3(jocf
A Practical Approach to Defining
O. Allen Alpay, SPE-AIME,THUMS Long Beach Co.
& .1,
Introduction
In conventional engineering practice, mathematical
expressions describing the flow of fluids in porous
media are applied to reservoirs via various simplify-
ing assumptions regarding the physical nature of the
reservoir rock and its contents. These well known
assumptions usually consider the reservoir rock to be
either entirely homogeneous and isotropic, or allow
for some simple types of anisotropy in certain
directions.
It is generally recognized that idealization of rock
characteristics in flow calculations is unrealistic in
the face of actual physics! and fextllra] conditions
encountered in geologic formations. The experience
gained from several decades of fluid injection and
recovery operations has left no doubt that an overly
simplified concept of the reservoir rock is hardly
suitable for a valid representation or appraisal of
reservoir behavior. However, dealing effectively with
the characterization of physical and textural vari-
ation in a reservoir has been an elusive problem be-
cause the reservoir portion that can be investigated
+h..,...”h
UIIUUgII
k,. -..hala. m
UUIGIIUIGS
:. .usually
. . . ...11.. :“c:””; Gmm”+ :.. . . . . . . .
IU31EUUIUCZUL w wuulpall-
son with the bulk of the reservoir. Moreover, it is
extremely difficult to construct a precise mathe-
matical analog of the detailed reservoir rock var-
iability even when abundant information is available.
Still, if the evaluation of reservoir performance in
various engineering operations is to be reasonably
realistic, performance calculations must include ade-
quate provisions for the extent of control imposed
on flow by the reservoir rock. Consequently, before
Here is a method for evaluating the physical and textural variations in reservoir rocks to
construct a flow model using core descriptions, permeability profiles, and well logs. The
method is a practical and versatile alternative to existing complex analytical techniques.
---- L- ..--_l....L1.
-..J ...-.1----..--1-:..
. . ..A1.
It cm De useu wun ur wtlnuut
. ..
mulnttmulwul
-.. 1..4----
ammuaura.
JULY, 1972 %W
;
he can. proceed with his projections the practicing
engineer is frequently faced with the need for (1) a
valid description of certain physical and textural
variants in the reservoir, such as porosity, permea-
bility, stratification, and continuity; and (2) means
for enumerating such descriptions.
Numerous investigations of reservoir heterogeneity
and its characterization have been made in recent
years. I-9 Most of the methods proposed, however,
either are too involved mathematically to be prac-
tical in routine applications, or require specific infor-
rn.adml Qn the reservoir that is not a!ways easily
available. Therefore, it appears that few of them
have had wide use outside research or academic
circles. Meanwhile, as new and more complicated
recovery techniques are being introduced by the in-
dustry, the need for a thorough understanding of
reservoir anatomy and for a means of characterizing
its variability in an easily comprehensible and prac-
tical way is becoming increasingly urgent.
The method presented here is intended to fulfill
+L-.--
UIUCiG
m--,-l.- T+- ,-.h;,x.+;xrc.
LIGGUC). 1L3 UUJL+LIVL.
“ t-
:~
Ace,-dsa
LU
+h.a .-rim A;–
UbSbAIUti Ulti bUS*Ul-
tions of physical and textural variation in the reser-
voir that actually interfere with the flow of fluids,
by relying on the investigation of the sedimentary-
stratigraphic makeup of the reservoir rock. Although
