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INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMABLE
CONTROLLERS
Man is still the most extraordinary computer of all.
John F. Kennedy
21 May 1963
Muhammad Faisal
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Gujrat
University of Gujrat, Hafiz Hayat Campus
07010622-072@uog.edu.pk

Abstract--Basically programmable logic controller was used to solve most recent revolution, the Programmable Logic Controller
our industrial problems. This is used to handle automation
industry. Due to low cost, that’s used widely in all places and (PLC). PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor
industries. In this term paper we tell you about the programmable and will probably remain predominant for some time to come.
logic controller, what is this and where is used, types of PLC and
configuration of PLC. And a brief note on Historical Background
Most of this is because of the advantages they offer.
of PLC. In this paper, we describe the different languages of PLC.
Ladder Diagram is the basic idea, which told it, tells the format of • Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
Ladder diagram and elements of Ladder and the format of Ladder • Flexible and can be reapplied to control other
diagram with pictures. PLC have many advantages and systems quickly and easily.
disadvantages, but the advantages are more than its disadvantages, • Computational abilities allow more sophisticated
so here only describes the advantages and important of PLC. And control.
at the last of this term paper, we describe the conclusion. • Trouble shooting aids make programming easier
and reduce downtime.
Keywords—PLC-programmable logic controller, Automate- make • Reliable components make these likely to operate
routine, computerize, IEC- International Electrotechnical for years before failure.
Commission , NEMA- National Electrical Manufacturers
Association.
For example, let's assume that when a switch turns on
we want to turn a solenoid on for 5 seconds and then turn it off
INTRODUCTION
regardless of how long the switch is on for. We can do this with
A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC, or
a simple external timer. But what if the process included 10
Programmable Controller is a small computer used for
switches and solenoids? We would need 10 external timers.
automation of real-world processes, such as control of
What if the process also needed to count how many times the
machinery on factory assembly lines. The PLC usually uses a
switches individually turned on? We need a lot of external
microprocessor. The program can often control complex
counters.[2]
sequencing and is often written by engineers. The program is
DEFINITION
stored in battery-backed memory and/or EEPROMs. Unlike
Programmable logic controllers, also called
general-purpose computers, the PLC is packaged and designed
programmable controllers or PLCs, are solid-state members of
for extended temperature ranges, dirty or dusty conditions,
the computer family, using integrated circuits instead of
immunity to electrical noise, and is mechanically more rugged
electromechanical devices to implement control functions. They
and resistant to vibration and impact.[]
are capable of storing instructions, such as sequencing, timing,
A PLC is a device that was invented to replace the
counting, arithmetic, data manipulation, and communication, to
necessary sequential relay circuits for machine control. The PLC
control industrial machines and processes. Figure 1-1 illustrates
works by looking at its inputs and depending upon their state,
a conceptual diagram of a PLC application.[1][3]
turning on/off its outputs. The user enters a program, usually via
software, that gives the desired results.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) is used in
many "real world" applications. If there is industry present,
chances are good that there is a PLC present. If you are involved
in machining, packaging, material handling, automated
assembly or countless other industries you are probably already
using them. If you are not, you are wasting money and time.
Almost any application that needs some type of electrical
control has a need for a plc.
The development of low cost computer has brought the
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Process/
Machine
Measu
Contr
Programmable
Controller
Field Fields
Figure 1-1. PLC conceptual application diagram
Programmable controllers have many definitions. However,
PLCs can be thought of in simple terms as industrial computers
with specially designed architecture in both their central units
(the PLC itself) and their interfacing circuitry to field devices
(input/output connections to the real world).[1]
WHAT IS PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS
(PLC)?
Programmable Logic Controller is universally called, is
the ‘work horse’ of industrial automation. A programmable
controller is an industrial computer in which control devices
such as limit switches, push button, proximity or photoelectric
sensors, float switches and pressure switches or to name a few,
provide incoming control signals into the unit. An incoming
control signal is called an input.[7]
Incoming Control Signals or inputs interact with
instructions specified in the user program, which tells the PLC
how to react the incoming signals. The user program also directs
the PLC on how to control filed devices like motor stator, pilot
lights and solenoids. A signals going out of the PLC to control a
field device is called output.
A formal definition of PLC comes from the national
electrical manufacturers Association (NEMA): [A
programmable controller is] a digitally operated electronic
system, design for use in industrial environment, which uses a
programmable memory for internal storage of user oriented
instructions for implementing specific function such as logic
sequence, timing, counting and arithmetic to control, through
digital or analog inputs and outputs various types of machines or
processes. Both PLC and its associated peripherals are designed
so that they can be easily integrated into an industrial control
system and easily used in all their intended functions.[3],[5],[7]
WHY USE A PLC?
The question, “Why Use a PLC?” really should rephrased
to, “Why Automate?” The PLC is the tools that allow us to
control an automated process. What will automating a process
do for a company? Automation will help a manufacturing
facility to:[3]
1. Gain complete control of a manufacturing process
2. Achieve consistency in manufacturing
3. Improve quality and accuracy
4. Work in difficult or hazardous environment
5. Increase productivity
6. Shorten the time to market
7. Lower the cost of quality, scrap and rework
8. Offer great product variety
9. Quickly change over from one product to another
10. Control inventory[3]
A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Early machines were controlled by mechanical means
using cams, gears, levers and other basic mechanical devices. As
the complexity grew, so did the need for a more sophisticated
control system. This system contained wired relay and switch
control elements. These elements were wired as required to
provide the control logic necessary for the particular type of
machine operation. This was acceptable for a machine that never
needed to be changed or modified, but as manufacturing
techniques improved and plant changeover to new products
became more desirable and necessary, a more versatile means of
controlling this equipment had to be developed. The time period
was the late 1960's and early 1970's and the result was the
programmable logic controller, or PLC.[5]
In the 1960s and 1970s, electromechanical relays,
timers, counters and sequencers are standard. Many control
panels contained hundreds of these electromechanical devices
and, in some cases, a mile or more of wire.[3]
The Hydromantic division of General motor was the
first to see the need for a device that would become what we
know as the programmable logic controller. These devices must
also be able to withstand the harsh industrial environment. Keep
in mind that the first PLCs were little more than relay replacers.
Automotive plants were confronted with a change in
manufacturing techniques every time a model changed and, in
some cases, for changes on the same model if improvements had
to be made during the model year. The PLC provided an easy
way to reprogram the wiring rather than actually rewiring the
control system.[5.],[3],[1]
PLC CONFIGURATIONS
Programmable controllers are much like personal
computers in that the user can be overwhelmed by the vast array
of options and configurations available. Also, like personal
computers, the best teacher of which one to select is experience.
As one gains experience with the various options and
configurations available, it becomes less confusing to be able to
select the unit that will best perform in a particular application.
Basic PLCs are available on a single printed circuit board as
shown in Figure 2-1[5]
They are sometimes called single board PLCs or open
frame PLCs. These are totally self contained (with the
exception of a power supply) and, when installed in a system,
they are simply mounted inside a controls cabinet on threaded
standoffs. Screw terminals on the printed circuit board allow for
the connection of the input, output, and power supply wires.
These units are generally not expandable, meaning that extra
inputs, outputs, and memory cannot be added to the basic unit.
However, some of the more sophisticated models can be linked
by cable to expansion boards that can provide extra I/O.
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Therefore, with few exceptions, when using this type of PLC,

