other low-flow areas. Ozone treatment consists of an air compressor, an
ozone generator, a diffuser or contactor and a control system. The initial capital costs of such
systems are high but have been reported to provide payback in 18months.
Table 5 Treatment options comparison
Option Advantages Disadvantages

Operation improvements Low capital costs None
to control blow down and Low operating costs
chemical additions Low maintenance requirements
Sulphuric acid treatment Low capital cost Potential safety hazard
Low operating cost Potential for corrosion damage if
Increased concentration ratio, when overdosed
alkalinity limited
Side stream filtration Low possibility of fouling Moderately high capital cost
Improved operation efficiency No effectiveness on dissolved solids
Additional maintenance
Ozonation Reduced chance for organic fouling High capital investment
Reduced liquid chemical requirements Complex system
Possible health issue
Magnet System Reduced or eliminated Novel technology
chemical usage Controversial performance claims
Reuse of water within the Reduces overall facility water Potential for increased fouling, scale
facility consumption or corrosion
Possible need for additional water
treatment
11.2.4 Magnets
Some vendors offer special water-treating magnets that are reported to alter the surface
charge of suspended particles in cooling tower water. The particles help disrupt and break loose

Page 47 of 51
deposits on surfaces in the cooling tower system. The particles settle in a low-velocity area of
the cooling tower -- such as sumps --where they can be mechanically removed. Suppliers of
these magnetic treatment systems claim that magnets will remove scale without conventional
chemicals. Also, a similar novel treatment technology, called an electrostatic field generator, is
also reported.
11.2.5 Sonication
An emerging technology is sonication or ultrasound which uses vibration to remove fats. This
technology can be used in wastewater systems to emulsify fats making them easier to remove
by methods such as DAF. Sonication has also been trialled in conjunction with anaerobic
treatment as a means of disrupting sludge production to yield a larger quantity of biogas.
11.2.6 Electro coagulation

Electro coagulation can be used to remove suspended and colloidal solids, fats, oils and grease
and complex organics. The process involves passing an electrical current through water to
initiate a range of electrochemical reactions which destabilise, suspend, emulsify or dissolve
contaminants in the wastewater which forces them to precipitate.
11.2.7 Activated carbon

Activated carbon is generally used after biological or physical-chemical treatment to polish
waste water for reuse. The carbon absorbs both organic and inorganic compounds including
heavy metals. Activated carbon is formed by heating carbon containing substances such as coal
or charcoal in the presence of steam to form highly porous carbon providing a large surface
area for contaminants to adsorb onto. Activated carbon can be regenerated on site by heating
carbon to a high temperature. Using activated carbon prior to a disinfection phase can reduce
the disinfection requirement. The use of activated carbon as part of the cooling tower or boiler
water treatment can lead to better water efficiencies through reduced bleed.
11.2.8 Ultraviolet radiation (UV)

This chemical-free method of disinfecting water inactivates microorganisms such as protozoa,
bacteria, moulds and yeasts through the use of ultraviolet radiation. The effectiveness of the
system can be increased with the simultaneous use of ozone. However, water quality

Page 48 of 51
characteristics such as high turbidity, organic components and flow rate can reduce efficacy.
Like ozone, UV radiation does not provide any residual sanitisation compared with chlorine.
11.2.9 Hydrocavitation
Hydrocavitation is a chemical free system of water treatment. Two streams of water are
accelerated to high velocities and collide which results in hydrodynamic cavitation and
mechanical shear forces, which are believed to kill bacteria and reduce corrosion activity. It
removes the need for chemicals and can increase the ability to reuse water.
It is generally applied to cooling tower water (refer to case study below) as it can control
corrosion and kill legionella. However, new studies are investigating the efficiency of removing
heavy metals, phosphorous and trichloroethylene (TCE) from wastewater with additional
reductions in BOD.
Figure 11 Hydrocavitation system
11.2.10 Radio frequencies

Radio frequencies alter the water’s scaling tendencies by creating a “seeding” mechanism that
agglomerates scale-forming minerals in the water. This technology removes minerals before
they can be deposited on heat exchange surfaces.

Page 49 of 51
12 Recommendation
Based on the study on the assigned project, it is recommended to reduce the water leakages in
the tower by overcoming the construction flaws of the project. Further it also recommended to
ursue the options for water and chemical conservation opportunities in cooling tower
operation. The field will unleash the wide spectrum of cost effective and environmental friendly
operating practices which would be next to the international eco-efficiency standards.
Water conservation will not only reduce the load on environment and natural resources, but
would also enable the organization to claim for eco-efficiency indicator points – a new brand
image perspective.
The adoption of chemical free platforms completely or partially will reduce the cost of chemical
purchases, dependence of service provider and most important – regional leadership in
emerging the cooling water treatment technologies, since the application has only been
adopted in Western continents.