the method may appear to be intended primarily for
fluid-injection recovery applications, it can be used
in all phases of reservoir depletion and development
with or without mathematical models. The data,
sources of information, and analytical techniques
841
required for its execution are of the most common TABLE l—DATA USED IN THE STUDY
type, familiar to all who are engaged in day-to-day 60 Wells (80-acre spacing)
engineering operations.
41 Full-cored wells
The method was developed some years ago in con- ,A!~ p~~m@-j!@ \
nection with a graduate study’” on the heterogeneity Porosity
per foot of
core
of the Cardium sands in the Pembina field, with data Fluid saturations )
provided by Amoco Production Co. It has since been
14 Fuii-core microstratigrapnic
applied in various producing regions and found to be descriptions
quite versatile.
108 Logs
39 SP-resistivi~
Area of Study and Data
23 Micrologcaliper
The area of investigation covers approximately 7.5 46 Gamma ray-neutron
sq miles in the south-central portion of the Pembina
individual well production data
field, Alta., Canada. The reservoir rock is the Car-
dium formation of Late Cretaceous and consists of cussion. In f .ct, the method described in the follow-
fine sands-silts-shales (with very little calcareous ad- ing paragraphs is based entirely on this understanding.
mixture, if any) capped with an erratic conglomerate In engineering applications, reservoir heterogeneity
section that may or may not be productive. The gross has a distinct me~ning, but a highly restricted one,
pay thickness varies from 15.5 to 26.5 ft. The over- compared with th~t conceived in the geological sci-
all structural attitude of the region is one of homo- ences, To an engineer, physical variations or litholo-
clinal beds dipping southwest approximately 45 ft/ gic/mineralogic/textural changes that will not inter-
mile. NO faults have been reported in the area. A fere with flow behavior in the reservoir are merely
schematic illustration of the subsurface reservoir academic. The engineer, in carrying out his objec-
geometry of the Cardium, constructed from structure tives, is concerned only with the “effects’. created by
and isopachous maps. is shown in Fig. 1. Table 1 reservoir anatomy as manifestly expressed by flow
gives the type of data used. At the time of the study, behavior in the interwell region. Consequently, this
a water-injection recovery program had been under view will dictate that coverage and characterization
way in the field for about a year. of reservoir heterogeneity in engineering applications
be limited to only those reservoir anatomical com-
Discussion ponents whose effects on flow are critical to the re-
The term “reservoir heterogeneity” is quite often a covery of reservoir hydrocarbons. and will avoid en-
convenient catch-all phrase of uncertain meaning. tirely all nonengineering aspects of reservoir anatomy.
loosely applied to rock variability in an ambiguous Recovery in a reservoir may depend critically on
context. Here, however, it is used primarily in rela- one or all of the following: ( 1) the displacement
tion to flow anomalies or the dynamic aspects of mechanism involved, (2) the vertical and areal cov-
flow in porous media. rather than simply to convey erage attained by the displacing fluid at break-
the anatomic complexity of such media in a geologi- through, [3) the chmge in vertical and areal coverage
cal sense; this use of the term shOuid be re~@Zed ..+...,-A.
ii LLdlllCU
A L..
Uy
●L- A:. -l”,.:””
lIIC UIS~lclG1ll&
+1..:A
II(.
cc+-.
I1U UllCl
l....enl, +fi.”h..”h
UIGCIAtIIIUU&l,