the system designer must take care to specify a unit that has
enough inputs, outputs, and programming capability to handle
both the present need of the system and any future modifications
that may be required. Single board PLCs are very inexpensive
(some less than $100), easy to program, small, and consume
little power, but, generally speaking, they do not have a large
number of inputs and outputs, and have a somewhat limited
instruction set. They are best suited to small, relatively simple
control applications.[5] Figure 9-1. PLC Ladder Circuit

The ladder languages available in PLCs can be divided into two

Figure 2-1 - Open Frame PLC
(Triangle Research Inc., Pte. Ltd.)
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
As PLCs have developed and expanded, programming
languages have developed with them. Programming languages
allow the user to enter a control program into a PLC using an
established syntax. Today’s advanced languages have new,
more versatile instructions, which initiate control program
actions. For instance, PLCs can now transfer blocks of data from
one memory location to another while, at the same time,
performing a logic or arithmetic operation on another block. As
a result of these new, expanded instructions, control programs
can now handle data more easily.[1]
groups:
• Basic ladder language
• Enhanced ladder language
Sometimes, basic ladder instructions are referred to as
low-level language, while enhanced ladder functions are
referred to as high-level language.[1]
EXAMPLE
This Example consists of one input device and one
output device linked to the PLC controller output. Key is an
input device, and a bell is an output supplied through a relay 00
contact at the PLC controller output. Input 000.00 represents a
condition in executing an instruction over 010.00 bit. Pushing
the key sets off a 000.00 bit and satisfies a condition for
activation of a 010.00 bit which in turn activates the bell. For
correct program function another line of program is needed with
END instruction, and this ends the program.
BOOLEAN

