Professional Documents
Culture Documents
H eat M echanics
W aves E lectricity
R adioactivity
heat
warmer cooler
internal energy = kinetic energy (K.E.) + potential energy (P.E.) of all particles
K.E (depends on temperature) P.E. (depends on the state of matter)
T ↑ ⇔ K .E. ↑ solid liquid gas
(particles vibrate more rapidly at higher
temperature)
P.E. of particles increases
* Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy of the particles.
Example 1
After absorbing 1000 J of energy, the temperature of a substance increases by 4oC. If the mass of
the substance is 2 kg, find
(a) the heat capacity, and
(b) the specific heat capacity of the substance.
Solution
(a) For heat capacity, E = C∆T
1000 = C(4)
C = 250 J oC-1
(b) For specific heat capacity, E = mc∆T
1000 = (2)(c)(4)
c = 125 J kg-1 oC-1
Example 2
2 kg of water is heated by a heater of power 1500 W. Find the time it takes for the temperature of
water to increase from 20oC to 98oC.
Given: the specific heat capacity of the water = 4200 J kg-1 oC-1
Solution
∵ E = Pt and E = mc∆T
∴ Pt = mc∆T
1500t = (2)(4200)(98 – 20)
t = 436.8 s
60
20
0 5 time / minute
If the power of the heater is 800 W, find the heat capacity of the object.
Solution
∵ E = Pt and E = C∆T
∴ Pt = C∆Τ
(800)(5 × 60) = C(60 – 20) [5 minutes = 5 × 60 s]
t = 6000 J oC-1
Example 4
A piece of 0.1 kg hot copper is put into a pond of water of 2 kg. If the initial temperatures of the
copper and water are 500oC and 20oC respectively, find the final temperature of the copper.
Given: the specific heat capacity of the water = 4200 J kg-1 oC-1
the specific heat capacity of the copper = 370 J kg-1 oC-1
Solution
Copper: 500 oC → T
Water: 20 oC → T
Remark
Since the specific heat capacity of water is large, water can absorb a large amount of energy with
only a small temperature rise. (∆T = 22.1 – 20 = 2.1 oC)
Liquid
Release latent heat (P.E.↓) Absorb latent heat (P.E.↑)
∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged) ∆T = 0 (K.E. remains unchanged)
Solid
Example 1
How much energy is required to melt 2 kg of ice at 0oC and to raise the temperature to 30oC?
Given that the latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 × 105J kg-1, and
the specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1oC-1.
Solution
E = ml E = mc∆T
Example 2
A coffee machine injects 0.03 kg of steam at 100oC into a cup of cold coffee of mass 0.17 kg at
20oC. Find the final temperature of the coffee.
Given that the latent heat of vaporization of ice = 2.26 × 106 J kg-1, and
the specific heat capacity of coffee = 5800 J kg-1oC-1.
Solution 100oC 100oC
Steam (0.03 kg): E = ml E = mc∆T
T (final temperature)
o
water water
Coffee (0.17 kg): 20 C
E = ml
T (final temperature)
coffee coffee
Energy lost by steam = Energy gained by coffee
6
(0.03)(2.26 × 10 ) + (0.03)(4200)(100 – T) = (0.17)(5800)(T – 20)
T = 90.0oC
St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 5
3.2 Measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice
Procedures
(1) Set up the apparatus as shown.
(2) Fill both funnels with roughly equal
amounts of crushed melting ice.
(3) Record the initial joulemeter reading (E1).
(4) Switch on the heater for a period of time.
(5) Find the mass of ice (m) melted by the
heater and record the final joulemeter
reading (E2).
(6) Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion
of ice (lf) by E2 – E1 = mlf.
Precautions
- Ice should be crushed to increase the contact area with the heater.
- Melting ice is used so that it is at 0 °C.
- Before switching on the heater, pack the crushed ice in the two funnels so that the drip rates
are steady and about the same.
- After switching off the heater, do not remove the beakers; wait until the drip rates have
become steady and about the same.
- A small piece of wire gauze or steel wool at the neck of the funnels can prevent the crushed ice
from dropping into the beakers directly.
Example 3
The following results are obtained from the above experiment:
Mass of water in experimental cup = 0.050 kg Mass of water in control cup = 0.014 kg
Initial joulemeter reading = 15 000 J Final joulemeter reading = 29 200 J
(a) Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
(b) Calculate the experiment percentage error. Account for any difference of the value obtained
from the standard value, 3.34 × 105 J kg-1.
Solution
(a) By E = ml
29200 − 15000 = (0.050 − 0.014)l f
l f = 3.94 × 10 5 J kg-1
3.9444 × 10 5 − 3.34 × 10 5
(b) Percentage error = × 100% = 18.1%
3.34 × 10 5
Possible sources of error include:
(1) Water dripping down the two funnels at different rates.
(2) Energy is lost to the surroundings.
[Since energy is lost to the surroundings, less amount of ice is melted by the heater.
E
By l f = , the measured lf is greater than the standard value.]
m
Precaution
Do not switch on the heater unless the heating part is totally immersed in water.
Example 4
The following results are obtained from the above experiment:
Mass of water boiled away = 0.10 kg
Energy supplied to the heater = 246 000 J
(a) Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
(b) Account for any difference of the value obtained from the standard value, 2.26 × 106 J kg-1.
Solution
(a) By E = ml
246000 = 0.1l v
l f = 2.46 × 10 6 J kg-1
(b) Possible sources of error include:
(1) Steam condensing on the heater and drips back into the cup.
(2) Energy is lost to the surroundings.
[These will cause a smaller amount of water boiled away.
E
By l v = , the measured lv is greater than the standard value.]
m
Example 5
A person is wearing a wet shirt. There is 0.1 kg of water on the shirt in total.
(a) How much energy is required to evaporate the water?
(b) Where is the energy required taken from?
Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26 × 106 J kg–1
Solution
(a) Energy required evaporating 0.1 kg of water
E = ml
= (0.1)(2.26 × 106)
= 2.26 × 105 J
(b) The energy required is taken from the surroundings (or the skin of the person).
cap
outer case
insulated support
Vacuum cooker
30o
Solution
(a) Force acting on the block (b) Force acting on the block
1
p∝ p∝T V∝T
V
General gas law: pV = nRT, where R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1
Volume ↓
Boyle’s law
⇒ molecules hitting the
1
p∝ walls more frequently
V
⇒ pressure ↑
Temperature ↑
Pressure law ⇒ molecules moving
p∝T faster
⇒ pressure ↑
Temperature ↑
⇒ molecules moving
Charles’ law
faster
V∝T
⇒ volume ↑ to keep
the same pressure
A mildly pumped up beach-ball feels hard when pressed between two wooden boards (Fig a). If the
boards are removed, the ball feels soft again (Fig b).
Fig a Fig b
Explain why the ball feels hard when pressed between the boards using
(a) one of the gas laws,
(b) the kinetic theory.
Solution
(a) When compressed, the volume of the ball decreases.