and borne in mind in reading the rest of the dis- and (4) the produced-fluid ratio after breakthrough

‘4
\

Fig: I —BIQck diagram showing the idealized geometry of the reservoir sand in the study area.

842 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

to an economic limit. These yardsticks would apply macroscopic level outlined in Sections II A, and II B
either to fluid-injection recovery. or with appropriate of Table 2. The following paragraphs will describe
modification. to most cases of primary depletion. The the characterization of these in relation to the area
task of defining reservoir heterogeneity, then. simply chosen for the study.
consists of isolating those components of reservoir
anatomy that either control or contribute to Items 1 Definition of Stratification Characteristics
through 4 above. The principal reason in defining stratification charac-
A breakdown of reservoir heterogeneity into teristics in a reservoir is the probability of encounter-
classes related to various reservoir anatomical com- ing the so-called “layer-cake permeability” config-
ponents that control recovery in a reservoir is pre- uration that has long been recognized and dealt with
sented in Table 2. In the table some types of hetero- in various recovery models currently in use. In fact,
geneity are identified as the result of the microscopic there is a considerable volume of published material
aspects of sedimentary textures, such as the effects discussing this type of reservoir anatomy and its
that pore-to-pore differences in a reservoir have on effects on injectivity and recovery.”’ lZ Simply
fluid flow. Others are considered to relate to much stated, in the “layer-cake” or stratified permeability
larger scale (macroscopic) relative textural differ- configuration each layer is unique with respect to
ences arranged both areally and vertically in the its range and continuity of permeabilities; hence,
reservoir. Finally. very large (megascopic) hetero- each layer possesses an over-all permeabilityy average
geneities characterized by flow control on a regional and areal extent different from that of its neighbor.
scale are tied in with such major physical attributes Most reservoirs are extensively stratified; conse-
of the reservoir as reservoir geometry, faulting, fold- quently, the condition is quite common.
ing. or natural fracture systems. To simplify a complex concept, it may be stated
Heterogeneity at the microscopic level can be de- that permeability in a sedimentary rock is primarily
termined by laboratory displacement tests on iarge . -1 .-
re]a~eu -.--l. +--.
[U SWl ....-I “,-.”A;t;n”c aw c g~~~~ @)cj
LCALUI U1 W1lU1.,UIM
-. >11ICI1l
VI
.--.11 -----
LU1L3
t~~,am
La L,,
f.fim
,,”,,1
the ~~~et.v~~~. qim~lar-lv
. . . . . . . . . .. . surface area. interconnected pore space, grain pack-
conventional structure contour and isopachous maps ing, and the grain size composition, the last one
of the pay interval provide sufficient characterization bein$-perhaps the most critical. On the other hand,
of the megascopic heterogeneities. By the same token. strat]hcation in a broad perspective is frequently the
hyperpermeabilitv trends can be identified. mapped, resuIt of changes in the grain size composition of
and characterized by a combination of methods such the sediment during deposition. (It should be remem-
as pressure transient testing and logging. and by an bered that terms such as “sandstone,” “siltstone,” or
aerial photography technique described in the litera- “shale” technically signify only the average grain size
ture. ” Consequently. the class of heterogeneities that class of the sediment, or the rock.) Thus, it is not
requires the most attention in most cases is at the surprising to find that in many. reservoirs the cGti-
figuration of lithologic stratification is, in essence,
TABLE 2—ELEMENTS OF ANATOMY THAT AFFECT OR analogous to the configuration of permeability strati-
CONTROL FLUID FLOW IN A RESERVOIR fication. Consequently, a three-dimensional descrip-
1. Il.
-1 AL-1:. -1..-:-. l..n.,~,.a-,
tiort 01 LIIC mhuiu~i~ “Uwn ,,’
in a
n .e.,w’.“.l
.acervmir .hnllld
“------
[11. UIGa
Microscopic Macroscopic Megaacopic coincide with the permeability zonation as well.
Heterogeneity Heterogeneity Heterogeneity
Since control of lithologic stratification to a large
Pore-to-pore; i.e., Well-to.well or intra. Formational: either
formational: i.e., fieldwide or regional; extent is furnished by the environment of deposition,
i.e., a reconstruction of the geologic history of the area
A. Pore.size dis. A. Stratification A. Reservoir geometry and the sequence of sedimentary events in the final
tribution characteristics: resting site of the sediments should be the starting
B. Pore geometry (1) Nonuniform (1) Over-all struc-
point in investigating stratification. Furthemlore, as
stratification tural framework; no precise method or tool exists to determine exactly
faults, dipping what a reservoir may look like between two wells.
strata, etc.
reservoir anatomy in the interwell area has to be
C. Dead-end pore (2) Stratification (2) Over-all strati- inferred, by intuition about sedimentary -stratigraphic
space contrasts graphic frame-
work; bar, conditions. from point data or from other informa-
blanket, channel tion that may be known only for a short distance
fill, etc. from the well. Thus a knowledge of the environ-
~, Uwmrnarnmahilitv
!., p”. r ., ., .”-.-...., mental background and depositional history of the
Oriented natural reservoir rock. and a thorough understanding of their
fracture systems
implications, improve the o&is si.gnificaritly ifi filwi
(4) Insulation to of the correct interpretation of the data regarding
crossflow
stratification characteristics and the question of
B. Permeability continuity.
characteri~ics:
(1) Nonuniform
permeability Sedimentary Hktory of the Study Area. A detailed
discussion of the sedimentary history of the Cardium
in the Pem.bins area is presented in the lkiatiire.13
It will suffice here to state that the deposition of the
(3) Directional
permeability Cardium sands is believed to have taken place on the