Page 50 of 51
13 References
 Bonneville Power Administration. (1991, November). Optimizing Cooling Tower Performance.
Technology Update, pp. 1-4.
 Clayton Technologies. (2011). Clayton Cooling Towers. Indore, India: Clayton Technologies India
Pvt. Ltd.
 Daeil Aqua Co., Ltd. (2004, May 10). Cooling Tower Thermal Design Manual. Retrieved August
2011, from Cooling Tower Technical Site:
http://myhome.hanafos.com/~criok/english/publication/thermal/thermallisteng.html
 Federal Energy Management Program. (2011). NASA Marshal Space Flight Center Improves
Cooling System Performance. Huntsville, Alabama: US Department of Energy.
 General Services Administration. (2011). Water Management: A Comprehensive Approach for

Facility Managers. In Water Management Guide (pp. 1-140). Kansas City.
 Ken Mortensen. (2003, May). How to Manage Cooling Tower Water Quality. RSE Journal, pp. 1-
4.
 Muhammad Yousuf. (2010). Cooling Tower Treatment Manual. Mirpur Mathelo: Fauji Fertilizer
Company.
 N.C. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. (2009). Water Efficiency Manual. North
Carolina: N.C. Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
 Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. (2011). Cooling Towers: Understanding Key Components
of Cooling Towers and How to Improve Water Efficiency. US Department of Energy.
 Ray Congdon, Rand Conger, Mike Groh, Roger van Gelder. (2011). Cooling Tower Efficiency
Manual. In R. C. Ray Congdon, Cool Tunes (pp. 1-26). Washington DC: Water Smart Technology
Program.
 Saving Water. (2011, August). Improve Control of Cooling Tower Water. WATER SMART
TECHNOLOGY, pp. 1-2.
 SPX Cooling Technologies. (1986). Cooling Tower Performance. USA: Cooling Tower Information
Index.
 SPX Cooling Technologies. (2005). Corrosion Protection for Cooling Towers. Kansas: SPX Cooling
Technologies.
 Sydney Waters. (2010). Water conservation. Sydney: Sydney Waters.

Page 51 of 51
 UNEP. (2006). Cooling Tower. In Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia (pp. 1-17). New
York: United Nations Environment Programme.
 Uniquest Pty Ltd. (2010). Cooling Tower Efficiency. St Lucia, Queensland: Working Group for
Cleaner Production.
 Uniquest Pty Ltd. (2010). Cooling Tower - Chill your bill. St Lucia, Queensland: Working Group for
Cleaner Production.
 Uniquest Pty Ltd. (2010). Other Treatment Options. St Luciam Quensland: Working Group or
Cleaner Production.

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Page 1 of 51

Engro Fertilizers Limited | Daharki

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Amer Ahmed Asim Rasheed Qureshi

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

For His unlimited blessings and bounties,

And for keeping him sane, sound and successful;

His parents and friends,

His teachers and guides,

For teaching him things he knew not;

NUST Career Development Centre,

For bringing the opportunity of this excellent learning and exposure;

And last and the most important

Management and Employees of Engro Fertilizers Limited

For their utmost help, guidance and time

Which made author make most of his internship at plant site;

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

10.1.3 Inhibitor Selection ................................................................................................... 30

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

control over the variations.

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Industrial internships are incomparable experience for an undergraduate student. With

industrial practices and operating concepts.

should be considered with economical feasibility.

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Figure 1 Schematic of an Induced Draft Cooling Tower

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

9.3.2 Mechanical draft cooling tower

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

9.3.3 Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers

9.3.4 Hybrid Towers

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Figure 2 Cooling Tower Types

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Table 1 Types of Cooling Towers

Type Advantages Disadvantages

𝑪𝑻 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 (°𝑪) = 𝑪𝑾 𝒊𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪) − 𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪)

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉 (°𝑪) = 𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪) − 𝑾𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (°𝑪)

Figure 3 Range and approach schematic

(𝑪𝑾 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 – 𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑)

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and outlet water

Equation 6 Liquid/Gas ratio

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature

 Wet bulb temperature of air

9.6 Factors Affecting Performance

Equation 7 CT Range Def. 2

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝒌𝑪𝒂𝒍/𝒉𝒓)

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉 (𝟓°𝑪) = 𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (𝟑𝟒°𝑪) − 𝑾𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (𝟐𝟗°𝑪)

9.6.1.3 Heat Load

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

9.6.1.4 Wet Bulb Temperature

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

9.6.1.5 Tower Size

Cooling Tower Chemistry and Performance Indicators | Internship Report 2011

Figure 4 Tower size v/s approach