According to Boyle’s law, pressure increases when the volume decreases.
The ball therefore feels hard.
(b) When compressed, the volume of the ball decreases.
The air molecules can only move in a smaller volume.
As a result, they hit the walls of the ball more frequently and so the pressure increases.
The ball therefore feels hard.
1 3RT 3
(1) PV = Nmc r2.m.s (2) c rms = (3) KE = nRT
3 mN A 2
Example 4
On a mountain, a sealed metal bottle of volume 800 cm3 contains air at a pressure of 72 kPa and a
temperature of 5 °C. Assume that air behaves like an ideal gas.
(Take R = 8.31 J mol–1 K–1, average molar mass of air = 29.0 g mol–1)
(a) Find the number of moles of air in the bottle.
(b) Find the root-mean-square speed of the air molecules in the bottle.
(c) The bottle is then brought to Hong Kong (at sea level) at 20 °C.
Find the change in the total KE of the gas molecules.
Solution
(a) By pV = nRT
pV (72 × 10 3 )(800 × 10 −6 )
n= = = 0.0249 mol [1 cm3 = 10-6 m3]
RT (8.31)(5 + 273)
29.0
(b) mNA = 29.0 g = kg = 0.029 kg
1000
3
(c) Change in total KE = nR (T2 − T1 )
2
3
= (0.0249)(8.31)( 20 − 5) = 4.66 J
2
Xe – 132
Ar – 40
Ne – 20
He – 4
1
(2) cr.m.s. decreases with the mass of the molecule or molar mass of the gas ( c r .m. s ∝ ).
mN A
Example 2
It takes 6 s for a racing car to attain a speed of 100 km h-1 from rest. Find the average acceleration
of the car.
Solution
Initial velocity u = 0 ms-1 (start from rest)
100 -1
Final velocity v = 100 km h-1 = ms = 27.78 ms-1
3 .6
Time t = 6 s
v−u
Acceleration a =
t
27.78 − 0
= = 4.63 ms-2
6
0 t 0 t 0 t
Displacement changes at Velocity remains No acceleration.
a constant rate constant. a = 0 ms-2
0 t 0 t 0 t
Displacement: Velocity increase at a Acceleration remains
Beginning: increases a little. constant rate. constant.
End: increases significantly.
0 t 0 t 0 t
slope = velocity slope = acceleration Area under v-t graph
= displacement
(d) Equations of uniformly accelerated motion
Example 3
A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the ground with a speed of 20 m s-1.
(a) How high does the stone rise?
(b) How long does it take the stone to reach the ground?
(c) Draw a v-t graph for the stone unit it returns to the ground.
Solution
(a) Consider the motion of the stone when it is thrown upward until it reaches the highest point.
u = 20 ms-1 v = 0 ms-1 (highest point)
a = -9.81 ms-2 (uniform deceleration)
v = 0 ms -1
(momentarily at rest at the highest point) 20 ms-1
s=?
By v 2 − u 2 = 2as
0 2 − 20 2 = 2( −9.81) s
s = 20.4 m
∴ greatest height is 20.4 m
(b)
Method 1 Method 2
Consider the motion of the stone when it is Consider the motion of the stone when it is
thrown upward until it reaches the highest thrown upward until it returns to the ground.
point.
u = 20 ms-1 u = 20 ms-1
a = -9.81 ms-2 (uniform deceleration) a = -9.81 ms-2 (uniform deceleration)
v = 0 ms-1 (momentarily at rest) s=0 (return to ground)
t=? -1 t=?
v = 0 ms
By v = u + at 1
By s = ut + at 2
0 = 20 + ( −9.81)t 20 ms-1 2 20 ms-1 s=0m
t = 2.04 s 1
0 = 20t + ( −9.81)t 2
Time required for stone to reach the ground 2
= 2 × 2.04 t ( 4.905t − 20) = 0
= 4.08 s t = 0 (rejected) or 4.905t − 20 = 0
∴ t = 4.08 s
(c)
v / ms-1
20
4.08
0 2.04 t/s
-20
Misconception
(1) The acceleration of the object at the highest point a = 0 ms-2.
(2) We are certain that at the highest point, v = 0 ms-1.
(3) If at the highest point a = 0 ms-2 and v = 0 ms-1, the object will remain at rest forever and will
not fall down.
Example 4 v / ms-1
The v-t graph of a car is shown. 50
(a) Describe the motion of the car from t = 0 s to t = 80 s.
(b) Find the deceleration of the car from t = 40 s to t = 70 s. 0 40 70 80 t/s
(c) Find the total displacement of the car. -25
Solution
(a) From t = 0 s to 40 s, the car moves with a uniform velocity.
From t = 40 s to 70 s, the car decelerates uniformly and becomes momentarily at rest at t = 70 s.
From t = 70 s to 80 s, the car accelerates uniformly in opposite direction.
(b)
v−u
Method 1 by a = Method 2 a = slope of v-t graph
t
From t = 40 s to 70 s From t = 40 s to 70 s
-1 -1
u = 50 ms , v = 0 ms , t = 30 s a = slope of v-t graph
0 − 50 50 − 0
a= = −1.67 ms-2 = − = −1.67 ms-2
30 70 − 40
∴ Deceleration is 1.67 ms-2 ∴ Deceleration is 1.67 ms-2
(c) Total displacement of the car
= area under v – t graph
( 40 + 70)(50) 1
= − (10)( 25)
2 2
= 2625 m
F2 FR (resultant force)
F
Fy
F1
θ
Fx x
Fx = F cos θ
F y = F sin θ
Friction (f)
(ii) R
f = W sin θ = mg sin θ
W sin θ f = (5)(9.81) sin 30°
= 24.5 N
θ
W cos θ
W
(iii) R = W cos θ = mg cos θ
= (5)(9.81) cos 30°
= 42.5 N
(b) Consider the direction along the plane
120 N By F = ma
120 – W sin θ – f = (5)(a)
W sin θ 120 – (5)(9.81)sin θ – 60 = 5a
f = 60 N a = 7.10 ms-2
θ
Example 2
(a) A boy of mass 55 kg stands on a weighing machine in a lift. Find the reading on the weighing
machine when
(i) the lift moves upwards with an acceleration of 1 ms-2, and
(ii) the lift moves downward with a deceleration of 1.5 ms-2.
(b) When the lift moves upward and the reading on the weighing machine is 480 N, find the
acceleration of the lift.
Solution
(a) (i) The lift moves upward and accelerate, a = + 1 ms-2
R − W = ma
R − (55)(9.81) = (55)(1)
R = 595 N [The boy feels heavier]
(ii) The lift moves downward and decelerate, a = + 1.5 ms-2
R − W = ma
R − (55)(9.81) = (55)(1.5)
R = 622 N [The boy feels heavier]
(b) R − W = ma
480 − (55)(9.81) = (55)a
a = −1.08 ms-2
∴ The deceleration of the lift is 1.08 ms-2
Remark
(1) When applying R − W = ma (2) When the cable of the lift break,
upward with acceleration a = +ve
* W = mg
upward with deceleration a = – ve R
The lift moves * a = -9.81 ms-2
downward with acceleration a = – ve
* R=0
downward with deceleration a = +ve
W
5N 5 sin 30o 5N
2m 2m 30o
5 cos 30o
pivot pivot
Example 3
The mass of the meter rule is 0.5 kg.