JULY, 1972 843

seaward margin of a broad sedimentary shelf border-
ing the Alberta syncline during a period of tectonic
instability. The variations in the influx of sediments
and the hesitation in the retreat or advance of the sea
caused by tectonic adjustments in the region resulted
in a rather irreguiar distribution of the sediments in
the basin, hence. the extremely irregular interbedding
of very fine sand- and silt-size material within the
deposits. The mix of environments quite probably
ranged from littoral to tidal flat, or deltaic, through-
out the sedimentary cycle.
Concept of “Band of Genetic Similarity.” It appears
that no single bed would be thick enough to be areally
continuous under the depositional conditions prevail-
ing during Cardium sedimentation. Indeed, an in-
vestigation of full cores indicated that most of the
permeable units in the reservoir are thin; therefore
their chances of surviving subsequent removal in
spots by scavenging currents were not very good.
It is extremely difficult to detect and identify a
very thin bed at stratigraphically analogous points in
a reservoir like the Cardium while tracing reservoir
stratigraphy from weii to weii. If, however, a number
of thin intervals (microstrata) are taken together as
a “band” to encompass a somewhat larger deposi-
tional interval during which environmental conditions
appear to have been similar, the task of identification
is simplified. Thus, instead of attempting to identify
the individual microstrata between wells and risking
misinterpretation of stratigraphy in the reservoir, an
entire band is identified collectively and the texturally
similar microstrata are traced together from well to
well within the confines of this band to establish
their collective continuity. Such a cluster of micro-
strata with similar textural characteristics — that is,
produced in proximity to one another in both time
and space — shall be termed a “band of genetic simi-
larity”’ and abbreviated in the rest of this discussion
as BGS. The recognizability and traceability of BGS
in an otherwise very complex. individually untrace-
able stratigraphy of uncertain identification and con-
tinuity is the essence of the method under con-
sideration.
TYPICAL GAMMA RAY LOG
IN RESERVOIR
-5-
2 0
Z -=
Y’-----=------
Fig. 2—Relationship of gamma ray log to microstratigraphy
Investigation of Nonuniform Stratification. Of the
available sources of information used in the study,
the radioactivity log was found to be the most defini-
tive on the lithologic stratification of the pay zone
of the Cardium. The suitability of the gamma ray
iOg for tracing reservoir stratigraphy is to be expected,
considering that stratification within the Cardium is
largely the result of alternating fine sand-silt-clay size
material in the section, and that the gamma ray log
responds to the natural emission given off by UZ38,
Th’”, and K’” salts usually concentrated in the fines
contained in sediments. “\
Fig. 2 shows the typical gamma ray log of the
reservoir section compared with the Iithologic de-
scription and the laboratory core permeability profile
of the reservoir interval. The comparison reveals that
the gamma ray log reads the individual units in the
section with extraordinary clarity and detail, pro-
vided that the time constant for the sonde and the
logging speed are compatible with the regional radio-
activity level. Fig. 2 also shows that the reservoir
pay section consists of four characteristic lithologic
intervals, labeled Zones I, II, II, and IV. These zones,
which constitute the major fiow intervais in the reser-
voir, are separated by what appear to be dense, im-
permeable shale sections. The major zones can be
further subdivided into smaller internals, indicated
by subscripts a, b. The latter intervals in turn con-
sist of even smaller intervals, each comprising per-
haps one or more BGS identified by subscript; ~, 2.
Before the gamma-ray-based lithologic breakdown
was traced from well to well, a set of correlation
fences was constructed using the full-core micro-
stratigraphic descriptions available at 14 well loca-
tions. These fences, together with the permeability
profiles displayed by the 41 cored wells, were used
as a reference for the subsequent gamma ray log
correlations. For added detail, other available types
of logs as shown in Table 1 were also consulted.
The thickness of each recognizable and correlat-
able interval of the smallest order was noted in each
‘well on the log curves. If a particular interval was
absent in a well, a zero was entered in its place in
the record. These thickness figures were later con-
MICR08TRAT1GRAPHIC PERMEABILITY
=cncm PRWI L=
WELL 4s WELL 46
10 20 30
= :=:=:-===== ~
and core permeability
,a, ,n.,
JUUKllti
. ,
L
,-.r
ur
profile
mFTnnr
rJ21Ku
in the reservoir.
-.,.
LEu1vl
. -fir.. Ta. --.,
113LI11VULUUI
toured by interval on a map of the study area to
portray the variation of thickness and areal limits of
the intervals. The maps provided the interpolated
thickness of a given interval at any given point in
the interwell region. An example is shown in Fig. 3.
~~m~~fic=~~on ~Qn!MStS and continuity: In addition
to the isopachous map, a “sand index (S1)” map was
prepared for each differentiable interval. The S1 was