TYPES OF PLC LANGUAGES

The three types of programming languages used in PLCs are:
• Ladder
• Boolean
• Grafcet
LADDER LANGUAGE
The programmable controller was developed for ease
of programming using existing relay ladder symbols and
expressions to represent the program logic needed to control the
machine or process. The resulting programming language,
which used these original basic relay ladder symbols, was given
the name ladder language. Figure 9-1 illustrates a relay ladder
logic circuit and the PLC ladder language representation of the
same circuit.[1]
Some PLC manufacturers use Boolean language, also
called Boolean mnemonics, to program a controller. The
Boolean language uses Boolean algebra syntax (see Chapter 3)
to enter and explain the control logic. That is, it uses the AND,
OR, and NOT logic functions to implement the control circuits
in the control program.[1]
EXAMPLE
AND OR and OR AND
Let us now complicate the circuitry somewhat.
Suppose that we add two more switches to the previous circuits
and configure the original switch, battery and light circuit as in
Figure 1-26.[5]
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Fig. 1-26 AND-OR LAMP Circuit
Notice that two switches have been added, SWITCH 3
and SWITCH 4. For this system to operate properly, the LAMP
needs to light if SWITCH 1 AND SWITCH 2 are both on, OR if
SWITCH 3 AND SWITCH 4 are both on. This circuit is called
an AND-OR circuit. The Boolean expression for this is
illustrated in Equation 1-3.[5]
Lamp3= (Switch1*Switch2) + (Switch3*Switch4) (1-3)
GRAFCET
Grafcet (Graphe Fonctionnel de Commande Étape
Transition) is a symbolic, graphic language, which originated in
France that represents the control program as steps or stages in
the machine or process. In fact, the English translation of
Grafcet means “step transition function charts.” As we will
discuss in Chapter 10, Grafcet is the foundation for the IEC
1131 standard’s sequential function charts (SFCs), which allow
several PLC languages to be used in one control program.[1]
The Basic Principle of GRAFCET
1. Sequences are subdivided into alternating
• Steps and
• Transitions.
2. Only one step is active at any given time.
3. Any desired number of actions can be linked to the
steps.
4. Sequences can be branched out and merged back
together as
• Alternative Branching
• Parallel Branching.
Step one must be observed in this case!
EXAMPLE
The basic elements of a Grafcet diagram are:
• Initial steps -symbolize the initial active steps at the
beginning of the cycle after initialization or cold restart.
• Simple steps – represents a state represents a state of
operation. A state often has an associated action. The
associated actions are performed when the steps is
active.
• Macro step - a collection of steps.
• Transition-allow the transfer from one step to another.
A transition conditions associated with this condition is
used to define the logic conditions necessary to cross
this transition.
• It is possible to simultaneous activate-deactivate
several steps (AND divergence-convergence). Also it is
possible to select a step sequence in the case of the
processes with alternative execution (OR divergence-
convergence).[8]
Fig. 1 Grafcet Flowchart
LADDER DIAGRAM FORMAT
The ladder diagram language is a symbolic instruction set that is
used to create PLC programs. The ladder instruction symbols
can be formatted to obtain the desired control logic, which is
then entered into memory. Since this type of instruction set
consists of contact symbols, it is also referred to as contact
symbology.[1]
A thorough understanding of ladder diagram
programming, including functional blocks, is extremely
beneficial, even when using a PLC with IEC 1131 programming
language capabilities. Because ladder diagrams are easy to use
and implement, they provide a powerful programming tool
when used in the IEC 1131 environment.[1]
The main functions of a ladder diagram program are to
control outputs and perform functional operations based on
input conditions. Ladder diagrams use rungs to accomplish this
control. Figure 9-6 shows the basic structure of a ladder rung. In
general, a rung consists of a set of input conditions (represented
by contact instructions) and an output instruction at the end of
the rung (represented by a coil symbol). The contact instructions
for a rung may be referred to as input conditions, rung
conditions, or the control logic.[1]
ELEMENTS OF LADDER DIAGRAM
The basic components in a ladder logic program are the
contact and the coil. The contact is the main given to a general
input device-in can set by an external switch, an internally set
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logic or timer function. The coil is the name given to a general
output device- and is used to drive motors, normally open and
normally closed.[7
CONTACTS
Contacts are the input devices in a ladder logic
diagram. They are open and closed by an externally applied
signal (usually represented by X), internal timer (labeled T),
counter (labeled C), or internal logical flag (M and S). As shown
in the table contacts are available in two forms- normally open
and normally closed.[7]
COILS
Coils are the output devices in a ladder diagram. They
are used to operate external devices, and internal timers,
counters and flags. Some manufactures include coils that allow
special operations to be performed which extend the capability
of the PLC beyond that which can be obtained with simple coils
and contacts. The following instructions are a selection of the
extra features that can be operated using the special coil feature
from one manufacturer (Mitsubusi).[7]
Master Control (MC) and Master Reset (MCR)
A master control block is a set of ladder program that
are executed when an input device is activated. The end of a
master control block is marked by the master reset instructions.
It is the ladder logic equivalent of a subroutine or procedure is a
conventional programming language.[7]
Set (SET) and Reset (RST) Devices
These instructions are used to permanently set or reset
an output device when a designated input is set. The output
device holds the given value even of the input value changed.[7]
Reset (RST) Timer AND OR Counter
This instruction resets a designated counter or timer.
Any output device set by the timer will also be reset.[7]
Pulse Rising Edge (PLS) and Pulse Falling Edge (PEE)
This instructions sets a designated output device for
one cycle when either a rising (PLS) or falling edge (PEE) is
detected from an input device.[7]
Using the basic elements described here it is possible to build
very complex logical sequences. [7]
ADVANTAGES OF PLCs
In general, PLC architecture is modular and flexible,
allowing hardware and software elements to expand as the
application requirements change. In the event that an application
outgrows the limitations of the programmable controller, the
unit can be easily replaced with a unit having greater memory
and I/O capacity, and the old hardware can be reused for a
smaller application. A PLC system provides many benefits to
control solutions, from reliability and repeatability to
programmability. The benefits achieved with programmable
controllers will grow with the individual using them—the more
you learn about PLCs, the more you will be able to solve other
control problems.
Without question, the “programmable” feature provides
the single greatest benefit for the use and installation of
programmable controllers. Eliminating hardwired control in
favor of programmable control is the first step towards
achieving a flexible control system. Once installed, the control
plan can be manually or automatically altered to meet day-to-
day control requirements without changing the field wiring. This
easy alteration is possible since there are no physical
connections between the field input devices and output devices
(see Figure 1-18), as in hardwired systems. The only connection
is through the control program, which can be easily altered.
The hardware features of programmable controllers
provide similar flexibility and cost savings. An intelligent CPU
is capable of communicating with other intelligent devices. This
capability allows the controller to be integrated into local or
plantwide control schemes. With such a control configuration,
PLC can send useful English messages regarding the controlled
system to an intelligent display.[5],[4]
CONCLUSIONS
• A computer is optimized for calculation and
display tasks.
• A computer is programmed by specialists
• A PLC is designed for (logic) control and
regulation tasks.
• A PLC is programmed by non-specialists.
• A PLC is well adapted to industrial environment.
• They are cost-effective.
• They are flexible, reliable and compact.
• They have significant advantages over traditional
control systems based on relay or pneumatics.
• PLC’s are widely available and used in several, in
fact almost all automated processes.
– Aerospace
– Automotive Industry
– Entertainment
– Petroleum Industry
– Food, Beverage, and Packaging
• The logic control tasks such as interlocking,
sequencing, timing and counting (previously
undertaken with relays or pneumatics) etc…
• In addition, PLCs can perform a variety of
calculation, communication and monitoring tasks
etc…
• Programmable logic controller and their unique
language.
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• The ability to communicate with other controllers

or the main computer facilitates its roll in the large
automation systems using discrete, small size
controllers. [2],[3],[1]

REFERENCES

[1]”Programmable Controllers Theory and Implementation (Second

Edition) Written By L.A. Bryan”
[2]Automating Manufacturing Systems with PLCs (Version 5.0, May 4,
2007) Written By Hugh Jack
[3]Introduction To Programmable Logic Controllers (Second Edition)
written By Gary Dunning
[4]Programmable Controllers An engineer’s guide written by E.A. Parr,
MSc, CEng, MIEE, MInstMC
[5]Programmable Logic Controllers: Programming Methods and
Applications by John R. Hackworth And Frederick D. Hackworth, Jr.
[6]Kelvin Erickson. Programmable logic controllers term papaer
[7]Programmable Logic Control written by James Vernon: control
systems principles.co.uk
[8]Graphic Programming of Programmable Logic Controller Case Study
for a Punching Machine written by Vasile MARINESCU
[9] A Graphical Interface Based On Grafcet For
Programming Industrial Robots Off-Line written by GUSTAVO V.
ARNOLD_, PEDRO R. HENRIQUES