R School bag
Block
4 kg
10 kg
0.2 m 0.3 m
W1 W2 W3
(a) Find the distance between the school bag and the pivot to maintain balance.
(b) Find the reaction from the pivot.
Solution
(a) Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
(W2)(0.3) + (W3)(d) = (W1)(0.2)
(0.5 × 9.81)(0.3) + (4 × 9.81)(d) = (10 × 9.81)(0.2)
d = 0.463 m
(b) R = W1 + W 2 + W3
= (10)(9.81) + (0.5)(9.81) + (4)(9.81)
= 142 N
Remark
(1) Moment = Force × Distance (distance is usually measured from the pivot)
(2) Must label all forces clearly on the figure.
F=2N 30o
5m 5m
Solution
(a) W = (2)(5) = 10 J (b) W = (2 cos 30o)(5) = 8.66 J
Consider only the component of F along the
direction of displacement. i.e. 2 cos 30o
4.2 Energy
Mechanic energy:
1
(1) K.E. = mv 2
2
(2) P.E. = mgh
(3) Elastic potential energy
4.3 Energy change
Conservation of energy: Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot
be created or destroyed.
Example 2
Find the speed of the particle at B. Assume that the track is smooth.
2 ms-1
A
10 m
B
3m
Solution
Total mechanical energy at A = Total mechanical energy at B
P.E.A + K.E.A = P.E.B + K.E.B Common mistake
2 2
m(9.81)(10) + ½ m(2) = m(9.81)(3) + ½ m(v) cannot use the formula v 2 − u 2 = 2as
98.1 + 2 = 29.43 + ½v2 reason: not a uniformly accelerated motion
v = 11.9 ms-1
30o
A block slides down for 8 m along the surface of a 30o inclined plane. It is given that the mass of
the block is 3 kg and the friction acting on the block is 5 N
(a) Find the P.E. loss of the block.
(b) Find the work down against friction.
(c) If the initial speed of the block is 4 ms-1, find its final speed.
Solution
(a) P.E. loss
8m
= mgh h = 8 sin 30o
= (3)(9.81)(8 sin 30o) 30o
= 117.72 J ≈ 118 J
(b) work done against friction 5N
W = fs
8m
= (5)(8) 30o
= 40 J
(c) K.E. gained = 117.72 – 40 = 77.72 J
½mv2 –½mu2 = 77.72
½(3)(v2 – 42) = 77.72
v = 8.23 ms-1
P.E. (117.72 J)
Heat (40 J)
4.4 Power
P = Fv
Unit: W
Conclusion
Work
Energy Scalar
Power
Solution
u = -20 ms-1 (towards the left)
v = 30 ms-1
(0.05)(30) − (0.05)( −20)
F= = 500 N
0.005
5.3 Impulse
Definition: Ft
F/N Impulse = Ft = mv – mu = change in momentum
t/s
0.02 0.04
Example 2
If the area under the above F – t graph is 0.52 Ns, find
(a) the change in momentum
(b) The average force of impact.
Solution
(a) Change in momentum = area under F – t graph = 0.52 Ns
(b) Average force of impact
mv − mu 0.52
F= = = 26 N
t 0.04 − 0.02
10 ms-1 1 ms-1
v
2 kg 4 kg 2 kg 4 kg
5 kg 1 kg 1 kg
v2
Before collision After collision
Solution
Along direction of x-axis
(5)( 2) = (5)v1 cos 10° + (1)v 2 cos 30°
5v1 cos 10° + v 2 cos 30° = 10 ---- (1)
Along direction of y-axis
0 = (5)v1 sin 10° − (1)v 2 sin 30°
v 2 sin 30°
v1 = ---- (2)
5 sin 10°
Sub. (2) into (1)
v sin 30°
5 2 cos 10° + v 2 cos 30° = 10
5 sin 10°
v 2 = 2.70 ms-1
Sub. v 2 = 2.70 ms-1 into (2):
v1 = 0.576 ms-1
u
200 g
4g 3 cm
Solution
Stage (1) Stage (2)
1
impact: m1u1 + m 2 u 2 = m1 v1 + m 2 v 2 energy change: mv 2 = mgh
2
u v v
M = 200 g
m=4g 3 cm
Before impact After impact K.E. → P.E.
Example 6
Identify the type of the following collisions
(a) 5 ms-1 4 ms-1 1 ms-1 4 ms-1
2 kg 1 kg 2 kg 1 kg
Solution
1 1
Total K.E. before collision = (2)(5) 2 + (1)( 4) 2 = 33 J
2 2
1 1
Total K.E. after collision = (2)(1) 2 + (1)( 4) 2 = 9 J
2 2
∵ there is K.E. loss during collision (24 J)
∴ the collision is inelastic.
(b) 2 -1
2 ms-1 At rest 8 -1
ms ms
3 3
2 kg 1 kg 2 kg 1 kg
Solution
1 1
Total K.E. before collision = (2)( 2) 2 + (1)(0) 2 = 4 J
2 2
1 2 1 8
Total K.E. after collision = ( 2)( ) 2 + (1)( ) 2 = 4 J
2 3 2 3
∵ there is no K.E. loss during collision
∴ the collision is elastic.
u
u sin θ H
θ
u cos θ x
Range sx
Velocity Displacement
Horizontal motion
vx = ux (velocity is constant) s x = ux t
Uniform motion
Vertical motion
Free fall motion vy = uy – gt sy = uyt – ½ gt2
(a = -g = -9.81 ms-2)
Other useful formulae
u x = u cos θ u y = u sin θ
2 2
1. v = vx + v y
2u sin θ
2. Time of flight T =
g
u 2 sin 2θ u2
3. Range s x = Maximum Range s x = when θ = 45o
g g
u 2 sin 2 θ
4. Maximum height H =
g
g
Equation of trajectory: s y = (tan θ ) s x −
2
5. sx
2u cos θ
2 2
Example 1 wall
A small object is thrown horizontally towards a 1.2 m
vertical wall 1.2 m away. If the initial speed of
the ball is 8 ms-1, find the vertical displacement
of the ball when it hits the wall
Solution:
Given Horizontal motion ux = 8 ms-1 sx = 1.2 m,
Vertical motion uy = 0 (thrown horizontally) sy = ? a = -9.81 ms-2
For horizontal motion: s x = ux t
1.2 = 8t ⇒ t = 0.15 s
For vertical motion: s = ut + ½ at2
= 0 + ½ (-9.81)(0.15)2
= -0.110 m
Vertical displacement sy = 0.110 m (downward)
30 o
100 m
Solution:
(a) Given
Horizontal motion ux = 10 cos 30o
Vertical motion uy = 10 sin 30o sy = -100 a = -9.81 ms-2 t =?