ddi~&l
-1-- .L. L“Ual>C-llllG
ii5 UK
.-- —- c.. - .~dl. . LILIG
. ..+...le -;” .m,-l
1111A
~,,.”+;ca~
aJIU
from the gamma ray log by expressing the magnitude
of the gamma ray curve deflection for the interval as
a fraction of the maximum deflection recorded in the
reservoir. The S1 figures reflect the increase of the
fines in the reservoir in either horizontal or vertical
reservoir sections relative to the cleanest part of the
reservoir where the largest gamma ray deflection is
recorded. The deflections were measured from the
shale line; hence the smaller the S1, the greater the
amount of the fine admixture in the interval.
The S1, which in this study was found to be a
number between 1.00 and 0.40, was used as an
analog both of the permeability contrasts between
superimposed layers and of the areal variation of
average permeability in each interval. The premise
for this was the earlier assumption that permeability
in the reservoir is related, for the most part, to the
increase or decrease of the fines in the section, and
thus the coarse-to-fine ratio, S1, in each interval
would be expected to increase or decrease with per-
meability, or vice versa. An example of the S1 map
is shown in Fig. 4.
The log curves were used after appropriate cor-
rection factors were applied. Spurious deflections due
to ctnticticnl
0.-.10.. u, ~ari~~i~n~ in ?h~ garn.n~~ ~ount were
eliminated from the curves by comparing identical
log sections recorded in the same well in different
runs. CiiartS. . WI
-- ------ ..-.. - c-. ,.me.,a..+;-m
pIULCdUICS IUI WIIVGIUII~
parent log readings to true readings are available in
logging handbooks.
Statistical Lithe-Textural Model. It is recognized that
the manner of zoning a reservoir described above is
o 2000 4000
- -
Fig. 3—lsopachs for Subzone lVt, in the study
JULY, 1972
not entirely objective, although any such breakdown
is understood to be based on multiple control and
overlapping data. In certain instances it may be more
desirable to rely on a purely mechanical approach;
that is, dividing the reservoir into a number of layers
of contrasting characteristics using analysis of var-
iance techniques, then correlating the layers between
wells by means of suitable statistical criteria.
A few triai runs on an IBM 7090 computer, ..using
-:--
yucuxbn.tiw
~~~ p~~,wl~a~~i~~ &@ from. a Sm.aii ~rOU~ Of wells
according to the zonation method described by Test-
erman,l~ resulted in approximately the same strati-
graphic configuration as previously determined. This
was taken as a further indication of the interchange-
ability of the permeability stratification with the
lithologic stratification in the Cardium pay zone.
Characterization of Stratification. The stratigraphic
complexity of the reservoir was expressed by record-
ing the total number of the BGS in each well and
contouring the resulting count on a map of the study
area (Fig. 5).
The figure obtained in this manner represents the
variation of “stratigraphic density” in the area; it
does not imply that actual physical boundaries exist
in the reservoir where the contours are drawn. How-
ever, where contours crowd each other, a rapid
change from one predominant lithologic character to
another (with an associated permeability change) may
be inferred. The situation can perhaps be more aptly
described as a “microfacies change” between certain
wells. An increase in the density of the contour lines
in an area portrays an increase in the complexity of
reservoir stratification.
The implications of Fig. 5 may be further supple-
mented by a simple statistical quantification of strati-
graphic reservoir complexity. For example, in this
the iip- ‘-c’-mc- +h-
,,’oLaL.* L.IWq“u
fi’l~mt;fic”ti~n
......v-.. -.. ...-j
mnv be made with the S1
because the interfingering of various textural units
such as shale and sand is reflected both by the lateral
change in the coarse-to-fine particle ratio within an
interval between wells and by the variation of the
coarse-to-fine ratio vertically over the stratigraphic
w.
o 4000
area. Fig. 4-Variation of SI in Subzone IV,.
845
 section in a given well. Thus additional contour maps
of S1 were prepared on the basis of three statistics:
1. The mean value of the S1 (=) in well profile,
2. The standard deviation of the S1 (SI~) in well
profile,
--, -. . .
3. The kurtosk of the S1 (>1),) m weii profiie.
The areal variation of each of these statistics is
shown in Figs. 6 through 8. The formulas used in
the computation of the mean, standard deviation,
and kurtosis are given in the Appendix.
The mean S1 in Fig. 6 shows what percentage of
the section is “flow conductive” sand, A high mean
S1 is indicative of the predominance of sandy units
in the reservoir at that locality, therefore, it is indica-
tive of a higher permeability. By the same token, a
low mean S1 is indicative of a section of predomi-
nantly low permeability. In Fig. 6, note that the
center of the investigation area is penetrated by a
“shale wedge,” flanked on both sides by an increas-
ingly more sandy section. It may be inferred from
a comparison of Fig. 5 — which shows the variation
of the number of individual strata in the section —
with Fig. 6 that the central wedge may indeed be a
low-permeability bank restricting flow communica-
tion between the east and west halves of the area.
(The low individual layer count for the central area
in Fig. 5 indicates that stratigraphic interfingering
prevalent on each side of the wedge does not con-
tinue through it.) Figs. 5 and 6 further convey that
the far western portion of the area is also a region
of io-w-stratai ~~unt _ a region that this ti~le appears
to be predominantly sandy.
Being highly sensitive to the extreme highs and
lows of the data, the mean is a rather poor indicator
of the character of a distribution. Accordingly, other
statistics such as standard deviation and kurtosis
must be used to supplement it.
---- Of tmri-
Standard de~iaticm is a ~etiei%ii iiieasure
ability in a distribution. Kurtosis, on the other hand,
o 2000 4000
SCALE
Fig. &Variation of stratigraphic complexity in the study
area. Contours denote the BGS count.
846
describes whether a distribution is peaked (lepto-
kurtic), or contains a sag in the middle with perhaps
two modes (platykurtic). A strongly peaked distribu-
tion with a single mode has a high kurtosis and is
typical of a statistically homogeneous population.
O,.... fil,,fil,, a. L..ta.,..”a”an,,. n. -;WDA.t. t;ct;cnl nnn-
&ullvGISGIY, llGLCIU&llLUU> US lllIALU DLUL, aLL%UA y“s-
ulation has a bimodal, sag-in-the-middle type of dis-
tribution with a characteristically low kurtosis.
The choice of these two latter statistics was
prompted by the premise that an increase in the
number of shale stringers in BGS sets in the section
would likely result in greater variability for the S1,
hence a larger standard deviation for the well or the
interwell area. However. this situation theoretically
should be accompanied by a bimodal distribution for
the S1 for that weii (or the interweii area) with one
peak in the sand and the other in the shale range if
the over-all textural contrast among BGS is pro-
nounced; hence, a low kurtosis figure. If the over-all
textural contrast in a cross-section of the reservoir is
not pronounced, however, it is feasible that a given
standard deviation will be associated with a higher
kurtosis vaiue. ‘Hence, the variation of standard devi-
ation must be interpreted in the light of the com-
panion variation in kurtosis.
According to Figs. 7 and 8, the most pronounced
variability of S1 is in the western half of the area,
indicating perhaps a high degree of interfingering of
sand and shale. This further confirms the implications
of Figs, 5 and 6. Apparently the reservoir anatomy
rhancn=c
-,. M..5-0 frm-tl I clear , nrdnminantlv
. . . ... &-.--. winch, character
=.--- ....... ...., ----- -.. —....
in the far western end to a predominantly shaly char-
acter in the center of the area, then begins to acquire
new sand stringers toward the far eastern portion.
In a more qualitative vein, composite interpreta-
tion of Figs. 5 through 8 leads to the construction of
Fig. 9, which suggests that in terms of anatomical
rnmnlpy
-“... s-.-....,
itv there
. ..v. v
are
. ..-
~~~~~~i sectors in the 2wL%3 d %,
investigation:
Sector I Very low heterogeneity; essentially
sand.
Sector II Moderate heterogeneity; essentially
sand, interbedded with shale.
Sector HI Extreme heterogeneity; highly inter-
bedded sand and shale.
Sector IV Low heterogeneity; essentially shale.
Sector V Moderate heterogeneity; essentially
sand, interbedded with shale.
Sector VI .Moderate to high heterogeneity; essen-
. ..
tially shaie, interbecfcied with sand.
At present, this breakdown has no quantitative
significance in terms of recovery from a reservoir.
‘HO-wever, it f-uilikk V~iti~bi~ ifif+igiit ifit(j the &f’t3~-
all nature of reservoir anatomy in the Cardium. For
instance, one of the striking implications of Fig. 9 is
that the sectors are aligned in a more or less NW-SE
trend. This trend parallels the ancient shoreline, and
perhaps is the result of redistribution of the sediment
by longshore currents, tidal movement, or estuarine
channeling along the axis of the depositional basin.
A corollary to this would be for areal permeability
anisotropy to follow the same trends in the reservoir.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
Indeed, this was later confirmed by the isopermea- removes Item II A(1) and, partially, Items H A(3)
bility maps prepared for each BGS. and ]1 A(4) in Table 2 from further consideration.
Another observation is made in the light of the The BGS isopachous maps, together with the S1 con-
solution-GOR distribution in the area, shown in the tours, provide quantitative coverage of Items 11 A(3)
upper right-hand corner of Fig. 9. It appears that and H A(2), respectively, and 11 A(4), collectively.
the variation of GOR is generally coincident with The definition of areal permeability variation, Item
the distribution of stratigraphic complexity in the 11 B in Table 2, can be handled by simple contour
reservoir, with a higher GOR in high-SI sectors (Figs. maps as before. Core permeability data after suitable
6 and 9). It is also interesting to note that the major statistical reduction can be contoured for each BGS,
Pnn
Uulx change
c-l 1-..,-
lU1lUWS
●I....
UJG
~.tirv>a~,die G{ :~e !&&,. -..,.-:””
claau,n.,,,~
thnt
u,-.
-11 in.rer
GUI IUJWL
hfillnrlnri~c
““-.. --. .”0
hav.a
-----
he-n
“-”..
nr#-
y.”–