30 o
vx
100 m
vy θ v
vy 44.6
tan θ = =
vx 8.66
θ = 79.0o
The direction makes 79.0o with the horizontal.
Example 1
A piece of rod rotates about O. A and B are two particles on the rod. If the rod makes 20
revolutions in 80 s, find
(a) the angular velocity of the rod.
(b) the velocities of A and B.
Solution
(a) 1 revolution = 360o = 2π rad A B
θ 20 × 2π O
ω= = = 1.57 rad s-1 2m 2m
t 80
Alternative method:
T = 80 / 20 = 4 s
2π
ω= = 1.57 rad s-1
4
(b) v = rω
v A = 2 × 1.57 = 3.14 ms-1
v B = 4 × 1.57 = 6.28 ms-1
Remark:
(1) When the rod rotates, both A and B perform circular motion.
(2) Since A and B make one revolution (360o) at the same time (same period T), they have the
same angular velocity.
(3) vB > vA because rB > rA ( v = rω )
Example 2
It takes 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 second for the Earth to revolve about its own axis. Find
the angular velocity of the rotation.
Solution
Period T = 23 × 3600 + 56 × 60 + 4.1 = 86164.1 s
2π 2π
ω= = = 7.29 × 10 −5 rad s-1
T 86164.1
Example 3
A stone of mass 2 kg is tied by a string and moves in a horizontal circular path of radius 0.5 m.
(a) Find the tension in the string if the speed of the stone is 4 ms-1.
(b) The string breaks when its tension exceeds 100 N. Find the maximum speed of the stone
if the string does not break.
Smooth table
Solution
(a) ∵ T is the only force along the radius and it is pointing to the centre
T v2 42
∴ T =m = 2× = 64 N
r 0 .5
v2
(b) T = m
r
v2
100 = 2
0 .5
v =5 ms-1
Solution
Maximum friction f = 0.6 mg
v2
Along the radius: f =m
r
v2
0.6mg = m
r
v = 0.6 gr = 0.6 × 9.81 × 50
2
v = 17.1 ms-1
Remark: friction provides the centripetal force for a car to perform circular motion.
(a) What is the safety speed designed for this bank road?
(b) If the speed of the car is 70 km h-1, is there any 20ο
friction acting on the car by the road? If yes, draw the friction acting on the car.
Solution
(a) The centripetal force does not rely on friction, but provided by the horizontal component of the
normal reaction.
R R cos θ
In vertical direction: R cos θ = mg L (1)
v2
In horizontal direction: R sin θ = m L ( 2)
r
R sin θ
(2) v2
:⇒ tan θ =
(1) gr
mg v2
tan θ =
v2 20ο gr
tan 20° =
9.81 × 80
v = 16.9 ms-1
(b) If the speed of the car = 70 km h-1 =19.4 ms-1 > 16.9 ms-1,
v2
The tilting angle θ of the cyclist is given by tan θ =
gr
(1) v2
:⇒ tan θ =
( 2) gr
Example 7
Find the angle of inclination of the wings of an aircraft which is traveling in a circular path of
radius 2000 m at a speed of 360 km h-1.
Solution
v = 360 km h-1 = 100 ms-1 1
[1 km h-1 = ms-1]
3 .6
v2 100 2
tan θ = =
gr 9.81 × 2000
θ = 27.0o
Example 1
Student P of mass 65 kg is 1.5 m away from student Q of mass 60 kg. Find the magnitude of
the gravitational force between them. Assume students P and Q are two spherically
symmetrical objects. Take G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
Solution
GMm 6.67 × 10 −11 × 65 × 60
F= 2
= 2
= 1.16 × 10 -7 N
r 1 .5
Example 2
A particle of mass 0.02 kg is located at 100 km above the Earth’s surface.
(a) Find the gravitational force acting on the particle by the Earth.
(b) Find the gravitational field strength of the Earth at the position of the particle.
Given:
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2
Mass of the Earth ME = 5.98 × 1024 kg
Radius of the Earth RE = 6370 km
Solution
GMm
(a) Gravitational force acting on the particle by the Earth =
r2
F 0.191
(b) gravitational field strength = = = = 9.53 N kg-1
m 0.02
Note: since the particle is 100 km above the Earth, the gravitational field strength is
smaller than 9.81 N kg-1 (close to the surface of the Earth)
8.87(6050 × 10 3 )
2
r= = 6070.5 km
8
The height of the orbit above Venus’ surface = 6370 km – 6050 km = 320 km
Example 4
A geostationary satellite takes 24 hours to revolve once around the Earth in a circular orbit.
(a) Find the angular velocity ω of the satellite.
(b) Estimate the distance of the satellite h above the Earth’s surface.
Take the acceleration due to gravity at the Earth’s surface to be 9.8 m s–2 and the radius of the Earth
RE to be 6370 km.
2π 2π
(a) ω = = = 7.27 × 10 −5 rad s-1
T 24 × 3600
9.81 × (6370 × 10 3 )
2
r =
3
(7.27 × 10 )
−5 2
r = 42220 km
∴ The distance of satellite above the Earth = 35900 km = 3.59 × 107 m.
St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 41
Example 5 Moon
Assume that the Moon revolves around the Earth in a
GMm
circular orbit of radius 3.78 × 108 m. The period is 27.3 days. r2
(a) Find the linear velocity v of the Moon.
(b) Estimate the mass of the Earth ME.
Given G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2.
Solution
2π 2π
(a) ω = = = 2.66 × 10 − 6 rad s-1
T 27.3 × 24 × 3600
v = rω = 3.78 × 108 × 2.66 × 10-6 = 1010 ms-1
(b) Consider the circular motion of the Moon moving around the Earth.
GMm
2
= mrω 2
r
r 3ω 2 (3.78 × 10 8 ) (2.66 × 10 −6 )
3 2
M= = −11
= 5.75 × 10 24 kg
G 6.67 × 10
Example 1
(b) r = i = 65o
∴ angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray
=i+r
= 130o
Glass block
Do exercise: page 63 Q 13
Solution
(a) ∵ Light enter from a denser medium, (b) ∵ Light enters from a less dense medium
1.33
C = sin −1 = 51.5° < 60° ∴ total internal reflection would not occur.
1 .7
∴ total internal reflection would occur. (No need to calculate the critical angle)
(d) Applications
(i) optical fibres (transmit telephone signals)
(ii) cat’s eyes found on highways
(iii) using prisms as mirrors in cameras
The nature of image depends on the distance between the object and the lens.
The images formed by a concave lens are always virtual, erect and diminished.
3.3 Magnification
image size image distance hi v
m= = m= =
object size object distance ho u
m>1 m=1 m<1
Magnified Same size Diminished
* Example 1
Some letters on a single-lined paper are observed by using a lens as shown below.
J J J J J J J J J J J J
1.1 5
1.1
1.0 5
F C
2 cm
0.9 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Focal length f ≈ 6.8 cm (measure the distance between F and the optical centre)
Example 1
The wavelengths of visible light lie between 4 × 10-7 m to 7 × 10-7 m.
Find the frequency range of light.
Solution
∵ v = fλ
∴ f=v/λ
3 × 10 8
Minimum frequency = −7
= 4.29 × 1014 Hz
7 × 10
3 × 108
Maximum frequency = −7
= 7.5 × 1014 Hz
4 × 10
∴ frequency range of visible light is 4.29 × 1014 Hz to 7.5 × 1014 Hz.
* Example 2
Many auto-focus cameras use infra-red radiation to judge the distance of an object from the
camera. If the time between emitting an infra-red pulse and receiving the pulse is 25 ns, find the
distance of the object from the camera.
Solution
Distance = speed × time
= (3 × 108) × (25 × 10-9 ÷ 2) [25 ns = 25 × 10-9 s]
= 3.75 m
* Definition Vibrations are at right angle to the Vibrations are parallel to the direction of
direction of travel of the wave travel of the wave
Wavelength Distance between 2 adjacent crests Distance between 2 adjacent compressions
or troughs or rarefactions
Examples EM waves, water waves Sound waves
5.2 Equations:
frequency f: no. of waves produced in 1 s.
(a) v = fλ
If f = 5 Hz, 5 waves are generated in 1s.
1
(b) f = * period T: time required to produce 1 wave,
T
OR time for a particle to make a complete vibration
(c) d = vt
If T = 0.2 s, it takes 0.2 s to generate 1 wave,
OR it takes 0.2 s for a particle to make 1 complete vibration.
Example 1
It takes 10s for a slinky to produce 20 waves.
(a) Find the frequency of the wave.
(b) If the wavelength of the wave is 0.2 m, find the speed of the wave.
Solution
(a) frequency f = no. of waves produced in 1 s
20
f = = 2 Hz (2 waves are produced in 1 s.)
10
(b) By v = fλ
v = (2)(0.2) = 0.4 ms-1
bI d f
c
(a) Which particles are
(i) moving upwards,
(ii) moving downwards,
(iii) momentarily at rest?
(b) Which particles are
(i) vibrating in-phase,
(ii) vibrating anti-phase?
** (c) If the frequency of the wave is 2 Hz, draw the shape of the waves after 0.125 s.
Solution
(a) a e
ib d f
c
(i) moving upards: b, f
(ii) moving downwards: d
(iii) momentarily at rest: a, c, e
(b) (i) a,e or b,f are in-phase
(ii) a,c or b,d or c,e or d,f are anti-phase
Remark
In phase Separation of 2 particles is λ, 2λ, 3λ, …
Anti-phase Separation of 2 particles is 0.5λ, 1.5λ, 2.5λ, …
¼λ
a e
c
Note: particles only move up and down while the wave travels forward.
s – t graph s – d graph
Shows the displacement of ONE particle at Shows the displacement of ALL particle at a
different times certain time
s s
Time for one complete
vibration
t d
Τ λ
* Example 3
An s – t graph and s – d graph of a wave are shown below.
s / cm s / cm
5 5
P
0 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 t/s 0.1 0.2 d/m
-5 -5
Q
(a) Find the speed of the wave.
** (b) Draw an s – t graph for particle Q (see the s – d graph.)
Solution
(a) From s – t graph, we have T = 0.2 s ⇒ f = 1/0.2 = 5 Hz.
From s – d graph, we have l = 0.2 m
∴ wave speed v = fλ = (5)(0.2) = 1 ms-1
(b) s / cm
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 t/s
-5
6.2 Reflection
i=r
Frequency f No change
Wavelength λ No change
Wave speed v No change
6.3 Refraction
(a) Deep region → Shallow region
6.5 Interference
(a) Condition: two sets of waves of the same frequency meet each other
** (b) Stable interference pattern: two sources MUST be coherent.
Coherent sources are sources with (i) same frequency
(ii) constant phase difference
(e.g. constantly in-phase or antiphase)
– amplitudes are not necessarily the same.
** (c) Constructive interference, destructive interference and path difference
Path difference Type of interference
A 4λ – 3λ = λ Constructive
B 4λ – 3.5λ = ½ λ Destructive
C 3.5λ – 2.5λ = λ Constructive
** Constructive interference: path difference = 0λ, λ, 2λ, 3λ, …
Increase source
separation
Result:
Nodal lines and antinodal lines
become closer together
Decrease
wavelength
(ii) anti-phase
(iii) momentarily at rest
(b) Find the wave speed.
* (c) Draw the shape of the wave after 0.01 s.
(d) What should be the frequency of the vibrator in order to produce 4 vibrating loops?
Solution
(a) (i) in-phase: c and d
(ii) anti-phase: b and c, b and d
(iii) b, c and d (a is always at rest)
(b) λ = 1.2 × 2 / 3 = 0.8 m
Wave speed v = fλ
= (25)(0.8) = 20 ms-1
(c) Steps: (1) f = 25 Hz ⇒ T = 1/25 = 0.04 s
(2) 0.01 s = ¼ T
After 0.01 s (¼ T), the waveform is:
25
(d) for 1 vibrating loop: f1 = = 8.33 Hz
3
25
For 4 vibrating loops: f4 = 4f1 = 4 × = 33.3 Hz
3
(a) Laser passes through a narrow slit and spreads into the
shadow of the slit.
Red (b) λred > λblue ⇔ diffraction of red light > diffraction of blue
Green light
Blue (c) λred = 7 ×10-7 m. To show the diffraction of light, the slit
must be very narrow.
7.2 Interference of light
Young’s double-slit experiment
*(a) Precautions:
(i) use strong light source (or black
out the laboratory)
a (ii) use monochromatic light (單色光)
(iii) all slits should be as narrow as
∆x
possible
(iv) slit separation should be very small
D
(~ 0.5 mm)
(v) screen should be placed 1 – 2 m
(b) Ways to increase fringe separation ∆x behind the double-slit
(i) use light of longer wavelength λ λ D
∆x =
(ii) decrease slit separation a a
(iii) increase the distance between the double-slit and the screen D.
Example 3
Microwaves are used to study interference as shown below. The amplitude of signal collected
by the received is showed in the following graph.
amplitude
A P
(a) Explain why the amplitude varies as the receiver moves from A to B?
(b) If XP = 23 cm, YP = 30 cm, find
(i) the path difference at P,
(ii) the wavelength of the microwave
(c) Now the separation between the slits is increased. Sketch the graph of amplitude of
microwave received along AB.
Solution
(a) Interference occurs. Maximum amplitude is obtained because of constructive interference
and minimum signal is due to destructive interference.
(b) (i) Path difference at P = YP – XP = 30 – 23 = 7 cm
(ii) Path difference at P = 2λ (constructive interference)
∴ 2λ = 7 cm
λ = 3.5 cm
(c) amplitude
speaker
CO2
Refraction of light
Sound waves are focused by the balloon filled with carbon dioxide. A large sound is received
by the microphone.
(c) Diffraction
frequency of human speech f ~ 100 Hz – 300 Hz
wavelength λ ~ 1.1 m – 3.3 m [λ = v / f, v = 330 ms-1]
∵ λ > width of doorway
Door ∴ significant diffraction of sound
(d) Interference
* Experiment procedures:
Signal generator
Speaker
Speaker
O A B C mic. position
8.4 Ultrasound
(a) sound waves of frequency greater than 20 kHz
(b) properties are the same as sound waves
(c) applications (i) ultrasonic scan of the foetus (胎兒)
(ii) detecting shoal of fish (魚群)
(iii) ultrasound flaw (裂紋) detector
Example 1
30 kHz ultrasound is used to detect shoal of fish. It is given that the speed of ultrasound in sea
water
is 1500 ms-1.
(a) Find the wavelength of ultrasound.
* (b) Explain ultrasound is used instead of audible sound.
Solution
(a) λ = v / f
= 1500 / (30 × 103) = 0.05 m
* (b) Since wavelength of ultrasound is shorter, the degree of diffraction of ultrasound is
smaller.
Example 1
The charge of an electron is e = -1.6 ×10-19 C. How many extra electrons are gained by a
negatively charged rod of 2 ×10-8 C?
Solution
No. of extra electrons gained
2 × 10 −8
= −19
= 1.25 × 1011
1.6 × 10
(i) When a positively charged rod is put near to a neutral object, negative charges are
induced on the side near the rod and positive charges are induced on the other side.
(ii) The attraction between the rod and the negative charges is greater than the repulsion
between the rod and the positive charges.
(iii) Therefore, the neutral object is attracted by the charged rod.
Q1Q2
F= ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2
4πε 0 r 2
Example 2
There are three charges Q1 (–2 µC), Q2 (1 µC) and Q3 (–3 µC) as shown below. Find the
resultant force acting on Q2.
Solution
Q2 is attracted by Q1 and Q3.
Q1Q2
By F =
4πε 0 r 2
F1 =
(2 × 10 )(1 × 10 ) = 1.798 N
−6 −6
[Note: 10 cm = 0.1 m]
4π (8.85 × 10 )(0.1 )
−12 2
F3 =
(3 × 10 )(1 × 10 ) = 2.698 N
−6 −6
4π (8.85 × 10 )(0.1 )
−12 2
Example 3
Two point charges A (3 × 10–8 C) and B (–2 × 10–8 C) are placed 20 cm
apart. Find the magnitude ofthe electric field strength at B due to A.
Solution
Electric field strength due to A:
QA 3 × 10 −8
E= = −12
= 6740 NC-1
4πε 0 r 2
4π (8.85 × 10 )(0.2) 2
Solution
Eresultant
Electric field strength due to B 30o 30o
EC EB
QB 2 × 10 −8
EB = = = 4496 NC-1 EC EC cos 30o EB
4πε 0 r 2 4π (8.85 × 10 −12 )(0.2) 2 o
EB cos 30
60°
Electric field strength due to C
30o 30o
QC 2 × 10 −8
EC = = = 4496 NC-1 EC sin 30o EB sin 30o
4πε 0 r 2 4π (8.85 × 10 −12 )(0.2) 2
Eresultant = E B cos 30° + EC cos 30° = 7790 NC-1
Solution
Q
By V = ,
4πε 0 r
QA 3 × 10 −8
Electric potential due to A = = = 1206 V
4πε 0 r 4π (8.85 × 10-12 ) 0.2 2 + 0.12
QB − 5 × 10 −8
Electric potential due to B = = = −1422 V
4πε 0 r 4π (8.85 × 10-12 ) 0.32 + 0.12
Remark:
1. A positive charge gives a positive potential while a negative charge gives a negative potential
2. Unlike electric field, resultant electric potential can be obtained by direct addition because
potential is a scalar.
+ –
10 cm
6V 0V 6V 0V 6V 0V 6V 0V
Note:
(a) No work is due when a charge moves along an equipotential line. Its electric potential
energy remains unchanged.
(b) Equipotential lines and electric field lines are perpendicular to each other.
V = –Ex
+ – The negative sign expresses that V decreases
E along the direction of E-field
Slope of a V – x graph is -E
x
Example 7
A voltage of 1000 V is applied across a pair of parallel plates as shown below.
+ –
Solution
(a)
+ –
E
(c) 0 x/m
0.04
Method 1 Method 2
By V = Ed Slope of V – x graph = –E
1000 = E(0.04) –1000/0.04 = –E
-1
E = 25000 Vm (to the right) E = 25000 Vm-1 (to the right)
electron flow
battery
conventional
current
bulb bulb
The conventional current goes round the circuit from Current is the same at every part of a
the positive terminal of the battery to the negative simple circuit
terminal.
2.2 Current
Definition: current is the rate of flow of charge
charge Q
current = I = or Q = It
time t
Unit: A
2.3 Potential difference, electromotive force, voltage
Lower R
Example 2
The V–I graph of conductor X is shown.
(a) Find the resistance of conductor X.
(b) Conductor Y obeys Ohm’s law and its resistance is half
that of conductor X. Sketch the V–I graph of conductor Y.
Solution
(a) Resistance = slope of V – I graph
5
= = 0.5Ω
10 Conductor Y
(b) Resistance of Y = ½ (0.5) = 0.25 Ω (Lower resistance, smaller slope)
i.e. when V = 5V, I = 20 A
Remark
1. Ammeters must be connected in series.
2. Voltmeters must be connected in parallel.
Example 4
Find the resistance of a copper wire if its length and diameter are 70 cm and 1 mm
respectively.
Given that the resistivity of copper is 1.7 × 10-8 Ωm.
Solution
l 0.7
By R = ρ = (1.7 × 10 −8 ) 2
= 0.0152 Ω [Α = πr2 = π(d/2)2]
A 10 − 3
π
2
I1 R1
R1 R2 IV1 1
I1 I2 I R2
I2
V1 V2
V2
I1 = I2 (Common) I = I1 + I2
ε = V1 + V2 ε = V1 = V2 (Same)
1 1 −1
R eq = ( + )
Req = R1 + R2 R1 R 2
If R1 = R2, then Req = ½ R1 = ½R2
Figure 1
In Figure 2
Example 1
Find the total amount of energy stored by the rechargeable battery when it is fully charged.
Solution
2000 mAh: (1) I = 2000 mA = 2A
(2) t = 1 h = 3600 s
Energy stored E = VIt
= (1.2)(2)(3600) = 8640 J
Remark
The earth pin is designed longer to open ‘shutters’ on the live and the neutral holes.
This ensures the earth wire is connected before the live wire.
(c) Switch
(i) Must be fitted in the live wire.
(ii) This makes sure that no part of the electrical appliance is at high voltage when the
switch is turned off.
(d) Fuse
(i) Must be fitted in the live wire.
(ii) If an excess current flows through the circuit or the circuit overloads, the fuse blows
and breaks the circuit before the cable overheats and causes a fire.
neutral
point
N S N x N
uniform
field
4.2 Magnetic field due to current carrying conductors
current direction
up out of page
µ0 I
Long straight wire B=
2π r
µ 0 NI
Circular coil B=
2r
solenoid
N S
µ 0 NI
Solenoid B= = µ 0 nI
l
current direction
8 cm
I=5A
8 cm
8 cm
Fig a Fig b I=2A
Solution
A B
Solution
(a) A: south pole
B: north pole
µ 0 NI (4π × 10 −7 )(180)(5)
(b) B= = = 3.77 × 10 − 3 T
l 0.3
(c) The answer in (b) will be halved.
(d) (1) increase the current
(2) increase the number of turns of solenoid (for the same length of solenoid)
(3) insert a soft-iron core through the solenoid
l Note:
when θ = 90o (conductor ⊥ field), F = BIl.
I B
when θ = 0o (conductor // field), F = 0.
θ
Two straight parallel wires X and Y are 20 cm apart. Wire X carries current 3Aand wire Y carries
current 6A in the opposite direction.
(a) Draw the magnetic field produced by Y at the position of wire X and calculate the magnitude.
(b) Find the magnetic force per unit length acting on wire X.
(c) Mary says, ‘Since the current through Y is two times that through X, the magnetic force acting
on Y is two times that acting on X.’ Comment on Mary’s statement.
Solution
(a) magnetic field produced by wire Y BY
µ0 I (4π × 10 −7 )(6)
BY = = = 6 × 10 − 6 T IX
2πr 2π (0.2)
(b) By F = BIl,
F
Magnetic force per unit length = BI = (6 × 10 − 6 )(3) = 1.8 × 10 −5 Nm-1
l
(c) Her statement is incorrect.
According to Newton’s third law, the forces acting on both wires are an action and reaction
pair. The magnetic force acting on X is equal to that acting on Y.
Remark:
The magnetic force acting on X is due to the magnetic field produced by Y and the current
passing through X. Hence, F=BYIXlX.
uniform
+q magnetic
+q field B
Example 4
An electron moves in a circular path in a uniform magnetic field of field strength 0.01T.
Given that the charge and mass of an electron are -1.6 × 10-19 C and 9.1 × 10-31 kg respectively.
If the speed of the electron is 6 × 107 ms-1, find
(a) the radius of the circular path, and
(b) the period of circular motion.
Solution
(a) For the circular motion
magnetic force = centripetal force
v2
Bqv = m
r
mv (9.1 × 10 −31 )(6 × 10 7 )
r= = = 0.0341 m
Bq (0.01)(1.6 × 10 −19 )
v 6 × 10 7
(b) v = rω ⇒ ω = = = 1.76 × 10 9 rads-1
r 0.034125
2π 2π
T= = = 3.57 × 10 − 9 s
ω 1.758 × 10 9
Notes:
(1) The magnetic force is always perpendicular to the motion of the charged particle; no work is
done by the magnetic field.
(2) Kinetic energy of the charged particle remains constant.
Function of a commutator:
The commutator reverses the current every
half turn to keep the coil rotating
continuously in one direction.
The movement of an electron in a metal (i) without and (ii) with an electric field.
When a voltage is applied across a conductor, the electrons accelerate and collide with +ve
ions constantly. Finally, they attain a steady velocity (called drift velocity) of about 10–5 m s–1
and produce a current.
I = nAvq
Example 5
Find the drift velocity of electrons in a copper wire if the diameter of the wire is 1 mm and the
current flowing through the wire is 2 A.
Given: charge density of copper = 6 × 1028 m-3
Solution
By I = nAvq , A = πr2 = π (0.5 ×10-3)2
I 2
v= = = 2.65 × 10 − 4 ms-1
nAq (6 × 10 ) π × (0.5 × 10 ) × (1.6 × 10 )
28 -3 2 -19
– – – –
– – –
FB = Bqv
v – Hall voltage
I
B +
(ii) If a semi-conductor with positive charge carries is used, positive charges will be
+ + + +
+ + +
FB = Bqv
+ v Hall voltage
I
B –
BI
(iii) Hall voltage VH = . To obtain a greater Hall voltage, the charge density (n)
nQt
should be smaller, such as in a semi-conductor and the thickness (t) should be
smaller.
I 2 cm I=3A
top surface
5 mm
Solution
(a) By Fleming’s left-hand rule, the magnetic force is acting upwards. Therefore the charge
carriers accumulate on the top surface. As the top surface has a higher potential, the sign of the
charge carriers is positive.
V H 8 × 10 −6
(b) Hall E-field = = −3
= 1.6 × 10 − 3 Vm-1
d 5 × 10
(c) Electric force = magnetic force
E H q = Bqv
E H 1.6 × 10 −3
v= = = 8 × 10 − 4 ms-1
B 0 .5
BI
(d) By VH = ,
nQt
BI (0.5)(3)
⇒ n= = = 2.34 × 10 26 m-3
V H Qt (8 × 10 )(1.6 × 10 −19 )(5 × 10 − 3 )
−6
S N
N S
An e.m.f. is induced because the coil An e.m.f is induced because the conductor
experiences a changing magnetic field. cuts across magnetic field lines.
A current is induced because the circuit is A current is NOT induced because the circuit is
complete. not complete.
S N N S S N S N
magnetic field B
If B-field ⊥ coil,
normal to A magnetic flux Φ = BA
B cos θ
B sin θ If B-field is at an angle θ to the normal of the coil
θ
magnetic magnetic flux Φ = BA cos θ
field B
The induced e.m.f (e) is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux, or the rate of flux cutting.
∆Φ ∆Φ
i.e ε =− (for a single-turn coil) ε = − N (for a coil of N turns)
∆t ∆t
– ve sign denotes that induced e.m.f. oppose the change that starts it. (Lenz’s law)
Example 1
A 1-turn circular coil of radius 10 cm is placed perpendicularly
to a uniform magnetic field. The magnetic flux density decreases
at a rate of 0.02 T s–1.
Solution
(a)
coil rotated
carbon brushes
carbon brushes
(i) The coil cuts through the (ii) The coil does not cut through
field lines most rapidly. any field line momentarily.
(max. induced current I) (no induced current I)
An a.c. generator becomes a d.c. generator if the slip rings are replaced by a commutator.
* The commutator reverses the connections of the coil to the outside circuit every half turn.
Therefore, the current in the outside circuit always flows in the same direction.
Formulae
(1) I r . m. s. = I 2
2
V r . m. s.
2
(2) P = I r .m. s. R = = V r .m. s . I r .m. s .
R
I V
(3) For sinusoidal a.c. I r .m. s. = 0 , V r . m. s. = 0
2 2
Example 1
A resistor of 3 Ω is connected to the following alternating currents. Find the average power for each
type of alternating current.
I/A
I/A
6
5
0 0
-2 t/s t/s
-5
Type 1 Type 2
Solution
6 2 + ( −2 ) 2
For type 1 a.c.: I r . m. s. = = 20 = 4.47 A
2
2
Power = I r .m. s. R = ( 20 ) 2 (3) = 60 W
I0 5
For type 2 a.c.: I r .m. s . = = = 3.54 A
2 2
2
2 5
Power = I r .m. s . R= (3) = 37.5 W
2
(b) Efficiency η
Efficiency η
Power output
Ip Is = × 100%
Power input
Vp Vs
Vs I s
= × 100%
Power input Power output Vp I p
= VpIp = VsIs
Example 2
If the transformer has 40 turns in its secondary coil and
both bulbs can operate at their rated values, assume the 220 V
a.c. 10 V, 20 W
transformer is ideal, find
(a) the number of turns in the primary coil. Ns = 40
(b) the currents in the primary coil and secondary coil.
Solution
Vp N p N p 220
(a) = ⇒ = ⇒ N p = 880
Vs Ns 40 10
(b) Power output = 40 W (two light bulbs)
V s I s = 40 ⇒ 20 I s = 40 ⇒ I s = 2 A
Power input = Power output (ideal transformer)
V p I p = 40 ⇒ 220 I p = 40 ⇒ I p = 0.182 A
Power station
Consumer unit
200 V, 1200 W
Cable 10 Ω
Procedures:
(1) Current in cable
P 1200
I cable = = =6A
V 200
(2) Power loss (in cable)
2
Ploss = I cable R = (6) 2 (20) = 720 W
Conclusion
(a) low efficiency (η = 40 %) large amount of power loss
(b) insufficient terminal voltage (200V → 80V)
A C Cable 10 Ω E G
Cable 10 W
200 V Consumer
1200 W Unit
Cable 10 Ω
1:20 20:1
power station B D Cable 10 W F H
Conclusion
(a) high efficiency η = 99.85% (nearly perfect!)
(b) terminal voltage (Vo = 199.7 V ≈ 200V)
Charge +2 –1 No charge
Speed Up to 10% of speed of Up to 90% of speed of Speed of light
light light
Symbol 4
2α or 4
2 He 0
−1 β or 0
−1 e γ
Range in air Several centimeter Several metres Over 100 m
Ionizing power Strong Weak Very weak
Thick and straight Thin and twisted track Tracks can hardly be
track seen
Slight deflection Large deflection No deflection
Electric deflection
(c) The count rate for lead as absorber is due to the background radiation.
Cosmic rays Radioactive Radioactive Living bodies, and Medical practice Nuclear discharge
12% materials in rocks gases food and drinks 17% and others
and soil 15% 40% 15% 1%
e.g. 238
92 U→ 23490Th + 42 He e.g. 234
90 Th → 234
91 Pa + −1 e
0
e.g. 234
90 Th *→ 23490Th + γ
Example 1
The chart in the figure below shows part of a radioactive series.
(a) Write down equations representing the radioactive decay D1 and D2.
(b) What are the values of A and Z in ZA X ?
(c) Which of the above nuclides are isotopes?
Solution
92 U → 90 Th + 2 He
D1 : 238 234 4
(a)
91 Pa → 92 Th + −1 e
D 2 : 234 234 0
Pu → L → 22990Th
241
94
How many α and β particles are emitted in the decay series?
Solution
Method 1 Method 2
241 − 229
241
Pu → 229
Th + a 42 He + b 0
−1 e
No. of α particles emitted = =3 94 90
A0
½A0
¼A0
⅛A0
N = N0e–kt A = A0e–kt
(a) Find the activity of the radioactive source at t = 15 days. time / day
Formulae
ln 2
(1) Half-life t 1 = , k = decay constant (2) N = N0e–kt A = A0e–kt
2 k
Example 4
The initial activity of a radioactive sample is 1.8 × 107 Bq and its half-life is 1.5 hours.
(a) Find the decay constant of the sample.
(b) Find the activity of the sample after 10 hours.
Solution
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
t1 = ⇒k = = = 1.28 × 10 − 4 s-1
2 k t1 5400
2
e.g. 235
92 U + 01 n → 142
56 Ba + 91
36 Kr + 3 01 n e.g. 2
1 H + 31 H → 42 He + 01 n
Nuclear reactor to generate electricity The Sun undergoes nuclear fusion to give out
(Controlled reaction) heat and light (Uncontrolled reaction)
Atomic bomb (Uncontrolled reaction) Hydrogen bomb (Uncontrolled reaction)
鏈式反應)
鏈式反應
Chain reaction (鏈式反應
When a uranium nucleus splits, two or three
neutrons are emitted. These neutrons can carry on
splitting other uranium nuclei, which results in a
chain reaction.
Component Description
Nuclear fuel elements Uranium oxide enriched with extra U-235.
Moderator – Pressurized water
– To slow down neutrons. If the neutrons move too
fast, the chain reaction will stop.
Control rods – Boron-steel
– Can be raised and lowered
– To absorbs neutrons to control the rate of fission.
St. Joseph’s Anglo-Chinese School 107
Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy
Advantages Disadvantages
Nuclear energy helps to solve the world’s future The consequence of an accident is extremely
energy shortage crisis. serious.
There is no serious fuel transportation problem. Nuclear energy will not be cheap if large sums
of money have to spend on maintaining and
upgrading the safety standards of the reactor.
Nuclear energy is in many cases cheaper than Nuclear energy is not necessary. Future energy
coal or oil for generating electricity. needs can be met by using alternative energy
sources.
Nuclear energy is clean and causes little Any country which operates a nuclear reactor
environmental pollution. can produce nuclear weapons.
3.3 Mass-energy relationship
Einstein’s theory of relativity points out that mass can change into energy
E = mc2
Example 1
Uranium-235 is used to generate electricity in a nuclear reactor of a nuclear power station. The
following shows the fission of U-235.
92 U + 0 n → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n
235 1 142 91 1
(a) Find the loss in mass after reaction and hence, find the amount of nuclear energy released.
(b) If 5 × 10–6 kg of U-235 undergoes fission every second, what is the rate of energy produced?
Given: 1u = 1.661 × 10–27 kg
mass of U-235 = 235.043 923 u, mass of neutron = 1.008 665 u
mass of Ba-142 = 141.916 453 u, mass of Kr-91 = 90.923 442 u
Solution
(a) Total mass before reaction
= 235.043 923 u + 1.008 665 u = 236.052 588 u
Total mass after reaction
= 141.916 453 u + 90.923 442 u + 3 × 1.008 665 u = 235.865 890 u
Loss in mass = 236.052 588 u – 235.865 890 u
= 0.186 698 u = (0.186 698)(1.661 × 10–27) kg
= 3.10 × 10–28 kg
Energy released E = mc2
= (3.101 × 10–28)(3× 108)2 = 2.79 × 10–11 J
5 × 10 -6
(b) no. of U-235 consumed in 1 s = = 1.281 × 1019
(235.043923)(1.661 × 10 )
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