permeability region in the center of Fig. 6. viously determined. A sufficient number of permea-
bilities must exist in a sufficient number of wells so
Conclusion that contours can be drawn with reasonable con-
The identification of the BGS sets on the gamma ray fidence. However, experience has shown that where
log (or on other types of logs) with the aid of the core permeability is scarce, other reservoir properties
control provided by Iithologic descriptions of the correlating with permeability can be substituted to
section and core permeability profiles in key wells develop a permeability variation analog for each BGS.

o 2000 4000 o 4000

-
SCALE SCALE

Fig. 6--Variation of cross+ sectional mean sand index, Fig. 8-Variation of cross-sectional kurtosis of
sand index, Sl~, in the study area.
~, in the study area.

o 2000 4000
o 2000 4000
SCALE SCALE
Fig. 7—Variation of cross-sectional standard deviation Fig. 9—Regions of relative anatomical complexity in the
of sand index, SIO, in the study area. reservoir and the associated production anomaly.

JULY, 1972 847

 Areal permeability variation maps can be used to data furnished for the preparation of my 1963 doc-
estimate a permeability value for any portion of the toral dissertation on which this paper is based. Sin-
reservoir. For instance, each reservoir block of a cere thanks are extended to E. H. Mayer of THUMS
—...- Long Beach CQ: for reading the manuscript.
givctl size m each element of syrnmet~ in a ‘e!!
development pattern can be assigned, by interpola-
tion, a different permeability on the basis of the con- References
tours. Quantifying areal textural variation hi this ~. ~~[~hin.nn , C.-. F. MSd Polasek, T. L.:
,.....”... C-. .A. .. .1.. .. ~ndoe
---=.
“Identification, Classification and Prediction of Reser-
manner may provide an uncomplicated means to voir Nonuniformities Affecting Production Operations,”
evaluate areal coverage in recovery calculations. J. Pd. Tech. (March, 1961) 223-230.
Furthermore, the contours in such maps depict the 2. Kruger, W. D.: “Determining Areal Permeability Dis-
alignment of the permeability trends in a reservoir; t&~$; by Calculations,” J. Pet. Tech. (July, 1961)
hence, they could be used in fluid injection programs
to align the injection wells with such trends for better 3. Elkins, L. F. and Skov, A. M.: “Some Field Observa-
tions of Heterogeneity of Reservoir Rocks and Its Effect
areal sweep, on Oil Displacement Efficiency; paper SPE 282 pre-
As stated at the beginning, megascopic and micro- sented at SPE Production Research Symposium, Tulsa,
Okla., April 12-13, 1962.
scopic heterogeneities are evaluated on a routine basis
by already standardized methods, which are beyond 4. Coats, K. H., Dempsey, J. R. and Henderson, J. H.:
“A Practical Method for Determining Reservoir Descrip-
the scope of this discussion. Conversely, the evalua- tion from Field Performance Data,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J.
tion of directional permeability (Item II B(3) of Table (March, 1970) 66-74.
2), which results mostly from preferred fabric orienta- 5. Morineau, Y., Simandoux, P. and Dupuy, M.: “Study
tion in sedimentary rocks with elongate grains (and of Heterogeneities in Permeabilities of Porous Media,”
paper 16, 2nd Assoc. Rech. Tech. et Prod. Colloquim
which should not be confused with areal permeability Trans., Rueil, France, May 31- June 4, 1965.
variation) can be made on oriented cores and need 6. Zeito, G. A.: “Interbedding of Shale Breaks and Reser-
not be discussed here. ~;g Heterogeneities,” J. Per. Tech. (Oct., 1965) 1223-
Experience in various fields including such West
Texas carbonate reservoirs as the San Andres, Gray- 7. Bennion, D. W. and Griffiths, J. C.: “A Stochastic Model
for Predicting Variations in Reservoir Rock Properties,”
burg, and Upper Clearfork indicates that the ap- Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (March, 1966) 9-16.
proach to heterogeneity definition outlined here is
~pp!i~ab!e with, ~r-mrn~riate mnrlificatiorss trs most reS-
8.DUPSY, M, P.: “Some New Mathematical Approaches
yy. ~ ----- . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..- ._ ;~~ Het,wnm.r,.ml<
.“, ..- .-. .,=.,-.--”- POI-OUS Medium Flow Studies,” paper
ervoir rocks except those formed in place by organic SPE 1840 presented at SPE 42nd Annual Fall Meeting,
growth. Of course, the choice of iogs may differ from Houston, Oct. 1-4, 1967.
one case to another. Application is not restricted to 9. Nelson, R. W.: “In-Place Determination of Permeability
Distribution for Heterogeneous Media Through Analysis
fluid-injection recovery, but is valid in all phases of ;~-~;ergy Dissipation,” Sot. Prt. Eng. J. (March, 1968)
reservoir exploitation, including field development.
The method, although highly conventional, is not 10. Alpay, O. A.: “A Study of Physical and Textural
upstaged by currently available pressure transient Heterogeneity in Sedimentary Rocks,” PhD dissertation,
Purdue U.. Lafayette, Ind. (June, 1963).
analvsis
. methods nor has it been ‘outmoded bv. the
11. Alpay, O. A.: “Application of Aerial Photographic Irr-
advent of numerical reservoir simulation in recent terpretation to the Study of Reservoir Natural Fracture
years. Until itiOie is known oil the ~itY31di’~ tT~flSit3tlt C.,., . . ..a. Sp~ 2557 Pre~en!ed at SPE. 44th _An-
a.... *>.~=~~,
DY3LG111Yi,
characteristics of certain anatomic configurations, nual Fall Meeting, Denver, Colo., Sept. 28- Oct. 1,
1969.
transient analysis will be limited to a complementary
12. Craig, F. F.$ Jr.: “Effect of Reservoir Description on
role in reservoir description. Simiiariy, a thoroug% Performance Predictions,” J. Pet. Tech. (Oct., 1970)
understanding of the anatomical framework in a 1239-1245.
reservoir is an important first step in constructing a 13. Michaelis, E. R.: “Cardium Sedimentation in the Pem-
realistic mathematical model of reservoir behavior. bina River Area,” J. Alberta Sot. f’ef. Geo[. (April,
Anatomic investigations in a reservoir should, 1957) 5, 73-77.
ideally, be carried out before operational decisions 14. Testerman, J. D.: “A Statistical Reservoir Zonation
Technique,” J. Pet. Tech.(Aug., 1962) 889-893.
are made. Aside from eliminating hindsight, a thor-
ough familiarity with reservoir anatomy acquired in APPENDIX
the planning stages of an operation not only will Computation of Mean, Standard
provide the means to combat the detrimental aspects Deviation, and Kurtosis
of reservoir heterogeneity, but also supply the infor-
mation bv. which some anatomical attributes of the z fj(sIj)
~l=j . . . . . . .. (A-l)
reservoir can be made to work to our advantage. n
A -1.-a..,l
Am I; fj(~~j – =)2
twswu w1eu51mer1is
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the man- SI. = . . . . . (A-2)
agement of Amoco Production Co. for releasing the i n
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers x jj(SIj – =)4
office Aug. 2, 1971. Revised mansucript received March 27, 1972. sIk = i . . . . . . (A-3)
Paper (SPE 3608) was presented at SPE 46th Annual Fall Meeting,
held in New Orleans, Oct. 3-6, 1971. ~ Copyright 1972 American
n S1.4
Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Enginaera, Inc. -T

848 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY