Ch 1 Introduction to Biology

Biology
- Biology is the study of organisms (living things), concerning their structure, function, growth, evolution,
classification, distribution etc
- It is a broad field that can be divided into many branches

Branches of biology The study of

Molecular biology • biological activities at molecular level
Cytology • cells in terms of structure, function and biochemical
processes
Anatomy • body structure of organisms
Physiology • how organisms function
Genetics • how characteristics are passed on from one generation
of organisms to the next
Evolutionary • how evolution occurs and how the diversity of life on
biology Earth is produced
Taxonomy • the identification and classification of organisms
Ecology • the interactions among organisms and between their
environment
Biotechnology • the use of living things or life processes to make useful
products

The Characteristics of Life

- How can you tell what are organisms?
- There are 7 characteristics of living things

Nutrition – ability to obtain food

- Organisms need food for energy and nutrients to maintain life
- Green plants can make their own by photosynthesis
- Animals cannot make their own food, so they eat plants or other animals

Respiration - ability to convert food into energy

- Through respiration, organisms break down food in their cells to release energy for body activities such as
movement, growth and repair

Excretion – ability to remove wastes

- Organisms need to remove the wastes produced from chemical reactions inside their bodies
- Animals can excrete wastes in form of exhaled gas, sweat and urine
- Some plants store wastes in leaves which are shed off
- Some trees excrete wastes as resin

Movement – ability to move

- Animals move from place to place to search for food, to find mates and to escape from danger
- Most plants are anchored into the soil by root
- However, some parts of plants still show movement
- For example, plant shoots grow towards light while roots grow towards water

Sensitivity (Irritability) – ability to sense and respond

- Organisms have the ability to detect changes in their environment (stimulus) and respond to them
- Such an ability is called sensitivity or irritability
- Animals have sensory organs and muscular systems to detect and respond to light, sound, chemicals and
many other stimuli
- Plants can detect light and water, and grow towards them
 Growth – ability to increase in size and complexity
- Organisms grow
- They increase in body size and complexity

Reproduction – ability to produce offspring

- All organisms can produce offspring
- The process is known as reproduction
- It ensures the continuity of life

The Importance of Biology to Humans

- Studying biology is useful
- Many biological discoveries and invention have greatly improved our living standard

Here are some important ones in the past few centuries:

Year Biological Discoveries/Inventions
Invention of vaccination
- The first vaccine was invented to prevent smallpox
1796
- Vaccination is now widely used to prevent many other diseases
- Death rates caused by infectious diseases have been greatly reduced

Invention of pasteurisation
1862 - The French biologist Louis Pasteur invented this method to sterilise milk os as to
prevent spoilage

Discovery of antibiotics
- The first antibiotics discovered was penicillin
1928
- Antibiotics are useful drugs for treating infectious diseases caused mainly by
bacteria

Discovery of the structure of DNA

1953 - The discovery of the structure of DNA molecules was a great leap forward in the
study of genetics

First test tube baby was born

1978
- The first test tube baby, Louise Brown, was born
 DNA fingerprinting
- The British geneticist Alec Jeffreys discovered that just as everyone
has their own fingerprint, each of us has a unique pattern of DNA
1984 - DNA fingerprinting can be used in crime investigations and
parentage tests

Cloning technology
1996
- The first cloned sheep, Dolly, was born

The Human Genome Project (HGP)

2003 - The HGP, an international research effort to sequence and map all of the genes of
human, was completed

Complete lab-grown organ works in rats

2013 - A complete lab-grown kidney was made and successfully transplanted into a rat
- The breakthrough paves the way for future growth of human organs

As individuals, studying biology helps us to:

- understand nature, develop an interest in the living world, and have a respect for all living things and the
environment
- becomes more aware of how biological knowledge is applied in daily life

- develop scientific thinking skills for solving biologically-related problems

- make fair judgements on issues related to biological sciences

- prepare for a future career in many fields from medicine to the food industry

How can we study biology?

A. The scientific method

- Biology, like other sciences, commonly uses scientific methods to carry out investigations
- A scientific investigation or scientific inquiry usually consists of some basic steps

1 Observe and ask questions

Scientists are observers. They are curious about unexplained events and ask questions about their
observation.

2 Propose a hypothesis
Scientists propose ideas to explain their observations. The proposed explanation is called is a
hypothesis (plural: hypothesis), which is an idea that can be tested.
If the
experimental
3 Design and perform experiments results do not
Scientists then design experiments to test the hypothesis and predict what the results would be if the support the
hypothesis is correct. hypothesis, the
hypothesis has
When performing experiments, scientists observe, collect data and record results carefully. to be revised or
rejected.

4 Analyse results and draw a conclusion

Scientists analyse experimental results and check if they support the hypothesis. If the results provide
evidence to support the hypothesis, we can conclude that the hypothesis is valid.
 The first biologists who used the scientific method was probably Francesco Redi (1626-1697), an Italian
doctor
- He performed experiments scientifically to investigate why maggots appear on rotting meat
- He is also famous for his demonstration of the use of control experiments

Francesco Redi’s Experiment on the Generation of Maggots

In 17th century, it was widely accepted that maggots arose spontaneously from rotting meat. However, Francesco
Redi observed that flies swarm around fresh meat and then maggots appear on the meat after several days.
[observation] This caused him to wonder whether the flies produce the maggots. He then proposed a hypothesis
and designed an experiment to test it. [hypothesis: flies produce maggots]

In the experiment, Redi set up two jars and put a piece of meat inside each one. He left one jar open and covered
the other with gauze to keep out flies [experimental & control set-ups]. After a few days, he observed that maggots
appeared on the meat in the open jar, but no maggots appeared on the meat in the covered jar. [Results is
compatible with the hypothesis] Redi concluded that maggots are produced by flies, not by the meat itself.
[Conclusion]

Jar B is the control set-up. It shows

that maggots do not appear when
flies are absent.

Limitations
- The scientific method is reliable, but it also has limitations
- In particular, scientists can seldom be sure that they have taken into account all variables other than the
ones they are studying

Nature of science
- Therefore, scientific conclusions remain tentative and are subject to revision if new evidence arises
Ch2 Molecules of Life

Chemical Constituents of Organisms

- Organisms are made up of chemical substances which can be divided into two groups: Inorganic substances
and organic substances

Inorganic substances
- Water and minerals are examples of inorganic substances commonly found in organisms

Although contain carbon, simple carbon-containing substances e.g. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and
hydrogencarbonate ion (CO, CO2, HCO3-) are counted as inorganic substances

Organic substances (Biomolecules)

- Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are the major organic substances in organisms
- These organic molecules substances are called biomolecules. They all contain carbon.

1. Water
- Water is the most abundant compound in organisms
- In humans, water makes up about 65% of our body weight
- Water is essential to organisms
 Here are some of the functions of water in organisms:

1 As a solvent and transport medium

- Water is a good solvent. It dissolves various substances

Solvent
- It provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place in cells

Transport medium
- It acts as a transport medium
- For example, blood is mainly made up of water. Nutrients, gases and metabolic activities are transported by
blood around the body

2 As a reactant
- Water is the reactant of some metabolic reactions in organisms:

Digestion
- During digestion, water is needed to break down complex food substances

Photosynthesis
- During photosynthesis, plants use water and carbon dioxide to produce food (e.g. glucose) and oxygen in
the presence of light and chlorophyll

light
carbon dioxde + water glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll

3 As a cooling agent
- Water acts as a cooling agent in organisms

- For example, sweat is consists mainly of water

- When sweat evaporates, it takes away some heat. This helps lower the body temperature
- In plants, the evaporation of water from plants surfaces (called transpiration) helps prevent plants from
overheating

4 As a temperature buffer
- Water has a large specific heat capacity, which means it absorbs a large amount of heat before its
temperature increases
- As organisms contain a high proportion of water, their body temperature may remain fairly stable when
there is small fluctuation in environmental temperature
- Large bodies of water such as oceans and lakes have relatively constant temperatures, so they provide a
suitable habitat for aquatic organisms

5 As a supporting agent
- Water gives shape and support to organisms
- For example, in some animals (e.g. earthworms and jellyfish), they body cavity is filled with liquid, which
serves as a hydrostatic skeleton (i.e. hydroskeleton) for support and movement
- Plant cells become turgid when they have sufficient water
- This provides turgidity to support young seedlings and non-woody plants

- Water has a high density. It provides buoyancy for aquatic plants and animals
2. Minerals
- Minerals are inorganic substances
- They are needed in small amounts for the normal functioning of organisms
- Most minerals are in the form of inorganic ions dissolved in cytoplasm and body fluid
- They play important roles in regulating metabolism
- On the other hand, some minerals form body structures in organisms. For example, our bones and teeth
contain calcium phosphate

Inorganic ions Functions

Sodium (Na ) +
• Important for water balance
Magnesium (Mg2+) • Needed for plants for forming chlorophyll

• Needed for muscle contraction and blood clotting

Calcium (Ca2+)
• Structural component of bones and teeth

• Needed for forming haemoglobin, a pigment in red blood cells for

Iron (Fe3+)
carrying oxygen

• Important for water balance

Chloride (Cl-)
• Needed for forming hydrochloric acid in gastric juice

Nitrate (NO3-) • Needed in plants for forming proteins

Phosphate (PO43-) • Component of nucleic acids and cell membranes

3. Carbohydrates 碳水化合物
- Carbohydrates are organic substances made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
- They have a general formula of Cx(H2O)y
- The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1

- For example, the chemical formula of glucose (a 6-carbon carbohydrate) is C6H12O6

Carbohydrates are classified into three types according to their complexity:

- Monosaccharides
- Disaccharides
- Polysaccharides
 1 Monosaccharides 單糖 (Simple sugar)
- Monosaccharides are the simplest forms of carbohydrates
- Properties: They are soluble in water and taste sweet

Glucose, fructose and galactose

- Glucose is the most common monosaccharide found in organisms
- Function: Glucose can be broken down directly in the body cells during respiration to provide
energy (for cellular activities)
- Other examples are fructose and galactose

All monosaccharides are reducing sugars

- Their presence is indicated by the formation of brick-red precipitate in Benedict’s test

Glucose Fructose Galactose

Found in Most organisms Fruits Milk

Immediate source of
Function - -
energy

Test for Glucose – Glucose Test Strips

Dip the glucose test strip in the sample solution.

Positive result Colour changes from green to brown: Glucose is present .

Negative result No observable change: Glucose is absent

Test for Reducing Sugar – Benedict’s Test

Add 2 cm3 of sample solution into test tube A and 2 cm3 of distilled water into test tube B.
Add 2 cm3 of Benedict’s solution into each of the test tubes and shake gently.
Put test tubes A and B in a boiling water bath for five minutes

Positive result Brick-red precipitate are formed: Reducing sugar is present

Negative result No observable change: Reducing sugar is absent
More
- There are many types of monosaccharides
- Glucose, fructose and galactose are some examples
- But there are also many types:

Triose Pentose
- ‘Tri’ = Three, ‘-ose’ means sugar - 5-Carbon sugar
- Triose means 3-carbon sugar

E.g. Triose phosphate in respiration pathways and Calvin E.g. 5-C CO2 acceptor in Calvin cycle in photosynthesis
cycle in photosynthesis
5C CO2 acceptor 3C compound
Glycolysis

Glucose E.g. 5-C sugar (ribose and deoxyribose) in nucleic acid

TP x 2

Calvin Cycle

3C compound TP

Hexose
- 6-carbon sugar

E.g. Glucose is used as immediate source of energy in respiration

 2 Disaccharides 雙糖 (Double sugar)
- Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides combine with the removal of a water molecule
- This reaction is called condensation
- The bond in-between is a glycosidic bond
- Properties: They are soluble in water and taste sweet
- They are reducing sugar (except sucrose)

Condensation is a reversible reaction

- Disaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides by using water. This reaction is called hydrolysis
- Enzymes are needed in both reactions inside the bodies of organisms to catalyse the reaction

______________________ (Malt sugar) – formed when two glucose molecules condensed together

+ +

______________________ (Cane sugar) – formed when glucose molecule condenses with fructose

+ +

______________________ (Milk sugar) – formed when glucose molecule condenses with galactose

+ +

Maltose Sucrose Lactose

Can be extracted from barley
Table sugar Milk
grains to make syrup

Found in
 3 Polysaccharides 多糖 (Complex sugar)
- Polysaccharides are large molecules formed by condensation of a large number of monosaccharide
molecules
- Properties: Polysaccharides are insoluble or only very slightly soluble in water. They do not taste sweet

Starch, glycogen, cellulose

- Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants
- Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals
- Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls to give it a rigid structure

Structure
- Starch, glycogen and cellulose are made up of a large number of glucose molecules joined together in
different ways
- Polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides through hydrolysis

Starch Glycogen Cellulose

Many parts of plants (as Animals

starch grains), seeds (e.g.
Found in
cereals), storage organs of
plants e.g. potato tuber
Food rich in dietary fibre
(In humans, they are e.g. fruits, vegetables
primarily stored in cells of
liver and skeletal muscles)

Storage form of As a main component of

Function Main source of energy
carbohydrates in animals plant cell wall for support

Test for Starch – Iodine Test

Add 2 drops of sample solution in a well of a spot plate.

Add 2 drops of iodine solution into the same well and observe.

Positive result Colour changes from brown to blue-black: Starch is present

Negative result No observable change (Colour remains brown): Starch is absent
4. Lipids 脂質
- Lipids are also organic substances made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
- But the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is greater than 2:1

- Properties: Lipids are insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvent such as ether and ethanol

Triglycerides (Fat and Oil)甘油三脂 , phospholipids, steroids

- One of the main groups of lipids are triglycerides, which are commonly known as fats and oils (solid
triglycerides are fats and liquid triglycerides are called oils)
- Other important lipids include phospholipids 磷脂 and steroids 類固醇

1 Triglycerides
- They are fats and oils (solids or liquids, depending on their melting points)
- A triglyceride molecule is formed by the condensation of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid
molecules
- The three fatty acids (FA) can be the same or different

Functions
- Fats and oils are ○ 1 energy reserves in organisms
- In mammals, fats are stored in adipose tissues in the body. These tissues
may be found under the skin as ○ 2 subcutaneous fat, which acts as an
insulating layer to reduce heat loss
- Adipose tissues are also found around internal organs and acts as
○
3 shocker-absorbers for protection
- In plants, oils are produced and stored in the seeds

2 Phospholipids
- A molecule of phospholipid is composed of a glycerol, two fatty acids and a phosphate group
- Phospholipids are main components of cell membranes

Fluid mosaic model

 3 Steroids
- Steroids are a group of lipids with highly complex molecules
- A common example of a steroid is cholesterol, which is an essential component of cell membrane to
stabilize its structure
- Cholesterol is used by the liver for making bile salts and also to make steroid hormones in the sex organs
- It is also important in the production of vitamin D by the skin

Test for Lipids – Grease Spot Test

Add a drop of sample solution to a piece of filter paper. Mark the position of the spot with a pencil.
Add a drop of distilled water besides and mark the position with pencil too.
Examine the filter paper against a light source, wait ten minutes and examine it again. [Spot disappears = water]
Dip the filter paper into an organic solvent* and allow it to dry in air
Examine it against light again [Persistent translucent spot disappears after dipping in organic solvent = lipid]

Positive result Permanent translucent spot disappears after dipping the filter paper in organic solvent
(e.g. ether) : Lipid is present
Negative result The spot disappears: The spot is water

*organic solvent, e.g. ether, acetone or hexane

5. Protein 蛋白質
- Proteins are organic substances made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N)
- Some proteins may also contain sulphur (S)

Amino acid
- The basic unit of proteins are amino acids
- More than 100 different kinds of amino acids are known to occur in cells, but only 20 of them are used to
make proteins
- Each amino acid molecule has a central carbon atom, an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH)
and a side chain (-R group)
- The side chain is unique for each kind of amino acid
 Condensation
- When the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another are joined by condensation, a
dipeptide is formed
- The bond linking the amino acid is called a peptide bond

Polypeptide
- When many amino acids are joined together, a chain of amino acids called a polypeptide is formed
- A protein may consist of one or more polypeptide chains
- Similar to the 26 letters of the English alphabet, which can form a million different words, the 20 different
kinds of amino acids can be joined together in different combinations and sequence to form different
polypeptides or proteins, which have different functions in organisms

Functions of proteins
- Proteins are components of various cellular structures such as the cytoplasm and the cell membrane
- They are needed for formation of new cells. Thus, proteins are important for the ○
1 growth and repair of
body tissues
- Almost all body structures contain proteins

- Proteins are used to make many important molecules in our body

- These include ○2 enzymes, antibodies and certain hormones
o Enzyme catalyse (i.e. increase the rate of) chemical reactions in cells
o Antibodies help protect our body against germs
o Hormones are involved in controlling various processes in the body

- Protein can be a source of energy [○

3 last source of energy]
- When the reserves of carbohydrates and lipids are used up, our body starts to break down proteins to
provide energy
 Test for Protein – Protein Test Strips [Albustix paper]

Add 2 drops of sample solution in a well of a spot plate.

Dip a protein test strip into the well and observe.

Positive result Colour changes from yellow to green: Protein is present

Negative result No observable change: Protein is absent

6. Nucleic acid 核酸
- Nucleic acids are organic substances found mainly in the nucleus of a cell
- They are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P)

There are two types of nucleic acids

- deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- They play important roles in heredity and protein synthesis

Nucleotide
- The basic unit of nucleic acid are nucleotides
- Each nucleotide has three components

1 5-carbon sugar
- In DNA, the 5-carbon sugar is deoxyribose
- In RNA, the 5-carbon sugar is ribose

2 Nitrogenous base
- A nitrogenous base contains nitrogen in addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- There are five types of bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U)
- A, T, G and C appears in DNA
- A, U, G and C appears in RNA

3 Phosphate group

__________________________________________________________________________________

Condensation
- Two nucleotides join to form a dinucleotide by condensation between the phosphate group of one
nucleotide and the 5-C carbon sugar of the other nucleotide
- This process is repeated up to many times to make a polynucleotide
- A DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide chains coiled around each other to form a double helix
- The two chains are held together by the hydrogen bonds formed between the bases of two chains
- The hydrogen bonds can keep the double helix stable
- An RNA molecule consists of a single polynucleotide chain

DNA RNA
5-carbon sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Nitrogenous Adenine (A), thymine (T), Adenine (A), uracil (U),
base guanine (G), cytosine (C) guanine (G), cytosine (C)
Structures Double helix Single chain
Ch 3 Cellular Organization

Discovery of cells and the cell theory

- All living things are made up of cells
- Since most cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye 肉眼, no one knew cells existed until
microscopes were invented

Discovery of cells
- Cells were first discovered in the 17th century by the British Scientist Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
- He developed a microscope to examine cork slice taken from the bark 樹皮 of a tree
- Hook noted that the cork was made up of many tiny boxes. He called these boxes ‘cells’

Cell Theory
- By the early 19th century, microscopes were much improved in quality and scientists had observed cells in a
wide range of animals and plants
- In 1839, German biologists Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed the cell theory. Later in
1855, Germain scientist Rudolf Virchow extended the cell theory.

The cell theory states that:

- All organisms are made up of one or more cells

- Cell is the basic unit of life*
- All cells arise from pre-existing cells

*Basic unit of life i.e. it is the smallest unit of living thing which can carry out all the basic life processes

Microscope and the study of cell

- A microscope is a tool used to produce a magnified image of object, so that it can be examined in greater
detail

Light microscope
- The earliest form of microscope is the light microscope which was invented in 16th
century
- Light microscope is used in school laboratory today can produce a two-dimensional
image by up to 1000 times

Electron microscope
- The invention of electron microscopes in the 1930s enables scientists to see the detailed structure of cells
- Compared to light microscope, electron microscopes can produce images with higher magnification and
resolution
- Two common types of electron microscopes are transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning
electron microscope (SEM)

1. Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

- The transmission electron microscope (TEM) makes use of electron beams to pass
through a very thin specimen to produce two-dimensional, black and white images
- A powerful transmission electron microscope can produce images magnified by up to
10,000,000 times
- It is useful in revealing the internal structures of the specimen
- However, living specimens cannot be examined
- Method: The specimen must be completely dehydrated, sliced very thin and stained
with heavy metals
2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
- In a scanning electron microscope (SEM), the whole specimen is scanned by electron beams
- It can produce three-dimensional, black and white images that magnified by up to 500,000 times
- It is useful in revealing the external structures of the specimen
- Like the TEM, the SEM can only be used to examine dead specimens

Transmission electron Scanning electron

Light Microscope
microscope (TEM) microscope (SEM)
Two-dimensional Two-dimensional Three-dimensional
Produced image
Coloured Black and white Black and white

Power of
Up to 1000 times Up to 10,000,000 times Up to 500,000 times
magnification

Studying specimens in school Revealing the internal Revealing the external

Useful in
laboratory structures of specimen structures of specimen

Living specimens cannot be Living specimens cannot be

Limitation Low magnification
examined examined

All images produced by electron microscopes (TEM & SEM) are in black and white. False colour is sometimes
added to the images using specialised computer software so that we can see them in colour.

Light Microscope
- A light microscope is commonly used in school laboratories
- It is a compounded microscope consisting of two sets of eyepieces and objectives
 The total magnification of a microscope is the product of the magnification of the eyepiece and the
magnification of the objective:

Total magnification of microscope = magnification of eyepiece x magnification of objective

E.g.
Eyepiece Objective Total magnification

5X 4X 20X

10X 10X 100X

15X 40X 600X

How to use a light microscope

1. Select the eyepiece and objective of appropriate magnification power.

2. Look through the eyepiece to adjust the mirror to reflect light through the hole on the stage.
[○
! Caution: Never use direct sunlight. It may hurt your eyes]
3. Adjust the condenser and iris diaphragm until light is sufficient and even.
4. Put the slide on the stage and fix its position with the clips.
5. Watch from the side and lower the body tube (or raise the stage) by turning the coarse adjustment knob
until the objective is just above the slide.
6. Look through the eyepiece. Slowly turn the coarse adjustment knob in the opposite direction to raise the
body tube until the image becomes clear. Turn the fine adjustment knob to make the image sharp.
[○
! Caution: Never move the body tube downwards when looking through the eyepiece. This may break
the slide and damage the objective.]
7. Observe through the eyepiece.

Image formed by light microscope

- The image formed by a light microscope is upside down. It is also reversed from left to right.
- We call this an inverted image

- When a specimen is observed with a light microscope, the image formed is inverted upside down and
reversed laterally
- For example, if a typed letter ‘b’ is observed under microscope, the image will appear as a ‘q’.
 High and low power magnification
- Comparing images of the same specimen observed at low power magnification and high power
magnification, a smaller area (i.e. fewer cells) is observed at high power magnification
- More details are shown but the image is dimmer

There are some differences between low power magnification and high power magnification:

Low power magnification High power magnification

Area of specimen observed Larger Smaller
Details of image observed Fewer More
Brightness of image Brighter Dimmer

Animal cells and Plant cells

- In the basic structure of an animal cell, the cell is surrounded by a cell membrane
- Most of the cell is filled with a jelly-like substance called cytoplasm
- At the centre of the cell, there is nucleus

- Plant cells have a cell membrane, a nucleus and cytoplasm as animal cells do
- In addition, all plants cells have a cell wall outside the cell membrane, making them more regular in shape
- Many plant cells have a large central vacuole surrounded by membrane
- Some cells in green plants also contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis

Preparation of specimen
- In the following section, we will prepare temporary mounts of animal and plant tissues for microscopic
examination
- Since many cell structures are transparent and colour less, stains are often added to specimens to make
them easier to be observed
- Methylene blue and iodine solution are two stains commonly used on animal cells and plant cells
Preparation of a temporary mount of animal cells [E.g. Ox eye]

Safety Precautions:
1. Animal specimens may carry germs or parasites. Cover any wounds in your hands with sterile dressings
敷料 and wear disposable gloves
2. Methylene blue can trigger acute haemolytic anaemia in G6PD deficient individuals. Students with
G6PD deficiency are recommended to use other stains such as eosin to perform this practical
3. After the practical:
• Dispose of the ox eye and the gloves properly
• Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water

Steps
1. Gently touch the surface of the surface of the cornea of an ox eye with the middle of the slide to obtain some
ox eye corneal cells
2. Add a drop of methylene blue solution to the touched part of the slide.
3. Place a cover slip over the drop of methylene blue solution.
Be careful not to trap any air bubbles between the cover slip and the slide. Use tissue paper to soak up excess
stain.

[○
! Caution: Methylene blue solution is harmful. Avoid contact with skin]

4. Examine the slide with a microscope using low power magnification and then high power magnification.

Results
Labelled diagram:
Preparation of a temporary mount of plant cells and tissues [E.g. Onion epidermal cells & Hydrilla leaf cells]

Steps
1. Cut an onion into two halves
[○
! Caution: Knife and scissors are sharp objects. Handle them with care.]

2. Take one fleshy scale leaf from the cut onion. Bend the scale leaf to crack its inner epidermis. Do not break the
scale leaf completely.
3. Use a pair of fine forceps to peel off apiece of inner epidermis from the broken ends of the scale leaf. Cut the
epidermis to a suitable size (about 5mm x 5mm).
4. Spread the epidermis on a slide. Add a drop of iodine solution and place a cover slip over the epidermis.

[○
! Caution: Iodine solution is an irritant. Handle it with care.]

5. Spread the epidermis on a slide. Examine the slide with a microscope using low power magnification and then high
power magnification.

Results
Labelled diagram:
Summary

1. Similarities of animal and plant cells

- Both animal and plant cells have a cell membrane, a nucleus and cytoplasm.

2. Difference between animal cells and plant cells

Animal cells Plant cells

Shape Usually irregular Fixed by the cell wall
Size Usually smaller Usually larger
Structure Cell wall Absent Present
Vacuole None or only a few small vacuoles Usually present as a large central
vacuole
Chloroplast Absent Present in green plant cells
Position of nucleus Usually at the centre of the cell Usually to one side of the cell

Sub-cellular Structures and Their Functions

- Apart from the nucleus you see when looking at a cell with a light microscope, there are also other
structures, such as chloroplast and mitochondrion, in cells.
- These structures are organelles

1. Cell membrane
- The cell membrane is a thin and flexible layer surrounding all cells
- It is differentially permeable
- Function: It can control the movement of substances into and out of the cell
2. Cytoplasm
- The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance made up mainly of water and proteins
- Function: It holds all the organelles in a cell
- It is where many chemical reactions take place (Function: It provides a site for chemical reactions to take place)

3. Nucleus
- The nucleus is an approximately spherical organelle surrounded by the nuclear membrane
- The nuclear membrane is a double membrane
- There are small holes called nuclear pores which allow the passage of large molecules between the nucleus
and the cytoplasm
- The nucleus contains the genetic material of life, DNA, which controls all activities of the cell
- The darker region is called nucleolus, which are responsible for making ribosomes

Absent nucleus
- Most cells contain one nucleus but there are exceptions
- For example, in humans, mature red blood cells do not have a nucleus at all
- On the other hand, a single skeletal muscle fibre may have several nuclei

Mature red blood cells do not have a nucleus. Each skeletal muscle fibre is a cell with several nuclei.

4. Endoplasmic reticulum
- The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membrane-bound sacs which are interconnected
- It arises from the outer membrane of the nucleus and extends throughout the cytoplasm of a cell

Rough ER
- Some of the ER has ribosomes attached on the surface. This type of ER is called rough ER
- Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis
- Function: Rough ER helps transport proteins produced at the ribosomes

Smooth ER
- Some of the ER does not have ribosomes attached. This type of ER is called smooth ER
- Function: It is involved in the synthesis and transport of lipids within cytoplasm
 Rough ER and smooth ER

5. Ribosome
- Ribosomes are tiny organelles that are not membrane-bound
- Each ribosome consists of a large and a small sub-unit, both composed of protein and rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
- Function: Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis

- Ribosomes are found in large numbers in all living cells

- Ribosomes can either lie free in cytoplasm or are attached to endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
- Ribosomes lying free synthesise proteins used within the cell and ribosomes on rough ER produce proteins
which are transported out of the cell

6. Mitochondrion
- The mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) is rod-shaped and surrounded by a double membrane
- The outer membrane is smooth while the inner membrane is highly folded to form finger-like projections

- Mitochondria is the main sites of aerobic respiration

- During the process, organic food substances are broken down to release energy in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate)
- The number of mitochondria in a particular cell depends on its energy needs
- Cells that use a lot of energy (e.g. sperms and muscle cells) usually have large number of mitochondria
 Sperm has a large amount of mitochondria to provide energy for swimming.

7. Vacuole
- The vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle that contains water and dissolved substances
- Most animal cells have only a few small vacuoles or no vacuoles at all
- Plant cells often have a large central vacuole

Cell sap
- The fluid in vacuole is called cell sap
- It is a solution containing sugars, pigments and some metabolic wastes

Function: Provide turgidity for support

- When the vacuole is fully filled, the plant cell becomes turgid
- This provides support to the plant

8. Cell wall
- The cell wall is a thick, rigid layer covering the cell membrane
- In plant cells, the cell wall is made up mainly of cellulose
- It is fully permeable to water and dissolved substances
- Function: It protects, supports and gives shape to plant cells

9. Chloroplast
- Chloroplast are found in some cells of green plants
- Each chloroplast is surrounded by a double membrane
- The outer membrane is smooth while the inner membrane forms a network of flattened sac-like structures
[thylakoids]
- Function: These internal membrane sacs contain a green pigment called chlorophyll which absorbs light
energy for photosynthesis
 Different structures in cell have different functions:
Cell structure Function
Cell membrane • Controls the movement of substances into and out of
the cell
Cytoplasm • Holds all organelles in a cell
• Provide a site for chemical reactions to take place
Nucleus • Contains the genetic material DNA
• Controls all activities of the cell
Rough ER • Helps in the synthesis and transport of proteins
Smooth ER • Helps in the synthesis and transport of lipids
Mitochondrion • The site of ATP production during aerobic respiration
Vacuole • Contains water and dissolved substance
• Provides support to the plant when it is full
Cell wall • Protects, supports and gives shape to cells
Chloroplast • Contains chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for
photosynthesis

Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cell
- The animal cells and plant cells discussed before are eukaryotic cells
- These cells have a ○1 true nucleus with the cell’s genetic material, DNA, enclosed in a nuclear membrane
- Organisms made up of eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes
- Animals, plants, fungi and protists are examples of eukaryotes

Prokaryotic cell
- Cells that ○
1 lack a membrane-bound nucleus are called prokaryotic cells
- Inside these cells, the genetic material, in the form of a coiled loop of DNA, lies free in the cytoplasm
- Organisms made up of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes
- An example of prokaryotes is bacteria

Also .
Smaller and have a simpler structure
- Compared with eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells are much smaller and have a simpler structure
- The length of most prokaryotic cells is about 1 to 10 μm whereas that of eukaryotic cells is about 10 to 100
μm

No membrane-bound organelle
- Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-bound organelles (e.g. endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and
chloroplasts)

Non-cellulose cell wall

- Most prokaryotic cells have a cell wall. However, the cell wall does not contain cellulose as the plant cell
wall does

Some have capsule and flagella

- Some prokaryotic cells have a slimy capsule outside the cell wall, giving them extra protection
- (singular Some of them also have flagella: flagellum) for movement
Comparison of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells:

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Examples of organisms Bacteria Animals, plants, fungi and protists
Similarities • Both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are surrounded by cell
membranes
• Both possess DNA as their genetic material
Differences Size Usually smaller (about 1 to 10 Usually larger (about 10 to 100 μm
μm) in diameter)
Genetic material Coiled loop of DNA lies free in DNA enclosed in the nucleus
the cytoplasm membrane
Nuclear membrane Absent Present
Membrane-bound organelles Absent Present
Cell wall • Sometimes present • Present in plant and fungi cells
• Does not contain cellulose but absent in animal cells
• Cell wall of plant cells contain
cellulose
• Cell wall of fungi cells contain
chitin

Level of Organisation in organisms [Unicellular VS multicellular]

- Cells are the basic units of life
- Some simple organisms (e.g. Amoeba and Paramecium) are made up of a single cell. They are called
unicellular organisms
- These single cells can perform all the life processes necessary for survival on their own

Amoeba Paramecium

- Nevertheless, most organisms are composed of many cells. They are called multicellular organisms
- In multicellular organisms, cells are specialised for different functions
- They show a division of labour and work together at different levels
 An example of the levels of body organisation in human is shown below:

1. Tissue level
- A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to perform one or more particular functions

Examples of human tissues include:

- bone tissue involved in support
- muscular tissues involved in movement
- nervous tissues involved in controlling body responses

Examples of plant tissues include:

- epidermal tissue for protection
- mesophyll tissue for carrying out photosynthesis
- vascular tissue for conducting water, minerals and food
2. Organ level
- An organ is composed of different tissues grouped together to perform one or more particular functions

In human
- For example, the human heart is an organ mainly composed of heart muscle and nervous tissues held
together by connective tissues
- Other examples of organ in human are the eyes ,ears, nose and skin which can be observed externally, the
lungs, stomach, liver and kidneys which are found internally

In plants
- the leaf is an organ composed of epidermal tissue, mesophyll tissue and vascular tissue
- Other example of plant organs are roots, stems, flowers and fruits

3. System level
- A system is composed of several organs and tissues working together to perform a particular process

- In the human body, some of the examples are the circulatory system, digestive system, breathing system,
musculo-skeletal system, nervous system and reproductive system
- In plants, examples are the transport system and reproductive system
- All these body systems worked in a coordinated way to form a functional organism
Ch 4 Movement of Substances Across the Cell Membrane
Ch 6 Food and Humans

Human as heterotrophs
- All organisms need food
- Through photosynthesis, plants can make their own organic food from simple inorganic substances

Heterotrophs
- Most other organisms cannot make their own food
- They feed on complex, ready-made organic food to obtain the nutrients they need
- This mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic nutrition
- Organisms having this mode of nutrition are called heterotrophs
- Humans depend on other organisms for food and are therefore heterotrophs

Different modes of nutrition

- In a simpler way, organism’s mode of nutrition can be separated into autotrophic nutrition and
heterotrophic nutrition

- ○
1 Autotrophic nutrition
- Organisms use photosynthetic pigments to make their own food
- E.g. Plants, algae, photosynthetic bacteria

- ○
2 Heterotrophic nutrition
- Organisms obtain food from other organisms

There are three types of heterotrophic nutrition:

i Holozoic nutrition
- Most animals such as sheep and humans carry out this mode of nutrition
- Food is taken into a specialised digestive system in the organism
- The food is digested into smaller, simpler molecules, which are then absorbed

ii Saprophytic nutrition
- Some fungi and bacteria obtain nutrients from dead or decaying organic matter
- They are called saprophytes
- Hyphae secrete enzymes to digest food substances outside the body [external digestion]
- The products of digested are absorbed through the body surface by diffusion

iii Parasitic nutrition

- An organism (called a parasite) lives on the body surface or inside the body of another type of
organism (called a host)
- The parasite obtains nutrients and shelter from the host

Food Requirements of Human

We need food because it provides

- energy for physical activities and maintaining body temperature
- raw materials for forming new cells for growth and repair of body tissues
- substances that are important for regulating metabolism
 Food substances
- There are seven types of food substances: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre
and water
- Based on their functions, these food substances can be classified into two types
- Primary food substances are substances that are essential to life
- Protective food substances are substances that keep us healthy and help prevent diseases

carbohydrates

lipids

proteins

Food substances water

vitamins

minerals

dietary fibre

1. Carbohydrates
- In Ch 2, we learned that carbohydrates are organic substances made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and
oxygen (O)
- Their general formula is Cx(H2O)y
- Note that the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1

Source of Carbohydrates
- Sugars and starch are carbohydrates in our diet

Sugars
- Sugars include monosaccharides (e.g. glucose and fructose) and disaccharides (e.g. sucrose and lactose)
- They are found in a variety of food
- For example, many fruits contain glucose and fructose
- Table sugar is sucrose extracted from sugar cane or beets
- Lactose is found in milk
 Starch
- Starch is a complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide)
- It is the main storage form of carbohydrates in plants
- Cereals 穀類 (e.g. rice, wheat 小麥, barley 大麥 and oats 燕麥), maize, potatoes and taros are rich in
starch

Carbohydrates in human body

Use of glucose in human body

- Monosaccharides are small molecules and are soluble in water
- They are readily absorbed by the human body and transported in the bloodstream
- Glucose can be directly broken down in body cells during respiration to release energy
- It is an immediate energy source for body activities

Digestion of disaccharides and polysaccharides in human body

- Disaccharides and polysaccharides are formed by joining monosaccharides together through condensation
- Disaccharides and polysaccharides are too large to be absorbed directly in the alimentary canal
- They must be broken down into monosaccharides before absorption can take place

Hydrolysis
- In the presence, a suitable enzyme, a disaccharide can be broken down in two monosaccharides by reacting
with water
- This reaction is called hydrolysis

Hydrolysis of disaccharides

- Polysaccharides (e.g. starch) are made of long chains of glucose units

- Through the action of various enzymes in the alimentary canal, starch is hydrolysed to give glucose, which
can then be absorbed into the blood in the small intestine
 Function of carbohydrates

Main source of energy

- Carbohydrates are the main source of energy for metabolism. One gram of carbohydrate can provide 17 kJ
(kilojoules) of energy when it is completely broken down

Excess carbohydrates
- If too large amounts of carbohydrates are taken into the body, the excess carbohydrates will be
converted to glycogen or lipids
- Glycogen is stored in the liver and skeletal muscles
- Lipids are stored under the skin and around some internal organs such as the kidneys and the
heart

Cellulose acts as dietary fibre

- Cellulose (a polysaccharide) is a component of plant cell walls
- Human body cannot digest cellulose to obtain energy
- However, cellulose from vegetables is a type of dietary fibre which keeps our digestive system healthy

2. Lipids
- Like carbohydrates, lipids are also organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- However, lipids have no general formula and the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is higher than
the 2:1 ratio in carbohydrates

Sources of Lipids
- The most common type of lipids in our diet is triglycerides

Fats & Oils

- Triglycerides that are solid at room temperature are called fats. Solid fats mainly come from animal sources
- Example include lard and butter

- Triglycerides that are liquid at room temperature are called oils. Oils come from many different plants and
from fish
- Examples of oils include corn oil, olive oil and peanut oil

Fatty meat, egg yolk, nuts and dairy products

- Fatty meat, egg yolk, nuts and dairy products are rich in lipids

_____________________________________________________________________________________
Formation and breaking down of triglyceride molecules
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
- The fatty acids in lipids can be saturated or unsaturated
- Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain, while saturated fatty acids do not

- Most fats have a relatively high proportion of saturated fatty acids

- In contrast, oils from plants and fish are relatively high in unsaturated fatty acids

Saturated fats sources Unsaturated fats sources

- Recent research suggests that a diet rich in saturated fatty acids is unhealthy as it promotes cholesterol
production in the liver
- If we eat too many saturated fatty acids, the cholesterol level in blood increases
- This can contribute to high blood pressure and heart disease

Trans fat
- Trans fat is a type of fat commonly found is fried food and bakery products (e.g.
chips, cookies, cakes)
- They are also present in solid margarines

- Studies show that excessive intake of trans fat increases the risk of heart diseases
 Function of lipids
- Lipids have the following function in the human body:

Source of energy
- Lipids can be a source of energy. One gram of lipids can provide 39 kJ of energy

Subcutaneous fat and shock-absorber

- Excess lipids are stored in adipose tissues in the body as an energy reserve
- Adipose tissues may be found under the skin as subcutaneous fat which acts as an insulating layer to
reduce heat loss
- Adipose tissues are also found around the internal organs and act as shock-absorber for protection

Component of cell membranes

- Lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol) are a major component of cell membranes

Transport and store fat-soluble vitamins

- Lipids are involved in transporting and storing fat-soluble vitamins (e.g. vitamins A and D) in the body

Produce sex hormones

- Cholesterol serves as a raw material for producing sex hormones

Good cholesterol and bad cholesterol

- Cholesterol is not all bad. It is needed for our body for various functions

- There are two types of cholesterol: High-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
- HDL is ‘good cholesterol ‘ as it carries excess cholesterol in blood to the liver for removal
- LDL is ‘bad cholesterol’ because it can deposit in the arteries and contribute to the development of
cardiovascular disease

3. Proteins
- Like carbohydrates and lipids, proteins are also organic substances, but they are made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
- Some proteins may also contain sulphur

Sources of Proteins
- Amino acids are the building block of proteins
- Humans require 20 different amino acids to build up proteins in the body

- These amino acids are divided into two groups: essential and non-essential amino acids
- Essential amino acids cannot be made in the body and have to be included in our diet
- Non-essential amino acids can be made from other amino acids in the body
 Meat, fish, eggs, dairy products (e.g. milk, cheese, yoghurt), pea and soya beans are good sources of
proteins

Breakdown and synthesis of protein molecules in the human body

Digestion of protein
- In the alimentary canal, proteins from food are broken down into amino acids by hydrolysis in the presence
of water and suitable enzymes
- The amino acids are then absorbed into the bloodstream and carried to the body cells

Synthesis
- Inside the cells, amino acids are joined together by condensation to form long chains called polypeptides
- Some proteins consist of one polypeptide only, while some consist of two or more polypeptides
- All proteins in the human body are built from the 20 different types of amino acids joined in different
combinations and sequence

Deamination
- If more amino acids are taken in more than required, those in excess cannot be stored in the body
- They are broken down in the liver by a process called deamination (More in Ch7)

Functions of proteins
- Proteins have the following functions in the human body:

Growth and repair

- Proteins are components of various cellular structures such as the cytoplasm and the cell membrane
- They are needed for making new cells for growth and repair of body tissues
- Almost all body structures, e.g. muscles, bones and brain tissues, contain proteins

Used as functional protein: Enzymes, antibodies and hormones

- Important molecules such as enzymes, antibodies and some hormones are proteins

Last source of energy

- Proteins can be a source of energy when the body is short of carbohydrates and lipids
- One gram of proteins provides 18 kJ of energy
4. Vitamins 維他命
- Vitamins are organic food substances
- They are no energy value but are essential for maintaining good health
- They help regulate various metabolic reactions in our body
- Vitamins are needed in very small amounts
- Nevertheless, lack of vitamins can result in deficiency diseases

Water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins

- Vitamins can be classified into two groups: water-soluble vitamins (e.g. vitamins B and C) and fat-soluble
vitamins (e.g. vitamins A and D)

(i) Vitamin A

Functions
- Vitamin A is needed for the formation of a visual pigment (called visual purple) in the retina of our eyes
- The pigment is responsible for ○
1 vision in dim light
- Vitamin A also ○
2 helps protect the cornea of the eye, prevents drying of the skin, and maintains the linings
of the alimentary canal and the respiratory system in a healthy state

Deficiency of vitamin A may lead to:

- Night blindness, in which the person has poor vision in dim light
- Thickening of the cornea. In severe cases, complete blindness may result
- Dry skin and an increased risk of infection of the lining of the respiratory system

Vitamin A Sources
- Liver, fish-liver oil, milk, cheese, eggs and green vegetables are rich in vitamin A
- Carrots contain carotene 胡蘿蔔素, a red-orange pigment which a precursor of
vitamin A
- It can be converted into vitamin A in liver

(ii) Vitamin C
- Vitamin C is ○ 1 needed in the formation of connective tissues
- It helps heal wounds and is important for healthy gums, teeth and skin

Deficiency of vitamin C may cause scurvy, which has the following symptoms:
- bleeding gums
- poor healing of wounds
- bleeding under the skin due to weakened capillary walls

Vitamin C Sources
- Vitamin C is abundant in fruits (e.g. oranges, lemons, guavas, strawberries and kiwi
fruit) and in green vegetables (especially broccoli and green peppers)

- Vitamin C is easily destroyed by oxygen in the air. As a result, vitamin C in fruits and vegetables will be lost
after storing for a long time
- Cooking at high temperatures may also destroy the vitamin C in food
 (iii) Vitamin D
- Vitamin D helps the absorption of calcium and phosphate ions from the intestine
- Calcium and phosphate are the major components of bones and teeth
- Hence, vitamin D is especially important to children for building strong bones and teeth

○
! Vitamin D is not a component of bones
Its role is to promote calcium and phosphate absorption from the intestine to maintain healthy bones

Deficiency of vitamin D may lead to:

Rickets in young children
- The bones of the patient become too weak and soft to support the body weight, causing bowing of the legs
and bending of the spine

Osteoporosis in older adults, especially in women

- The bones become less mineralised with calcium and phosphate, and becomes brittle, leading to a higher
risk of bone fractures

Vitamin D Sources
- Liver, fish-liver oil, milk, cheese and egg yolk are good sources of vitamin D
- Vitamin D can also be formed in the human skin when it is exposed to sunlight

Other vitamins
Vitamin B is group of water-
soluble compounds (including
vitamin B1, B2, B6, B12, etc). They
help regulate metabolism
Deficiency of vitamin may lead to
beri-beri, anaemia and fatigue.
Vitamin B is found in cereals and
soy beans products.
Vitamin E is fat-soluble. It is an
antioxidant 抗氧化物 that
protects cells against damage by
free radicals 自由基. Free radicals
are believed to cause ageing as
well as the development of heart
disease and cancer
Lack of vitamin E may lead to
damage of red blood cells and
nerve cells.
Vitamin K is fat-soluble. It tis
essential for blood clotting.
Deficiency of vitamin K may cause
blood clotting at wounds and
bleeding in the gums.
Vitamin K is found in green leafy
vegetables (e.g. spinach). It can
also be produced by bacteria in
the human intestine.

Vitamin E is found in buts and

cereals.
5. Minerals 礦物質
- Minerals are inorganic substances
- They have no energy value, but they are needed for a wide range of functions, including regulating
metabolism and building body tissues (e.g. bones)
- They are needed in small amounts by the body
- Some important minerals are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron, zinc and iodine

Here we will study calcium and iron in detail:

(i) Calcium
- Calcium is a major component of bones and teeth
- Children need a relatively large amount of calcium for the development of bones and teeth as they grow up
- In addition, calcium plays an important part in blood clotting and muscle contraction

Deficiency: Rickets in children & osteoporosis in adults

- If they are deficient in calcium, rickets may result
- In adults, a deficiency of calcium can lead to osteoporosis, a disease characterised by the loss of bone mass,
and can lead to bone fractures 骨折

Sources of Calcium: Milk, cheese, yoghurt and some green vegetables (e.g. broccoli)
- Milk, cheese, yoghurt and some green vegetables (e.g. broccoli) are rich in calcium

More: Calcium loss and osteoporosis

- As people get older, calcium loss from bones gradually increases and bone mass decreases
- A severe loss of calcium will lead to osteoporosis
- The bones become porous and brittle, increasing the risk of bone fractures

Adequate intake of calcium and regular exercise

- To prevent osteoporosis, we should maintain an adequate intake of calcium all through our
lives, especially when we are young so as to achieve a peak of the bone mass
- The risk of osteoporosis can also be lowered by weight bearing exercise such as walking,
jogging, basketball and badminton

(ii) Iron
- Iron is a component of haemoglobin which is the oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells
- A deficiency of iron may lead to anaemia

Anaemia symptoms
- People with anaemia feel tired and weak, because they do not have enough haemoglobin to carry oxygen in
their body

Source of Iron: Liver, beef, eggs and green leafy vegetables

- Liver, beef, eggs and green leafy vegetables are rich in iron
 Vitamin and mineral supplement
- We normally can obtain sufficient amounts of vitamins and minerals from a
balanced diet
- Sometimes, doctors may prescribe pregnant women vitamin and mineral
supplements to ensure healthy development of the foetus

- As over-consumption of vitamin and mineral supplements can be harmful to our

body and can lead to overdose
- therefore use of such supplements are normally not recommended

6. Dietary fibre
- Dietary fibre, or roughage, is the indigestible portion of food
- It consists mainly of cellulose from plant cell walls
- Food from plants, such as vegetables, fruits and wholemeal cereals 全麥穀類 are rich in dietary fibre

Stimulate peristalsis
- Dietary fibre has no energy value to us as we do not have the enzyme (cellulase) to digest it
- However, it is important for maintain a healthy digestive system
- It adds bulk to food to stimulate peristalsis (i.e. the muscular movement along the alimentary canal) and
make faeces pass out of the body more easily

Insufficiency: Constipation
- Insufficient dietary fibre may cause constipation

7. Water
- Water is essential to life
- A person may survive without food for weeks but can only live for a few days without water
- Water make up about 65% of human body weight
- Water has no energy value, but it has the following functions in our body

It acts as a solvent and provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place

The water in blood acts as a transport medium to carry substances around the body

Sweat contains water. The evaporation of sweat helps regulate body temperature

It is a reactant that takes part in some metabolic reactions (e.g. hydrolysis)

It dilutes wastes and toxins in the body

- Human lose water continuously through urination, sweating, breathing and egestion
- A person needs six to eight glasses of water through drinks or from food every day to replace the water loss
Vegetarian diet
Summary

Food source Function In excess situation

• Glucose: fruits
• Fructose: fruits
• Sucrose: sugar cane, table
Carbohydrates sugar
• Lactose: milk
• Starch: cereals, maize,
potatoes, taros
Fatty meat, egg yolk, nuts,
dairy products, butter, plant
oils
Lipids
Meat, fish, eggs, diary
products, peas, soya beans
Proteins
• As a main source of Excess carbohydrates are
energy stored as glycogen or lipids in
the body
• Glycogen acts as an
energy storage
• Cellulose from vegetables
acts as a source of dietary
fibre
• As an energy reserve Excess lipids are stored as
adipose tissues under the
• Subcutaneous fat acts as
skin or around internal
an insulating layer to
organs
reduce heat loss
• Adipose tissues around
internal organs act as a
shock-absorber for
protection
• As a component of cell
membranes and certain
hormones
• Involved in transporting
and storing fat-soluble
vitamins
• For growth and repair Excess amino acids are
broken down in the liver
• Form enzymes, antibodies
through deamination
and some hormones
• As a last source of energy
when the body is short of
carbohydrates and lipids

Food source Function In excess situation

Liver, fish-liver oil, milk,
cheese, eggs, green
vegetables, carrots
Vitamin A
• Formation of visual purple • Night blindness
in the retina
• Thickening of cornea
• Maintain the health state
• Dry skin and an increased
of cornea of the eyes, the
risk of respiratory lining
skin, and the lining of
infection
alimentary canal and
respiratory system

Citrus fruits, green • Formation and repair of Scurvy

vegetables connective tissues
Vitamin C • Helps heal wound
• Maintain health gums,
teeth and skin
Liver, fish-liver oil, milk, Helps the absorption of • Rickets
Vitamin D cheese, egg yolk calcium and phosphate ions
• Osteoporosis
from the intestine
 Food source
Milk, cheese, other dairy
products, green vegetables
Calcium
Function In excess situation
• Formation of visual purple • Rickets
in the retina
• Osteoporosis
• Maintain the health state
of cornea of the eyes, the
skin, and the lining of
alimentary canal and
respiratory system

Liver, beef, eggs, green leafy Formation of haemoglobin Anaemia

Iron
vegetables

Dietary fibre
- Dietary fibre consists mainly of cellulose from plant cell walls
- It adds bulks to food to stimulate peristalsis and make faeces pass out of the body more easily
- Insufficient dietary fibre may cause constipation

Water
- Water has the following functions in our body:
• As a solvent and provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place
• As a transport medium
• Helps regulate body temperature
• As a reactant
• Dilutes wastes and toxins in the body

Food substance Food test Positive result

Glucose Using glucose test strips Colour changes from green to brown
Reducing sugars Benedict’s test Brick-red precipitate is formed
Starch Iodine test Iodine solution changes from brown to blue-black
Lipids Grease spot test Permanent translucent spot disappears after dipping
into organic solvent
Proteins Using protein test strips Colour changes from yellow to green
Vitamin C Using DCPIP solution DCPIP solution is decolourised
Food tests
Benedict’s test for reducing sugars
Test for Glucose using glucose test strips
(e.g. Diastix test strips)
 Add 2 cm2 of Benedict’s solution to an equal amount of
sample. Heat in a water bath for five minutes
 Dip the reaction end of test strip into the sample

The Benedict’s solution appears A brick-red precipitate is

The test end appears green The test end turns brown
appears blue formed after heating with
in the presence of glucose
reducing sugars

Iodine test for starch Grease spot test for lipids

 Add a few drops of iodine solution to the sample  Add a drop of sample to filter paper
 Treat with an organic solvent and observe against light

Iodine solution appears brown Iodine solution turns blue-black Oils form a translucent The oil spot disappears after
in the presence of starch spot on filter paper being treated with an organic
solvent

Test for proteins using protein test strips Test for vitamin C using DCPIP solution
(e.g. Albustix paper)
 Add sample to blue DCPIP solution drop by drop and
 Dip the reaction end of test strip into the sample observe colour change

The test end appears yellow The test end turns green DCPIP solution appears blue DCPIP solution is decolourised
by vitamin C
Test for Vitamin C using DCPIP solution

- Vitamin C is a reducing agent

- DCPIP (2,6-dichlorophenol-dinophenol) solution is a blue dye
- When vitamin C is added to DCPIP solution, DCPIP is reduced and decolorised
- This reaction can be used as a test for vitamin C

Procedure
1. Add 1 cm3 of DCPIP solution to a test tube.
2. Add vitamin C solution to the test tube drop by drop, with gentle shaking. Stop when there is any persistent colour
change.

[Note: Do not shake the test tube vigorously. Otherwise, oxygen in the air may react with the DCPIP solution, turning it
blue again]

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with distilled water instead of vitamin C.

Boiled vitamin C solution

4. Put a boiling tube of 10 cm3 of vitamin C solution in a 100oC water bath for five minutes. Then remove the boiling tube
from the water bath and allow it to cool down in a beaker of cold water.
5. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with the boiled vitamin C solution.

Results
• When vitamin C solution is added to DCPIP solution, the DCPIP solution is decolourised. In this reaction, DCPIP is reduced
by vitamin C.

• Distilled water does not decolourise DCPIP solution. It serves as a control.

• Boiled vitamin C solution does not decolourise DCPIP solution. This is because high temperatures degrade vitamin C,
causing it to lose it reducing power.
Investigation of the food substances present in common food stuffs

- The food we eat every day contains many types of food substances. To know what kinds of food substances are present
in the food, we can perform various food tests.

A. Testing liquid food samples

- Prepare 10 cm3 of the liquid food sample

B. Testing solid food samples ○

! Caution: The knife is sharp. Handle with care.
- Cut the food sample into pieces
- Grind the small pieces of food in a mortar with about 10 cm3 of distilled water
- Filter the ground food sample by squeezing it through three layers of moistened muslin cloth. Collect 10 cm3 of the
food extract.
 Balanced Diet – Food pyramid and “2+3”

What is a balanced diet?

- The food we eat every day makes up our diet
- A balanced diet contains all the food substances in the right amount and proportions
- It provides us with enough energy and nutrients for body functions and daily activities

- The food pyramid is a guide to help you achieve a balanced diet

- There are four major food groups in the food pyramid
- The relative size of each group in the food pyramid shows you how much of each group you should eat

2 plus 3 every day [2+3]

- We are recommended to eat at least two servings of fruits and three servings of vegetables (about 80 g per
serving) every day in order to stay healthy. Below are some examples illustrating the size of one serving of
fruits and vegetables

One serving of fruits:

One serving of vegetables:

 Factors affecting our dietary requirements
- The dietary requirement varies from person to person
- It depends on a number of factors such as age, gender, daily activities and body status

1. Age
- Children are in a period of rapid growth
- They need relatively large amounts of proteins, calcium and iron for building new tissues
- Besides, children have a larger surface area to mass ratio and they lose heat faster than
adults
- Therefore, children need more energy in relation to their body mass

2. Gender
- Males generally need more energy than females because they tend to have a larger body
size and have more muscle tissues than females
- Males also lose heat faster than females due to a lower percentage of body fat
- On the other hand, females need more iron to compensate for the iron lost each month
due to menstruation

3. Daily activities
- People in jobs that require heavy physical workload need more energy
- For example, a construction worker needs more energy for maintaining muscular
activities than an office worker
- A construction worker needs food rich in carbohydrates to provide enough energy and
protein for building muscles

4. Body status
- Pregnant women need more carbohydrates, proteins and a range of vitamins and
minerals to support the growth development of the foetus
- Breast-feeding mothers also need more nutrients for milk production
The table below shows the daily dietary and energy requirements for different groups of people.

Age Energy (kcal)^

Proteins Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin D Calcium Iron
range Moderately
Sedentary Active (g/kg) (µg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)
(years) active

Males

1-3 1000-1200 1000-1400 1000-1400 13 300 15 15 700 7

4-8 1200-1400 1400-1600 1600-2000 19 400 25 15 1000 10
9-13 1600-2000 1800-2200 2000-2600 34 600 45 15 1300 8
14-18 2000-2400 2400-2800 2800-3200 52 900 75 15 1300 11
19-30 2400-2600 2600-2800 3000 56 900 90 15 1000 8
31-50 2200-2400 2400-2600 2800-3000 56 900 90 15 1000 8
51+ 2000-2200 2200-2400 2400-2800 56 900 90 15 1200 8

Females

1-3 1000-1200 1000-1400 1000-1400 13 300 15 15 700 7

4-8 1200-1400 1400-1600 1400-1800 19 400 25 15 1000 10
9-13 1400-1600 1600-2000 1800-2200 34 600 45 15 1300 8
14-18 1800 2000 2400 46 700 65 15 1300 15
19-30 1800-2000 2000-2200 2400 46 700 75 15 1000 18
31-50 1800 2000 2200 46 700 75 15 1000 18
51+ 1600 1800 2000-2200 46 700 75 15 1200 8
Dietary guidelines for Americans 2010 (7th Edition) (USDA and HHS, The United States of America, 2011)

^kcal = kilocalorie. 1 kcal is approximately equal to 4.2 kJ.

Health Problems caused by an improper diet

- An improper diet can result in malnutrition which cause many health problems
- Malnutrition 營養不良 can be divided into two types: undernutrition and overnutrition

1. Undernutrition
- If our energy intake from food is less than our energy output, the reserved glycogen and fat in our body will
be used
- This causes a weight loss
- With prolonged starvation and the absence of remaining fat reserves, the body starts using proteins
(particularly those in the muscles) as a source of energy
- This has serious effects on health

- In some developing countries many people are suffering from the shortage of food, especially proteins
- Severe protein deficiency can lead to kwashiorkor
- Children with kwashiorkor suffer from stunted growth, anaemia, hair loss and have a swollen belly as tissue
fluid accumulates in the abdomen
 Anorexia nervosa 神經性厭食症
- Anorexia nervosa, also known as anorexia, is a type of eating disorder
- It has become common in recent years because many people think that
‘slim is beautiful’

Psychological cause
- It commonly starts as a result of dieting
- Gradually the dieting becomes more and more exaggerated
- The patients see themselves as much fatter than they actually are
- They refuse to eat because of an obsessive fear of gaining weight

Problem of anorexia
- Due to a low and insufficient intake of food, the body starts breaking down adipose tissues (e.g.
subcutaneous fats, fats around internal organs) first
- When all fats are consumed, the body starts breaking down proteins in muscles for energy, this
leads to muscle wasting and fatigue

- If not treated properly, anorexia may lead to serious health problems such as osteoporosis, kidney
damage and heart disease, and the consequence can be fatal

2. Overnutrition
- If we consume too many nutrients than the energy intake from food is greater than our energy output, the
excess nutrients will be stored as fat in our body
- This will cause a weight gain
- When our body weight exceeds a normal level, we are said to be overweight
- If the condition becomes serious, it is called obesity

- Obesity can lead to many health problems such as high blood pressure (hypertension). heart disease,
diabetes mellitus, gallstones and serious damage to the joints

Undernutrition Energy input < energy output

Overnutrition Energy input > energy output

How to measure obesity – BMI

- Body mass index (BMI) is a measurement based on weight and height
- It is calculated by:

−−−
BMI =
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

The table below lists the BMI definition for an Asian adult:

BMI < 18.5 Underweight

BMI 18.5 – 22.8 Normal weight
BMI 23 – 24.9 Slightly overweight
BMI 25 – 29.9 Moderately overweight
BMI ≥ 30 Obese
Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR)
- Despite its wide acceptance, BMI has its limitations. It cannot reflect the distribution of fats in our
body
- The health risk associated with obesity is determined not only by the amount of excessive fats stored
in the body but also where it is stored
- People with more fats accumulated around their waist (i.e. central obesity) have higher health risk
- Central obesity can be identified by calculating the waist-to-hip ratio:

−−−
WHR =
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

- A WHR value greater than 1.0 in men or 0.85 in women indicates an excess in abdominal fat
accumulation and an increased health risk
Nutrition labels
- The nutrition label of a pre-packaged food provides information about the amounts of energy and seven specified
nutrients that food contains (“1+7”).
- The seven nutrients include carbohydrates, sugars, total fat, saturated fat, trans fat, protein and sodium

- The energy and nutrients values are usually presented with the reference amount of food (e.g. per 100g, per serving, per
package, etc.)
Ch 20 Biodiversity

Biodiversity
- The wide variety of life forms existing on Earth is referred as biodiversity

Biodiversity and Evolution

- Some scientists believe that the diverse life forms existing today are evolved gradually from a single origin (a
common ancestor)
- Studying biodiversity helps us understand the similarities and differences between different types of
organisms
→ Thereby we can deduce the evolutionary relationship (aka phylogenetic relationship) among organisms

Variations
- Genetic variations exist among members of the same type of organism
- Of all variations, some are favourable for survival in habitat, hence those organisms with favourable
variations can better adapt to their environment, survive and reproduce

Classifying Organisms
- To i) identify organisms more easily
- ii) study organisms systematically
- iii) understand the evolutionary relationship of organisms,
- scientists categorise organisms into different groups based on their degree of similarity

- The categorisation of things into groups is called classification The science of classifying organisms into
groups is called taxonomy 分類學

Linnaeus’ Classification System

- The Swedish scientist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) developed a classification system
- He classified organisms with similar physical characteristic into categories arranged in seven levels

- In it, organisms are first grouped into kingdoms

- Within a kingdom, organisms sharing certain common characteristics are put into smaller groups called phyla
(singular: phylum)
- Organisms in the same phylum share more common characteristics than in the kingdom level
- By this way, organisms are classified into seven levels: Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
Species
- Species is the smallest group in Linnaeus’s classification system
- Organisms of the same species share the greatest number of common characteristics
- The breeding between two organisms of the same species produce fertile offspring

Naming Organisms
- Before Linnaeus, there was no standard naming system. Different biologist might give the same species
different names
- The names were often long and clumsy

- Then Linnaeus developed a system called binomial nomenclature

- Each organism is given a unique scientific name which consists of two Latin 拉丁 words
- The first word is the genus name and the second word is the species name
- For example, the scientific name of humans is Homo sapiens

Rules of writing scientific names

1 The genus name always begins with a capital letter. The species name always begins with a small letter

2 Both names are printed in italics 斜體. When handwritten, they are underlined

3 After the genus name has been written in full once, it can be abbreviated afterwards (e.g. H. sapiens)

Three Domains & Six Kingdoms

Three Domains
- The three domains are Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya
- Organisms within the same domain are genetically more closely related than organisms in different domains

Six Kingdoms
- The six-kingdom system is the mostly widely accepted classification system proposed by American biologist
Carl Woese (1928-2012) in 1977
- He classified organisms into six kingdoms according to their genetic similarity

- Under Bacteria, it contains the kingdom Eubacteria

- Under Archaea, it contains the kingdom Archaebacteria
- Under Eukarya, it contains the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Protista and Fungi
A. Kingdom Eubacteria
- Kingdom Eubacteria consists of bacteria
- Most bacteria are harmless or beneficial. Only some can cause disease
- For example, the bacteria Vibrio cholerae causes cholera

They have the following characteristics:

○1 Unicellular prokaryotes
- Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes which do not have a true nucleus or
membrane-bound organelles
- Their genetic material is circular DNA that lie free in the cytoplasm [plasmid]
- Some bacteria are enclosed in a capsule

○2 Peptidoglycan cell wall

- They have a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan

○3 Flagella
- Some bacteria have hair-like extensions called flagella (singular: flagellum) for locomotion

○4 Very small
- They are very small and can only be seen using high power of a light microscope
- They appear in various shapes including spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli) and spirals (spirill)

○5 Heterotrophic
- Most bacteria are heterotrophic
- They obtain nutrients from their surroundings

- Some bacteria are autotrophs. They can make their own food by photosynthesis
- E.g. blue-green bacteria (cyanobacteria) contain photosynthetic pigments

○6 Aerobic bacteria & Anaerobic bacteria

- Bacteria live in a wide variety of habitats and conditions
- Aerobic bacteria need oxygen to survive
- Some bacteria do not need oxygen to survive. They are called anaerobic bacteria

○7 Reproduce by binary fission

- They reproduce asexually by binary fission

Examples of bacteria
- Staphylococcus aureus
- Escherichia coli (E. coli)
- Helicobacter pylori

Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia coli Helicobacter pylori

B. Kingdom Archaebacteria
- Kingdom archaebacteria consists of archaebacteria
- Like bacteria, they are ○
1 unicellular prokaryotes

They have the following characteristics:

○
2 Smaller in size than bacteria

○3 Cell membrane and Cell wall

- Like bacteria, archaebacteria have a cell membrane surrounded by a cell wall
- However, the composition of cell wall of archaebacteria is different from that of bacteria
- Besides, the phospholipids in cell membrane of archaebacteria have a different structure from other
organisms

○4 Flagella
- Some archaebacteria have flagella for locomotion

○
5 Live in extreme environments
- Many archaebacteria live in extreme environment which other life forms cannot tolerate

- They can survive in high temperatures, pressures, salinities or extreme pH values

- For example, they can be found in hot springs 溫泉, sulphur springs or very salty water

- Some archaebacteria are anaerobic

- E.g. methanogens can grow in an environment that lacks oxygen, e.g. marshes, sewage sludge and the
digestive tracts of animals

C. Kingdom Protista
- Kingdom Protista consists of protists
- They are a diverse group of eukaryotes that are not plants, animals or fungi

They have the following characteristics:

o They have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

o Most protists are unicellular. Some are multicellular but lack differentiated tissues that are found in
complex organisms

o They mainly live in damp or aquatic environments

o According to their mode of nutrition, protists can be divided into three groups: plant-like, animal-like or
fungus-like
1. Plant-like protists
- Plant-like protists are referred as algae 藻(singular: alga)
- They are autotrophs
- They contain chlorophyll or other photosynthetic pigments so they can make their own food by
photosynthesis

Examples include
- Spirogyra, diatoms and dinoflagellates

Some larger multicellular marine algae are called seaweeds 海藻 or kelps 海帶

- They look like plants but their bodies are not differentiated into true roots, stems or leaves

Kombu is made from kelp. It is common in

Japanese and Korean dishes, e.g. soup.

2. Animal-like protists
- Animal-like protists are called protozoans
- They are unicellular heterotrophs that can move around and ingest food

Examples include
- Amoeba species and Paramecium species
 3. Fungus-like protists
- Fungus-like protists may be unicellular or multicellular
- The have some characteristics similar to fungi
- They absorb nutrients from dead or decaying organic matter
- They reproduce by spores

However
- The cell wall of fungus-like protists does not contain chitin as normal fungi do

Examples of fungus-like protists include

- Slime moulds and water moulds

D. Kingdom Fungi
- Fungi (singular: fungus) are eukaryotic organisms that can be unicellular (e.g. yeast) or multicellular (e.g.
mushroom)

Examples include
- Yeast, mushroom, mold; truffles, lingzhi

They have the following characteristics:

Chitin cell wall

- Their cell wall is made of chitin (a protein), instead of cellulose

Saprophytes
- They do not contain chlorophyll and cannot make their own food
- Most fungi (e.g. bread mould) are saprophytes that feed on dead or decaying organic matter

- They play an important role in the recycling of materials in an ecosystem

Parasites
- Some fungi are parasites
- Some species cause disease such as athlete’s foot by living in human skin

Made up of hyphae
- Multicellular fungi are made up of many tiny thread-like structures called hyphae (singular: hypha)
- Hyphae secrete enzymes onto food and digest it outside the body of the fungus
- Soluble nutrients are then absorbed into the cells

Reproduction by spores or budding

- Most fungi reproduce by forming spores
- Yeasts reproduce by budding
 Fungi Plant

Cell wall composition Chitin Cellulose

Complexity Unicellular/Multicellular Multicellular

Parts No roots, consists of hyphae Consists of leaves, stem and root

Reproductive method
Nutrition method
By spores/seeds/
By spores or budding
vegetative propagation
External digestion
Photosynthesis
(saprophytes)

E. Kingdom Plantae
- Plants are eukaryotic multicellular organisms
- Plant cells have a cell wall made up of cellulose
- Some plants cells contain chlorophyll
- Plants make their own food by photosynthesis i.e. they are autotrophs

Plants can be classified into two main groups:

- Vascular plants [with vascular tissues to transport water, minerals and nutrients] and non-vascular plants
[without vascular tissues]
- These two groups can be further divided into smaller groups

1. Non-vascular plants
- Non-vascular plants are small plants with simple leaves and stems, but no root

No root but rhizoid

- They are anchored to the ground by hair-like structures called rhizoids
- Rhizoids are also responsible for the absorption of water and minerals
- As non-vascular plants do not have vascular tissues, they are usually smaller in size

Grow in damp areas

- They usually grow in damp 潮濕 places because without a vascular system, they rely on osmosis to absorb
and transport water and nutrients

Reproduce by spores
- They reproduce by spores

Examples include
- Mosses, liverwort
2. Vascular plants
- Vascular plants have true roots, leaves and stems
- They have vascular tissues for transport of materials and support
- In general, they are larger and taller than non-vascular plants

- There are three types of vascular plants: Ferns, conifers and flowering plants

i Ferns
- Most ferns have large and feathery leaves
- They produce spores for reproduction
- The spores are usually produced in structures on the underside of the leaves

ii Conifers
- Most conifers are large evergreen trees with needle-shaped leaves
- They do not produce flowers
- They produce naked seeds which are protected in cones for reproduction

Examples include
- Fir, pine and cypress

iii Flowering plants

- Flowering plants are also known as angiosperms
- They include a vast variety of plants from small non-woody plants (herbs) to large trees

- They have true flowers and can produce seeds

- The seeds are enclosed in a fruit formed from the ovary of the flower

There are two groups of flowering plants (both of them belong to the phylum Angiospermae):
- Monocotyledonous plants (Monocots) and
- Dicotyledonous plants (Dicots)

○1 Monocotyledonous plants
- Monocots have only one cotyledon (or seed leaf) in their seeds
- Their leaves are usually long and thin and possess parallel veins
- The number of petals in their flowers is usually three or multiples of three
- They have a fibrous root system

Example of monocot include

- Maize, lily and grass

○2 Dicotyledonous plants
- Dicots have two cotyledons in their seeds
- Their leaves are broad and have a branching network of veins running through them
- The number of petals in their flowers is usually four or five or their multiples
- They usually have a taproot system, consisting of a single thicker root with finer roots branching from
it
 Example of dicot include
- Apple tree, sunflower and cabbage

Monocotyledonous plants Dicotyledonous plants

Number of cotyledons One Two
Parallel veins Branching network of veins

Pattern of leaf veins

Usually three of multiples of three Usually four or five or their multiples

Number of petals in their

flowers

Fibrous root system Taproot system

Roots

F. Kingdom Animalia
- Animals are eukaroytic multicellular orgnaisms
- They are heterotrophs and have to obtain food from other organisms

Animals can be divided into two phyla:

- Invertebrates (without a backbone) and
- Vertebrates (with a backbone)
1. Invertebrates
- Invertebrates are animals that do not have a backbone
- They are usually supported by hydrostatic pressure inside their body (hydroskeleton) or
- hard shells or plates covering their body surface (exoskeleton)

Examples include
- Jellyfish, snail, grasshopper

More
There are many different types of invertebrates

Cnidarians Annelids (segmented worms)

- Live in oceans - A cylindrical body consisting of segments
- Soft, radically symmetrical body
- Some have tentacles with stinging cells to catch prey E.g. Earthworm, leech

E.g. Jellyfish, coral and sea anemone - Earthworm burrows in soil and feeds on dead leaves
and young roots
- Leeches live in ponds and streams and suck blood from
other animals

Molluscs Flatworms
- Soft body consisting of a head and a muscular foot - Their body is flat, bilaterally symmetrical and
- Some have a hard shell to protect their soft body unsegmented body
(for example, snails and clams) - Do not have specialised organs
- Absorb oxygen and nutrients through body surface
E.g. Scallop, squid, cuttlefish and octopus
E.g. Tapeworm

Echinoderms
- Body surface covered with spines
- Their body shows radial symmetry
- Usually have tube feet for movement
E.g. Starfish, sea urchin and sea cucumber
Arthropods
- Have a segmented body covered by hard exoskeleton
- Their legs have many joints
i Insects
- Have a body that is divided into three parts: Head,
thorax and abdomen
- Have three pairs of jointed legs
(usually two pairs of wings and one pair of antennae)

E.g. Honey bee, dragonfly, grasshopper, butterfly,

mosquito

ii Spiders and scorpions

[Arachnids]
- Have four or pairs of jointed legs
- Do not have antennae

iii Crustaceans
- Live in water and have gills for gas exchange
- Have five or more pairs of jointed legs

E.g. Shrimp, crab, lobster

2. Vertebrates
- Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone or vertebral column
- A vertebral column consists of many small pieces of bones called vertebrae

Vertebrates can be further divided into five classes:

Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

Please identify which groups of vertebrates the following organisms belong to

Penguin Whale
Lizard Bat
Turtle Sea otter
Seahorse Salamander

i Fish
- Fish are aquatic vertebrates

There is a wide variety of fish

- Grouper, shark, eel, seahorse and pufferfish are some of the examples

Characteristics

Fins, gills, scales and lateral line

- Fish have fins for swimming and body balance
- They have gills for gas exchange
- Most fish are covered with scales
- Along each side of a fish’s body is a lateral line. It is an important sense organ used to detect water
movement and changes in water pressure

Poikilotherm
- Fish cannot maintain a constant body temperature
- They body temperature changes with that of the surroundings i.e. They are poikilotherms

External fertilisation
- Most fish lay eggs into water
- The eggs are fertilised with sperms outside their body (This is called external fertilisation.)

Grouper Shark Pufferfish

Seahorse
 ii Amphibians
- Adult amphibians live in both aquatic and land environment

Example of amphibians include

- Frog, toad, salamander

Characteristics
Moist and naked skin
- Amphibians have moist and naked skin, without hair or scales

Adults use lungs and skin surface for gas exchange

- Adults are adapted to both aquatic and land environments. They use lungs and the skin surface for gas
exchange

Tadpoles use gills for gas exchange

- Young amphibians are called tadpoles which live in water. They have gills for gas exchange

Poikilotherm
- Amphibians are poikilotherms

External fertilisation
- Like fish, female amphibians lay eggs into water for external fertilisation by the males

Frog Toad Newt (a kind of salamander)

iii Reptiles
- Most reptiles live in land

Examples
- Lizard, snake, crocodile, tortoise and turtle
Lizard

Characteristics

Dry skin covered with tough scales

- Reptiles have dry skin covered with tough scales

Lungs
- They have lungs for breathing Crocodile

Poikilotherms
- Reptiles are poikilotherms

Internal fertilisation
- Their eggs are fertilised inside the female’s body
- This is called internal fertilisation
- Many reptiles lay shelled eggs on land Turtle
 iv Birds
- Birds live on land

Example of birds include

- Eagle, owl, penguin, duck, peacock and ostrich

Characteristics
Eagle
Feather, wings, beak and legs covered with dry scales
- Their skin is covered with feathers
- Their forelimbs are modified into wings
- They have a beak with no teeth
- Their legs are covered with dry scales

Lungs Penguin
- They have lungs for breathing

Homoiotherms
- Birds can maintain a constant body temperature i.e. they are homoiotherms

Internal fertilisation
- They carry out internal fertilisation and lay eggs with hard shells
Ostrich

v Mammals
- Most mammals live on land. Some live in water

This class includes a wide variety of animals

- Tiger, leopard, koala, panda, bats, dolphin and whales

Characteristics

Body covered with hair; mammary glands, sweat glands and sebaceous glands
- Most mammals have hair covering their body
- They have mammary glands. Their young feed on milk from their mothers’ mammary glands
- They also have sweat glands and sebaceous glands

Lungs
- They have lungs for breathing

Homoiotherms
- Mammals are homoiotherms

Internal fertilisation & Give birth to live young Egg-laying mammals

- Mammals carry out internal fertilisation - A characteristic feature of mammals is that young
- Most mammals give birth to live young i.e. they are are born alive
- But there are exceptions, e.g. platypus
viviparous

Tiger Bat Whale

 Vertebrates
Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals
Habitat In water Both on land and Mainly on land Mainly on land Mainly on land
in water

Outer covering Wet and slimy Moist skin without Dry skin with With feathers With hairs
scales scales tough scales

Organ for gas Gills • Larvae: Gills Lungs Lungs Lungs

exchange • Adults: Lungs
and skin
surface
Control of body Poikilotherms Poikilotherms Poikilotherms Homoiotherms Homoiotherms
temperature

Structures of Fins Four limbs Four limbs Two wings and Four limbs
movement two legs

Reproduction External External • Internal • Internal • Internal

fertilisation fertilisation fertilisation fertilisation fertilisation
• Lay eggs with • Lay eggs with • Embryos
hard shells on hard shells on develop inside
land land the mother’s
body
• Young is born
alive

Other features Most fish have a / / With beaks Usually have

lateral line of mammary glands,
detect changes in sweat glands and
their environment sebaceous glands

Fin
- A feature of fish
- Used for swimming and balance
- Some fish use fins for movement, such as mudskipper

Flippers
- Flippers are modified limbs from fins for movements in water, in marine mammals (or marine birds)
- E.g. Dolphin, seal, walrus, penguin

Dolphin Seal Walrus Penguin

 Swim bladder 魚鰾
- It is an air-filled structure in fish to control buoyancy

Claws
- Bears, dogs and birds have claws

Paws
- Cats and dogs have paws

Hooves (singular: hoof)

- Horses, goats and elephants have hooves

Webbed feet
- Ducks (Aquatic birds) have webbed feet

______________________________________________________________________________________________
Viruses
- Viruses are smaller than bacteria and can only be observed under an electron microscope

Protein coat & nucleic acids

- They are made up of a protein coat and nucleic acids

They do not have any cell structures

They do not show the typical characteristics of living things

- Such as respiration, nutrition and reproduction

However
- Viruses can multiply inside living host cells by invasion

Many scientists think that viruses are on the borderline between living and non-living things
- They are not classified into the three domains and six kingdoms

Characteristics
○
1 Much smaller than bacteria

○
2 No nucleus

○
3 No cell wall or cell membrane, but has protein coat

○
4 No organelles

○
5 Made up of genetic material DNA or RNA

○
6 Do not carry out life activities such as respiration, excretion irritability
- They can reproduce only when they have invaded a living cell

Examples
- Common cold, influenza (flu), hepatitis, chickenpox, smallpox, measles
- Rabies and AIDS can cause death

Flu: Avian flu, swine flu

Summary

Living organisms on Earth are classified into six kingdoms and three domains:
Domain Bacteria Archaea Eukarya
Kingdom Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Domain Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Kingdom Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Type of cell Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Number of
Unicellular Unicellular or multicellular Multicellular
cells
Algae: Cell wall
made of
Cell wall made Cell wall is not
cellulose Cell wall made Cell wall made
Cell wall of made of No cell wall
of chitin of cellulose
peptidoglycan peptidoglycan
Protozoans:
No cell wall

Algae: Present
Chlorophyll Most absent Absent Absent Present Absent
Protozoans:
Absent

Algae:
Autotrophic
Mode of Autotrophic or Autotrophic or
Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
nutrition heterotrophic heterotrophic
Protozoans:
Heterotrophic

Plantae
Vascular plants
Non-vascular
plants Non-flowering plants Flowering plants

Mosses and Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous

Ferns Conifers
liverworts plants plants
• Simple leaves and • Large, feathery • Needle-shaped • One cotyledon in the • Two cotyledons in
stem, but no root leaves leaves seed the seed

• Rhizoids • Reproduce by • Naked seeds • Parallel veins • Branching veins

spores enclosed in cones
• Petal in three or its • Petals in four or five
multiples or multiples

• Fibrous root system • Taproot system

 Changes in classification approaches
- Linnaeus classified organisms based on similar physical characteristics, while Carl Woese proposed the
modern six-kingdom system which classified organisms according to their genetic similarity

Factors affected the classification approach

- An important factor that affected the classification approach is the invention and improvement of
microscopes
- Using electron microscopes that can produce images with higher magnification and resolution, scientists can
study cell structures of organisms more detailedly
- This allows scientists to compare similarities and differences between organisms at cellular level

- Another factor that affected classification approach is the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin
(1809-1882)
- The theory of evolution suggests that life on Earth began from a common ancestor
- Over time, the common ancestor evolved into various species

Evolutionary Relationship
- Modern biologists try to put organisms that are evolved from a common ancestor into the same group
- To do so, they have to find out these evolutionary relationships (or phylogenetic relationships) among
organisms
- Scientists believe that organisms that are evolved from a common ancestor have more genetic similarities
→ By analysing the genetic similarities among different groups of organisms, scientists can deduce the
phylogenetic relationship among them

E.g.
A has more common structural similarities with B than
with C or D

Biological keys
- In biology, a key is a tool used for identifying organisms
- It is constructed to sort organisms into smaller groups according to their characteristics

Dichotomous keys
- Dichotomous keys are commonly used (‘Dichotomous’ means branching into two)
- It consists of a series of steps
- Each step gives two alternative choices for a characteristic
- It can be represented in form of tree diagram or a list
Use the below key to identify these five animals: A:

Starfish Snail Ant Spider Centipede B:

1a Body is radially symmetrical …………………………………….……… A C:

1b Body is not radially symmetrical ……………………………. Go to 2
2a Has jointed legs ……………………………………………..……… Go to 3 D:
2b Has no jointed legs …………………………………………………….…… B
3a Three pairs of legs ………………………………………………..………… C E:
3b More than three pairs of legs ……………..………………… Go to 4
4a Body divided into two parts …………………………………….……… D
4b Body made up of many similar segments ……..………………… E

Construct a dichotomous key identify these six animals:

Sparrow Whale Monkey Penguin Jellyfish Earthworm

A: Starfish B: Snail C: Ant D: Spider E: Centipede

Example
Construct a dichotomous key identify these six animals:

Sparrow Whale Monkey Penguin Jellyfish Earthworm

1a Have a backbone …………………………………….……… Go to 2

1b Do not have a backbone ……………………….….……. Go to 3
2a Have tentacles ……………………………………….……… Jellyfish
2b Do not have tentacles ……………………………… Earthworm
3a Have a beak …………………………………………………… Go to 4
3b Do not have a beak ……………..………………………… Go to 5
4a Can fly …………………………………………………..……… Sparrow
4b Cannot fly ……..……………………………………..……… Penguin
5a Live on land ……..…………………………………………… Monkey
5b Live in water ……..………………………………….………… Whale
Organism list

Animals
Invertebrates

Cnidarians

Jellyfish Sea anemone Coral

Molluscs
Clam Cuttlefish Snail
Oyster Squid
Scallop Octopus
Mussel
Echinoderms

Starfish Sea cucumber Sea urchin

Segmented worms

Earthworm Leech

Flatworms

Tapeworm Liver fluke

Arthropods
Insect
Ant Caterpillar Cicada Fly
Termite Butterfly Dragonfly Mosquito
Bee Beetle Grasshopper Mantis
Wasp Cockroach Flea Moth
Ladybug

Spiders and Scorpions Crustaceans Others

Spider Shrimp/Prawn Centipede
Scorpion Krill
Crab
Hermit crabs
Lobster
 Vertebrates
Fish

Salmon Seahorse

Tuna Sea dragon

Pufferfish

Amphibians

Frog Tadpole Toad

Reptiles

Snake Lizard Crocodile

Alligator
Birds

Falcon

Hawk

Eagle

Cuckoo

Nightingale
Mammals

Puppy Kitten Piglet

Bat
Ch 21 Ecosystems

21.1 Introduction to Ecology 生態學

- Organisms do not live on their own
- They interact with each other and with their environment
- The scientific study of interrelationships between organisms and their environment is called ecology

A. Levels of Organization in Ecology

1. Species 物種
- A group of similar organisms that are capable to interbreeding to produce fertile offspring

2. Population
- All organisms of same species in the same habitat at the same time

3. Community
- All organisms in a habitat (i.e. = total of all populations)

4. Ecosystem
- A self-sustaining, stable and dynamic system consisting of a community with organisms interacting with
each other and with their surrounding physical environment

5. Biome
- A complex of communities that covers a large area and is characterised by a dominant form of
vegetation
- Example include tropical rainforest 熱帶雨林, tundra 凍原, temperate grassland 溫帶草原, desert 沙漠
and savanna 稀樹草原

6. Biosphere 生物圈
- The part of the Earth inhabited by organisms: Oceans, land surfaces and lower parts of atmosphere
B. The Ecosystem Concept
- Ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology
- It consists of a community and their physical environment
- An ecosystem can be small, such as a pond, or large such as a mangrove or grassland

○1 Interactions between Organisms and the Physical Environment

- Organisms interact continually in various ways and develop relationships
[ Predation | Competition | Commensalism | Mutualism | Parasitism ]

- Organisms interact with their physical environment

- Environment affects organisms by organisms trying to adapt to specific conditions in ecosystem
- Organisms affect environment by taking up substances from it and releasing waste to it
o For example, plants take up minerals, carbon dioxide and water from environment and give off
water vapour and oxygen
o Animals use materials from environment to build shelters too

○2 Energy Flow
- All ecosystems need energy to support life

Entry
- Sun is the ultimate source of energy for most ecosystems
- During photosynthesis, light energy from the Sun in captured by photosynthetic organisms (e.g. plants)
and is converted into chemical energy stored in organic compounds (e.g. carbohydrates) in their bodies

Transfer – feeding
[Energy flows from organism (A) to another (B) in form of chemical energy in food when A is eaten by B]
- When animals feed on the plants, energy stored in organic compounds is transferred to animals
- The energy is further transferred when the animals are eaten by other animals
- Through respiration, organisms release energy from organic molecules (e.g. glucose) in food

Loss
- Energy is lost from organisms in form of heat during respiration, and as excretory products, faeces and
dead bodies

∴ To maintain a stable ecosystem, a constant input of energy from the Sun in needed

○3 Material Cycling
- Useful elements such as carbon [C] and nitrogen [N] are constantly recycled in ecosystem
Major Types of ecosystems in Hong Kong

○1 Freshwater 淡水 stream 溪流
- It is characterised by water flowing from upstream to downstream
- Water speed of water current is the major factor affecting distribution 分佈 and abundance 豐富度
(多少) of organisms in the stream

- E.g. Tung Chung stream

○2 Mangrove 紅樹林
- Mangroves are found at estuaries 河口 where freshwater streams meets the sea
- This ecosystem is characterised by presence of mangrove plants
- The soil has a high salinity and a low oxygen content

- E.g. Mangroves in Tai O

○
3 Grassland 草地
- The dominant vegetation is grass and herbs 草本植物

- E.g. Grassland in Sai Kung

○4 Woodland 林地
- Dominant vegetation is broad-leaved trees
- A wide variety of plants, including shrubs, grass and mosses are also present

- E.g. Woodland in Shing Mun Country Park

○5 Rocky shore 岩岸
- It is an intertidal area near the coast where rocks are dominated
- Organisms there are adapted to withstand strong wave action

- E.g. Rocky shore at Shek O

 21.2 Components of Ecosystem

An ecosystem is made up of two components

- Abiotic factors: The non-living component. They are the physical conditions of environment such as light,
temperature, water availability

- Biotic community: The living component. It includes all organisms in the community.
- Ecosystem = abiotic factors + community + relationships between organisms + ecological succession

A. Abiotic Factors and Their Effects on Organisms

1. Light

Significance
- It is needed by plant for photosynthesis and hence affects the distribution of plants in the habitat
- Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy for most ecosystem
____________________________________________________________________________________
To obtain maximum light for photosynthesis
- Terrestrial plants tend to reach a higher position by growing tall or climbing up, so that they are not
blocked from sunlight by other plants
- Many aquatic plants are confined to the surface of water

Effect on Organisms
a. Light intensity
- Light intensity and length of daylight affect rate of photosynthesis
- Also they affect and control many other processes in plants, e.g. flowering
o E.g. Some plants such as Epiphyllum 曇花 only flower at night

b. Length of daylight
- It determines the behaviours of animals
o Some animals are diurnal (e.g. lions), they are active during day and rest at night
o Some are nocturnal and are active at night only
▪ Nocturnal animals are adapted to survive in low light environments
▪ They develop good night vision (e.g. owls)
▪ or develop special senses (e.g. bats can use echolocation to detect prey or obstacles)

2. Temperature
- The effect of temperature on organisms is direct

Significance
- Most chemical reactions in cells are controlled by enzymes, which only work best within a narrow range
of temperatures
- Therefore, temperature affects the rate of metabolism
________________________________________________________________________________________
- At low temperatures, ice crystals may form within cells and cause physical damage or cell death
- At high temperatures, enzymes and proteins are denatured
- Organisms survive only within a certain temperature range in which it is metabolically and structurally
adapted
o For example, bananas and sugar canes can only grow in tropical and subtropical regions, but not
in cold regions

Adaptations
○1 Homoiotherms
- Mammals and birds are able to maintain a fairly constant body temperatures independently of the
environmental temperature by using physiological mechanisms
- They keep a constant high body temperature (35-44oC)
→ It allows homoiotherms to inhabit a wider geographical range and remain active all the time
○2 Dense fur or Blubber
- Mammals that live in cold climates, such as polar bears, have dense fur and blubber (a thick layer of
subcutaneous fat)
→ To reduce heat loss

○3 Larger surface area

- Mammals living in hot climates tend to have larger ears and longer limbs
→ This provides a larger surface area to promote heat loss

- E.g. Elephants have large ears which are richly supplied with blood vessels. Flapping of the ears promotes
heat loss

Poikilotherms
- Most animals, including all non-vertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles, are unable to maintain
a narrow range of body temperature using physiological mechanisms
- Their temperature varies with the environmental temperature (i.e. They are poikilotherms)
→ Poikilotherms are restricted to areas with a narrower temperature range

○4 Changing behaviours
- Some animals overcome extreme temperature by changing their behaviours

Hibernation
- For example, reptiles (e.g. snakes) and amphibians may hibernate during winter
→ Slow down metabolic rate to reduce heat loss to surroundings
→ To conserve energy by remaining inactive, to survive winter months when food is scarce

Migration
- Birds (e.g. swan) and butterflies may migrate to warmer climates during winter

Animals Adaptations Function Examples

Homoiotherm
- Maintains constant high body To inhabit a wider geographical
Mammals and birds temperature (35-44oC) range and remain active all the time
independently by using
physiological mechanisms

Mammals living in cold Dense fur and blubber

To reduce heat loss Polar bear
climates (a thick layer of subcutaneous fat)

Mammals living in hot To provide a large surface area to

Larger ears and longer limbs Elephant
climates promote heat loss

To slow down metabolic rate to

reduce heat loss to surroundings
Reptiles (e.g. snakes) and Hibernation
Snakes
amphibians - during winter
To conserve energy to survive winter
(as food is scarce)

Migration Birds (e.g.

Birds (e.g. swan) and
- migrate to warmer climates To avoid freezing to death swan) and
butterflies
during winter butterflies
3. Rainfall and Humidity
- Water is essential for life

Significance
- Rainfall is the main source of water
- Humidity (i.e. amount of water vapour in air) affects the rate of water loss by evaporation from body
surfaces of plants and animals
- Both rainfall and humidity affect amount of water available to terrestrial organisms
- Refer to Ch2 Molecules of Life
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Adaptations

Terrestrial organisms
- Terrestrial organisms have developed certain adaptations to conserve water

Plants living in dry areas

○1 Needle-shaped leaves
○2 Thick cuticle
- Plants living in dry areas, such as cacti (singular: cactus), have needle-shaped leaves and thick cuticle to
reduce water loss by transpiration

○3 Extensive root system

- They also have extensive root system to absorb as much water as possible

Animals living in dry and hot areas

○4 Thick Fur
- Animals living in dry and hot areas, such as camels, have thick fur to reduce water loss from body and
prevent heat gain from surrounding

Organisms Adaptations Function Examples

○
1 Needle-shaped leaves
To reduce water loss by transpiration Cactus
Plants in dry areas ○
2 Thick cuticle

○
3 Extensive root system To absorb maximum amount of water Cactus

Animals in dry and hot To reduce water loss from body and
○
4 Thick fur Camels
areas heat gain from surroundings

4. Wind and Water Movements

Significance
- Wind helps in pollination and dispersal of seeds in some plants
- However, strong wind lowers humidity and hence increases transpiration rate of plants
- Wind also affects water currents and wave action in aquatic environments
________________________________________________________________________________________
Adaptations

Plants living in habitats with strong wind

○1 Fleshy leaves with thick cuticle
- To prevent excessive water loss by transpiration, plants living in habitats with strong wind may develop
special adaptations, such as fleshy leaves with thick cuticles

○2 Attach firmly
- Strong wind may also blow organisms away from their habitats. They need to attach firmly to withstand
strong wind
 Organisms living in fast-flowing streams
○1 Flattened body
- Organisms living in fast-flowing streams may have flattened body (e.g. chiton)
- This i) reduces their resistance against water and ii) allows them to hide under rocks to avoid being swept
away by water currents

○2 Modified mouth or fins like suckers

- Some fish have modified mouth or fins to function like suckers, so that they can hold themselves onto
rocks in fast-flowing streams

Organisms living on rocky shores

○1 Hard shell
- Organisms living on rocky shores (e.g. barnacles) usually have a hard shell for withstanding the strong
wave action

○2 Attach firmly
- They are also able to attach firmly to the rocks

Organisms Adaptations Function Examples

To prevent excessive water loss
○
1 Fleshy leaves with thick cuticle
by transpiration
Plants living in habitats with
strong wind To avoid being blown away
○
2 Attach firmly
from habitat

i) To reduce their resistance

against water
Chitons
○
1 Flattened body
Organisms living in fast- ii) To allow them to hide under 石鱉
flowing streams rocks so not to being swept
away by water currents
○2 Modified mouth or fins like Hillstream
To hold onto rocks
suckers loach 泥鰍

To withstand strong wave

○
1 Hard shell
Organisms living on rocky action Barnacles
shores To avoid being washed away 藤壺
○
2 Attach firmly
from habitat

5. Oxygen Concentration

Significance
- Most organisms need oxygen to survive by undergoing aerobic respiration
- It determines what organisms an aquatic habitat can support
________________________________________________________________________________________

As oxygen makes up 21% of the Earth’s atmosphere

- It is rarely a limiting factor for terrestrial organisms except for those living in very high altitudes where
oxygen concentrations are low
 In water
- However, oxygen concentrations are much lower (approximately 1%) in water, and can fluctuate
depending on a number of factors

(i) Temperature [-]

- When temperature increases, the solubility of oxygen in water decreases, therefore the
concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases

(ii) Water movements [+]

- When water flows more quickly, the concentration of dissolved oxygen increases as turbulence
急流 and splashing 濺 can bring more water in contact with oxygen in air

(iii) Organic matter [-]

- Concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases in the presence of organic matter as microorganisms
uses oxygen for decomposition of organic matter

Aquatic organisms vary in their oxygen requirements

- Some species, such as trout 鱒魚, require high concentration of dissolved oxygen to live
- Other species, including carp 鯉魚 and water scorpion, can tolerate low concentration of dissolve oxygen

∴ The amount of dissolved oxygen determines what organisms an aquatic habitat can support

6. Salinity 鹽度
- Salinity is the level of dissolved mineral salts in water bodies or in the soil

Significance
- It affects the availability of water and minerals to organisms
______________________________________________________________________________________
Adaptations

Organisms living in low salinity or freshwater habitats

○1 Remove excessive water
- Organisms living there have adaptive features to get rid of excessive water from their bodies

Organisms living marine habitats

○1 Remove excessive salts & Prevent excessive water loss
- Conversely, organisms living in marine habitats have features to remove excessive salts and prevent
excessive water loss, so that they can survive in seawater with high salinity

Organisms living in estuaries or salt marshes 沼澤

○1 Regulate water and salt contents
- Since they live in habitats with large fluctuations in salinity, relatively few plants and animals have
special abilities to regular water and salts contents of their bodies, so that they can survive a wider
range of salinities

Mangrove plants
○
A Salt glands
- For example, the leaves of some mangrove plants have salt glands to remove excessive salts from
the body
 Organisms Adaptations Function
Organisms living in low salinity or
Adaptive features to get rid of
freshwater habitats -
excessive water from their bodies
[Low salinity]

Organisms living marine habitats Features to remove excessive salts and

-
[High salinity] prevent excessive water loss

Organisms living in estuaries or salt

marshes
[Fluctuating salinity]
E.g. Mangrove plants
Special abilities to regular water and To survive a wider range of
salts contents of their bodies salinities
To remove excessive salts from
A Salt gland on leaves
body

7. Soil
- Soil is a key component of terrestrial ecosystems

Significance
- Soil provides plants with a substratum for anchorage, supplies of water and minerals for plant growth
and oxygen for respiration of plant roots
- The nature of soil* determines the type of plants that can grow in the soil

* The nature of soil depends on factors including

i) size of soil particle
ii) air content
iii) water content
iv) nutrient content
v) pH value
________________________________________________________________________________________
Sandy 沙粒 soil
- A sandy soil is made up of relatively large particles with large air space
- It cannot provide enough anchorage for large plants

Silt 泥沙 and Clay 黏土

- On the other hand, soil particles in silt and clay are smaller and more closely packed
- There are small air spaces between soil particles which are easily flooded with water
- As a result, the soil becomes water-logged and poorly aerated 通氣 (i.e. the oxygen content becomes very
low)
 Organic matter
- The organic matter in soil mainly comes from animal droppings and dead remains of organisms
- Microorganisms in soil decompose the organic matter to form humus 腐殖質
- Soil with a high humus content retains water much better and usually have a higher mineral content

Organic matter → decomposition → formation of humus → Higher water content & Higher mineral content

B. The Biotic Community

1. Habitat and niche
- Habitat is the physical (abiotic) environment in which an organism lives
- It provides the necessary conditions for the organism to survive

- Niche 生態位 of an organism is the role an organism plays in a community

- It refers to the way of life of an organism and is determined by the habitat, types of food it eats, its
relationship with other organisms and its effect on the environment

In nature
- Each species occupies a specific niche
- No two species can exist stably at the same time if they have the same niche. They will compete with
one another until one is displaced

2. Species diversity and dominant species

- Species diversity is a measure of the variety of species in a community
- It is determined by both the number of species in community (i.e. species richness) and the relative
abundance of the difference species (i.e. evenness of distribution of individuals of different species)

- There are both four species, A, B, C and D, in both communities. In other words, species richness of
the two communities is equal
- However, when looking at the relative abundance of species, we can see that
i) in community I, all four species have the same relative abundance
ii) in community II, Species A significantly outnumbers the other three

∴ Community I is more even than community II, therefore have a higher species diversity as well
 Dominant Species
- Dominant species in a community are the most numerous ones or those having the highest total biomass
in community
- They tend to exert a strong influence on composition and diversity of the community

In terrestrial ecosystem
- Dominant species is usually the commonest type of plants
- For example, the dominant species of Hong Kong woodlands is often evergreen broad-leaved trees.
They largely 很大程度上 affect the types of animals living in the community

C. Relationships between organisms in a community

- Organisms in a community interact with each other in various ways

1. Predation [+, -]
- Predation is the relationship between two species in which the predator captures, kills, and feeds on the
prey
- In this relationship, the predator is benefited (+) while the prey is harmed (-)
- The populations of both the prey and predator may exhibit a cyclic change
- As the predator depends on the prey for food supply, changes in the population of the predator always
lag behind 滯後 that of the prey

t1
- As the prey population grows, more food is available to predators, so the predator population
increases subsequently
t2
- Continued and increasing predation causes the prey population to decrease
t3
- The reduced food supply can no longer sustain the predator population. With fewer predators, the
prey population increases again and the cycle start over
2. Competition [-, -]
- Competition occurs when organisms (competitors) living in the same habitat strive for some common
needs, e.g. food, water, shelter, mates and sunlight
- In this relationship, all organisms involved are harmed

There are two types of competitions:

○1 Intraspecific competition
- The competition among organisms of the same species
- For example, barnacles of the same species attaching on the same piece of rock compete for food and
space with each other

○2 Interspecific competition
- The competition among organisms of different species
- For example, barnacles and limpets 帽貝 on the same piece of rock compete for food and space

- As individuals of the same species have more common needs, intraspecific competition is usually more
intense than interspecific competition

3. Commensalism [+, 0]
- In commensalism, two species live together, and one of the species (the commensal) is benefited (+)
while the other (the host) is neither harmed nor benefited (0)

Barnacles & Crabs

- For example, barnacles may attach themselves on the shells of crab
- The barnacles gain mobility and obtain food remains from the crabs while
- The crabs are unaffected

Trees & Epiphytes

- Another example of commensalism is trees and epiphytes 附生植物
- Epiphytes benefits by growing on tree trunks so that they can obtain maximum sunlight
- The trees are unaffected by the epiphytes’ attachment
4. Mutualism [+, +]
- Mutualism is the relationship between two species in which both are benefited (+, +) by living together

Sea Anemone & Hermit Crabs

- An example of mutualism is sea anemones living on the shells of hermit crabs
- The sea anemones obtain food remains and gain mobility from hermit crabs
- At the same time, the hermit crabs benefit from the protection provided by the stinging cells on
tentacles of anemones, which contain toxins

Lichen [Alga & Fungus]

- Another example of mutualism is lichen 地衣, which consists of an alga and a fungus living together
- The alga carries out photosynthesis, producing food for itself and the fungus, while
- The fungus i) provides anchorage, and ii) extracts water and minerals from substratum so that both
organisms can grow
- In this way, they can survive in harsh environment, such as rock surfaces and tree trunks

5. Parasitism [+, -]
- In parasitism, one species (the parasite) lives on or inside another species (the host), depending the host
for food and shelter
- The parasite therefore gains benefits (+) while the host is harmed (-)

- Tapeworm is a parasite living in the intestines of some mammals (e.g. humans)

- It absorbs digested food from the host, while the host is harmed by losing nutrients
D. Ecological succession
- Ecosystems are dynamic, i.e. abiotic factors and biotic community do not remain unchanged indefinitely
- Ecological succession is the process of the community in a habitat gradually being replaced or changed
over a period of time
- These changes are brought by interactions between organisms and changes in abiotic factors

During ecological succession

- Organisms change the environment in such a way that the environment becomes less favourable for the
original species
- The species will be replaced by other species that can adapt to the environment better
- This continues until a climax community is established

Climax community
- The climax community is the most diverse community that a habitat can support
- It may vary seasonally or fluctuate in a minor way, but is basically stable
- It will not be replaced unless sudden changes occur in the environment, e.g. fire, drought 旱災

1. Primary succession
- Primary succession takes place over a bare or unoccupied area where no community has existed
previously
- Bare areas may be formed by geographical changes

- Examples include bare rock exposed by retreating 後退的 glaciers 冰川 or a new island created by
volcanic activities
- Human activities, such as reclamation 填海, also create new coastal areas

Pioneer community
- The first community that colonise the bare land is called a pioneer community. Soil is initially absent at
that time
- It consists of species that can grow in adverse conditions, e.g. lichens and mosses 苔
 Occurrence of Primary Succession
○
1 Development of a community in a previously unoccupied habitat with no original living organisms

○
2 Pioneer community are often fast-growing, tolerant and well-dispersed plant species, e.g. mosses, grass

○
3 Substrata with organic matter are formed, allowing species with higher demand to survive

○
4 Larger organisms can then be supported and the community develops until it reaches climax community

2. Secondary succession
- Secondary succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community
- It is more common than primary succession
- It may occur in abandoned crop fields, burned forest or areas damaged by storms or floods 水浸

- The process is similar to primary succession except that secondary succession i) starts with a more
complex pioneer community and ii) develops more quickly (as soil already exists)
- The soil may contain seeds, roots and underground vegetative 植物性的 parts of plants, which can grow
and develop into new plants when conditions becomes favourable

Primary Succession Secondary Succession

Takes place in a bare or unoccupied

Takes place in areas after disruption
area where no community has existed
of a pre-existing community
previously

Longer for climax community to Faster for climax community to

establish establish

Pioneer community Climax community

Opportunists dominant Specialist dominant

Few species types Great biodiversity

Small total biomass Large total biomass

Mainly small organisms Mainly large organisms

 21.3 Functioning of Ecosystem
- In this section, we will study how energy flows and materials cycle in an ecosystem

A. Energy flow in ecosystem

- Refer to 21.1 B ○ 2 Energy Flow

Food Chain
- A food chain shows the sequence of organisms in a particular feeding relationship

- Arrows in food chain indicate the direction of energy and material flow
- Along food chain, chemical energy stored inside food are passed from one organism to another
- Organisms in food chain may act as producers, consumers or decomposers

○
1 Producers
- At the start of all food chains
- Producers are autotrophs 自養生物 which can make their own food
- These include plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria

Energy flow
- Through photosynthesis, they capture light energy and convert it into chemical energy which is
stored in organic compounds

○2 Consumers
- Consumers are organisms that depend on other organisms for food
- All animals are consumers
- Animals which feed on plants only are called herbivores
- Animals which feed on other animals are called carnivores
- Animals that feed on both plants and animals are called omnivores, e.g. humans

Energy flow
- Primary consumers feed on producers
- Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers
- Tertiary consumers feed on secondary consumers

○3 Decomposers
- Decomposers are organisms that feed on excretory products, faeces or dead bodies
- Many fungi and bacteria are decomposers

Energy flow
- As decomposers feed on waste materials or dead organisms, they break down the organic
compounds into inorganic nutrients
- Some of these inorganic nutrients will be absorbed by plants and enter food chain again
Food Webs
- Feeding relationships are usually more complex
- An animal may feed on several species while a prey may have several predators

• Snake is considered as secondary consumers when

it eats grasshoppers

• It is also a tertiary consumer when it eats frog

Example: Marine community

Secondary Consumer [Carnivore]

Producer
Jellyfish
Unicellular algae and phytoplankton 浮游植物
- Feed on zooplankton
- Autotrophs which carry out photosynthesis
Coral
Kelp
- Also feed on zooplankton
- Large seaweeds
- Carry out photosynthesis
Lobsters
- Feeds on sea urchins
Primary Consumer [Herbivores]
Zooplankton 浮游動物
Tertiary Consumer [Carnivore]
- Heterotrophs which feed on phytoplankton
Turtles
- Feeds on jellyfish
Sea urchin
- Feeds on seaweeds
Parrotfish
- Feeds on corals by grinding them

Trophic Levels
- Level at which an organism feeds in a food chain is called trophic level
Trophic Level Role Organisms

Plants, algae and photosynthetic

1st trophic level Producers
bacteria

2nd trophic level Primary consumers Herbivore

3rd trophic level Secondary consumers Carnivore

4th trophic level Tertiary consumers Carnivore

Energy Transfer
- Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient
- Less than 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next

At each trophic level

About 30% Energy obtained – Lost as heat through respiration
- Chemical energy in food eaten is released as heat

About 60% – Remains stored in excretory products, egested materials & dead bodies
- Excretory products include CO2, urea 尿素 and urine
- Undigested and unabsorbed materials are egested as faeces
- Chemical energy in uneaten organisms cannot be transferred to next trophic level

- Energy stored in these substances is only available to decomposers

- They feed on the above materials to break down the organic compounds into inorganic nutrients
- Some inorganic nutrients are absorbed by plants to be used again

Less than 10% – Used to make body material

- [When it is fed on, these less than 10% is transferred to the next trophic level]

= 100%

Due to great loss of energy (90%) at each trophic level, number of trophic levels is limited to usually
maximum five

Ecological Pyramids
- Ecological pyramids are used to represent the loss of energy at each trophic level
- We can use number of organisms at each trophic level, or total dry mass of organisms at each trophic
level to draw it

○
1 Pyramid of Numbers
- It is drawn by showing number of organisms at each
trophic level in a food chain
- Width (or area) of each bar is proportional to the
number of organisms at that level

Typical pyramid of number

- Producers occupy the base
- In general, producers are most abundant in number A Typical pyramid of number

∴ It has a broad base.

- Since i) energy available to next level decreases along a food chain and ii) predators are larger than prey
- number of organisms that can be supported by a higher tropic level is usually smaller than a lower tropic
level
∴ It is narrower up the tropic levels
 Atypical pyramid of numbers
- However, a disadvantage of pyramid of numbers is
it fails to consider the relative size of organisms

- For example, sometimes the 1 size of producer is

very large
- Oak tree is very large. One is enough to support a
large number of herbivores An Atypical pyramid of numbers

- Another example is 2 parasite

- Fleas are much smaller than birds. So one bird can
support can fleas

○
2 Pyramid of Biomass
- Biomass is the total mass of living substances in organisms
- Width (or area) is proportional to the amount of living substance in organism’s body, which reflects the
amount of energy stored

Upright pyramid of biomass

- Producers usually have the greatest biomass → It shows producers have the greatest amount of energy
- Biomass decreases as trophic level increases
- In most cases, pyramids of biomass are upright

Inverted pyramid of biomass

- In some cases, it can be an inverted pyramid of biomass
- For example, phytoplankton (producers) in sea are very small and have high turnover rate (rapid growth,
short reproductive cycle, high consumption rate)
- Therefore their biomass at a given time is small, but due to high rate of productivity, they can provide
enough energy to support a large number of zooplankton (primary consumer)

Methods
- Ideally dry mass should be compared
- This can either be estimated by wet masses by weighing, or determined by destructive methods (e.g.
putting organisms into an oven at above 100oC until all water inside is evaporated)
B. Cycling of materials in ecosystem
- Unlike that energy is eventually lost from ecosystem, essential elements in organisms (e.g. carbon &
nitrogen) are constantly recycled between organisms and physical environment

Carbon cycle

Photosynthesis Feeding
In air & water Producers Animals Dead bodies Decomposer
CO2 & dissolved CO2 C in organic compounds C in organic compounds C in organic compounds C in organic compounds

Reservoir pool – Atmosphere and dissolved CO2 in water

- The main carbon source for organisms is carbon dioxide in atmosphere and those dissolved in water

○
- Carbon dioxide removal from environment

Photosynthesis
- Producers remove carbon dioxide from environment by carbon fixation and convert it to organic
compounds (mainly carbohydrates) in their bodies

Carbon transfer between trophic levels

Feeding
- Carbon in organic compounds in producers is transferred to consumers at higher trophic levels through
feeding

○
+ Carbon dioxide returned to environment

Respiration
- During respiration, organic compounds in organisms are broken down to release carbon as carbon
dioxide

Decomposition
- Decomposers breaks down organic waste and dead bodies
- Carbon in organic compounds are converted to carbon dioxide

Burning of Fossil Fuels

- Dead bodies buried underground may turn into fossil fuels, e.g. coal and oil, over millions of years
- Carbon inside is released as carbon dioxide when burnt

• The carbon cycle is balanced if the

rate of removal of CO2 by photosynthesis
equals the rate of CO2 returning to the
environment
Nitrogen cycle

In soil air In air

Nitrogen gas Nitrogen gas
(N2) (N2)

Nitrogen Denitrification Lightning

fixation
Nitrification Nitrification
In soil In soil In soil
Ammonium compounds Nitrites Nitrates
(NH4+) (NO2-) (NO3-)

Ammonification Absorption

Organic waste & dead bodies Plants

Protein death Protein

death Feeding

Animals
Protein

Addition of nitrogen to soil

Lightning [Nitrogen gas N2 → Nitrate NO3-]

- Lightning causes nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere to combine with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides (NO,
NO2)
- After dissolving in rain water, nitrogen oxides form nitrate ions (NO3-) in soil

Nitrogen fixation [Nitrogen gas N2 → Ammonium compounds NH4+]

- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen in soil air to ammonium compounds in their bodies
- Some nitrogen fixing bacteria live in root nodules 根瘤 of leguminous 豆科 plants, such as pea and
soybean

Mutualism
- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria obtain carbohydrates from leguminous plants for energy and growth
- Leguminous plants gain fixed nitrogen [ammonium compounds] from the bacteria

Ammonification [Protein in organic wastes & dead bodies → Ammonium compounds NH4+]
- Putrefying bacteria and fungi are decomposers
- They carry out ammonification, i.e. breaking down organic waste and dead bodies to convert nitrogen
into ammonium compounds

Nitrogen transfer between trophic levels

Feeding [Protein → Protein]

- Through feeding, the nitrogen in organic compounds in producers is transferred to consumers at higher
trophic levels
Removal of nitrogen from soil

Absorption [Nitrate NO3-→ Protein]

- By absorption by roots, producers obtain nitrogen mainly in form of inorganic nitrate ion from the soil to
make organic compounds (e.g. protein, nucleic acid)

Denitrification [Nitrate → Nitrogen gas N2]

- Under anaerobic conditions, denitrifying bacteria change nitrates in soil into nitrogen gas
- The nitrogen gas is released into the atmosphere

Role in Energy Flow Role in Cycling Carbon and Nitrogen

Producers • Capture & convert light energy into • Take up inorganic carbon [CO2] and
chemical energy in organic compounds nitrogen [NO3-] from environment
through photosynthesis and incorporate them into organic
compounds in their bodies
• Return carbon to the environment
in form of carbon dioxide through
respiration

Consumers • Transfer chemical energy in organic • Transfer carbon and nitrogen in

compounds along food chain through organic compounds along food
feeding chain through feeding
• Return carbon to the environment
in form of carbon dioxide through
respiration

Decomposers • Return nutrients to environment in • Return carbon and nitrogen in form

form of inorganic compounds, which of inorganic compounds [CO2, NO3-]
can be taken up by producers again by breaking down the organic waste
• Energy is not recycled during and dead bodies of organisms
decomposition, but is released as heat
21.4 Conservation of Ecosystems

Impacts of Human Activities on Ecosystems

- With increasing human population, there are increasing demands on the environment for food, fuels
and other resources

Undesirable impacts on the environment:

(a) Destruction of natural habitat

- Large areas of forests are cleared to obtain land or timber

(b) Over-exploitation of natural resources

- Over-fishing results in the depletion of fish stocks

(c) Extinction of species

- Wildlife is threatened by being killed for food or for the production of valuable products

(d) Land pollution

- Large amount of solid waste are produced every day

(e) Air pollution

- Combustion of fossil fuels releases many pollutants that are harmful to our health and environment

(f) Water pollution

- Sewage from factories contains toxic chemicals that kill aquatic lives

Conservation of Ecosystem

1. Protection of natural habitats

- Conservation area (e.g. country parks and marine parks) are set up to protect natural habitats

2. Protection endangered species

- Hunting and trading of endangered species are prohibited by laws
- Endangered species may be kept and bred in zoos or botanic gardens

3. Management of natural resources

- Reduce use of natural resources and production of waste
- E.g. Discourage overuse of shopping bags

4. Pollution control
- Control smoke emissions from factories and power station
- Treat sewage before discharging into waters
21.5 Ecological Study of Local Habitats

Sampling
- A smaller representation part of the population is called a sample
- Random sampling and systematic sampling

○
1 Quadrat
- Quadrat is a wooden or metal square frame enclosing fixed area, such as 1 m2
or 0.25 m2
- It is used for random sampling to estimate the abundance of plants and
immobile or slow-moving animals in a fairly uniform habitat

Method
- The quadrat is randomly placed on the ground
- Then count and record the number of organisms in the area enclosed
- In order to make the estimation more reliable, repeat it several times at different positions and obtain a
mean value

✓ Range of species distribution

 Abundance of species

(a) Percentage Frequency

- A measure of probability of finding the species there

- It is obtained by simply recording presence of absence
of species in quadrats

- Can be used as preliminary study of relative abundance

of different species

(b) Density

- The absolute density of a species refers to the number

of individuals of the species in a given area
- It is an absolute measure of species abundance

- Relative density of a species is a number of its

individuals expressed as a percentage of the total
number of individuals of all species

(c) Percentage Cover

- Percentage cover of a species is a measure of the

proportion of ground occupied by the species
- It is suitable for representing the abundance of
organisms that cannot be counted individually,
such as mosses and algae
 ○
2 Transect
- Transect is a method of systematic sampling measuring transition of species across a habitat
- Line transect is a piece of inelastic string or tape marked at regular intervals

a Line Transect

Method
- A transect is placed in a specific direction such at it cuts across the areas showing changes in population
and abiotic factors to be studied
- For example, in rocky shore, you may place a transect from the upper shore towards the sea
- Moving down the transect line, record all individuals that are touching the line all the way along or at
regular intervals

✓ Range of species distribution

 Abundance of species

b Belt Transect

Method
- Two transects are placed parallel to each other at 0.5m or 1m apart
- The number of organisms within two transects is recorded

An easier method
- First, lay the transect along the area and place a quadrat on one side of the transect
- Record the position of quadrat and number of organisms inside the quadrat
- Then, move the quadrat along the transect
- Alternatively, place the quadrat next to the transect at regular intervals (e.g. 2m)

✓ Range of species distribution

✓ Abundance of species
Summary
Quadrat Line transect Belt transect
Habitats that show transitions of species and environmental
Habitat suitable for study Fairly uniform habitats
conditions

Systematic
Sampling approach Random - Area of study is carefully chosen for specific environmental
conditions of interest
✓ Range of species distribution ✓ Range of species distribution ✓ Range of species distribution
Data obtained ✓ Abundance of species

Measuring Abiotic Factors

Abiotic Factors Instruments

Light meter has a light probe (a

sensor) for detecting light. Read
1 Light Intensity Light meter
the light intensity value from the
screen

2 Temperature Thermometer
Wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer
3 Relative Humidity
Thermohygrometer
4 Wind Speed Anemometer

5 Oxygen Concentration in Water Dissolved oxygen meter

Salinity of a water sample is

determined by refractive index of
6 Salinity Refractometer
the water (which is influenced by
the salt concentration)
pH meter
7 pH Value
pH paper
Ch 22 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis the process by which organic substances are made from simple inorganic substances using
light energy
- Organisms, including plants, algae and certain bacteria, captures light energy and converts it into chemical
energy which is stored as organic substances in the body

- Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts of plant cells

- Chloroplasts contain the photosynthetic pigment of chlorophyll, which absorb light energy to drive the
synthesis of glucose from carbon dioxide and water
- Oxygen is released as a by-product

Word equation:
light energy
carbon dioxde + water glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll

Significance of Photosynthesis

1. Providing the basic food source for most organisms

- Plants are produces in the ecosystem
- During photosynthesis, light energy from the Sun is captured and converted to chemical energy stored in the
food and body materials in plants
- Organisms depend directly or indirectly on plants for food

2. Maintaining the energy flow in ecosystem

- The chemical energy stored in the plant is transferred to organisms at higher trophic levels through feeding
- Energy is eventually lost from the ecosystem
- Photosynthesis plays an important role in maintaining the input of energy from the sun and the flow of
energy in ecosystem

3. Maintaining the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

- Organisms continuously take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide during respiration
- Human activities, such as combustion of fossil fuels, also consume oxygen and produce carbon dioxide
- Plants, however, take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen during photosynthesis

Notes:

Absorption of water: Roots

Transport of water: Xylem
Loss of water: By transpiration (Evaporation of water vapour from leaves)

Transport of nutrients: Phloem (in form of sucrose)

Storage of nutrients: In form of starch
Destarching is the removal of starch from the leaves of a plant by placing the plant in the dark for a period of
time. This is done before an investigation to ensure that any starch detected at the end of the investigation
is formed during the investigation.

Done by: Putting a plant in the dark for at least 24 hours

→ Let the plant use up the starch stored in leaves

Detection of starch produced by photosynthesis [Iodine Test]

1. Boil the leaf

Purpose: Kill the leaf cell

→ soften the leaves

(allow iodine to stain on the leaves later)

2. Transfer the leaf in alcohol

Purpose: Remove chlorophyll

→ Iodine colour can be easier to observe

3. Use hot water bath, turn off Bunsen burner

Purpose: Prevent explosion ∵ alcohol is flammable

4. Dip the leaf into the hot water again

Purpose: Remove alcohol from the leaf

→ allow iodine solution to stain on the leaf

*iodine solution = non-polar solvent

alcohol = a polar solvent
5. Spread the leaf on a white tile
 Requirements of Photosynthesis

1. Light

2. Carbon dioxide

Results:
- Leaf A (Control): Changes from
brown to blue-black in iodine
test. It shows the presence of
starch

- Leaf B (Experimental set-up) :

The solution remains brown. It
shows the absence of starch
because CO2 is absorbed by
potassium hydroxide pellets

3. Chlorophyll
- Chlorophyll is the major photosynthetic pigment in plants
- It absorbs mainly red and blue-violet light, but not green light (which is why plants containing chlorophyll
appear green in colour)

4. Water
- Water is needed by plants for many metabolic reactions
- If we remove all water from a plant, it will die
- There is no simple experiment to show that water is required for photosynthesis

Detection of oxygen produced by photosynthesis

○
A Supply CO2
- Sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3)
- Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)

○
B Absorb CO2
- Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)/ soda lime (NaOH + etc)
- Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

Results:

The glowing splint relights. It proves the gas released from Hydrilla
is oxygen. Photosynthesis has taken place.
 Site of Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis occurs in all green parts of a plant, where chloroplasts are present
- Leaves contain the most chloroplasts and are therefore the main photosynthetic organs in plant
- The leaf is an organ specialised for photosynthesis
- It is adapted to ○
1 bring together the three raw materials of photosynthesis: Light, carbon dioxide and water
- and to ○ 2 remove the oxygen and food produced by photosynthesis

A plant
- leaf 葉
- stem 莖
- root 根

- flower 花
- fruit 果
A. How are Leaves adapted for photosynthesis?

1. Adaptations for absorbing light energy

- ○1 The leaf blade is broad and flat. This provide a large surface area for absorbing light
- Also, ○
2 it is thin so light can reach the photosynthetic cells easily

- ○
3 Midrib and an extensive network of veins support and maintain the shape of the leaf for better absorption
of light

- ○4 The palisade mesophyll is located at the upper part of a leaf, which is exposed directly to sunlight.
- ○5 It consists of closely packed cells that contain numerous chloroplasts
- This helps maximize the amount of light absorbed for photosynthesis

2. Adaptations for exchange of gases

- ○ 1 Leaves are thin, therefore carbon dioxide in atmosphere has to diffuse only a short distance from the
lower part of the leaf to the palisade mesophyll cells
- ○ 2 The epidermis contains numerous stomata (singular: stoma), which allows the passage of gases and water
vapour into and out of the leaf
- ○ 3 Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. The guard cells open the stoma when the conditions are
favourable for photosynthesis (i.e. light is present) and close it when the condition are less favourable (i.e.
light is absent)
- ○ 4 Spongy mesophyll cells are loosely packed with many air spaces between them. This allows gases to
diffuse freely inside the leaf

3. Adaptations for transport of water and food substances

- The midrib and veins contain vascular bundles, which are made up of xylem and phloem
- ○1 Xylem transports water and minerals to the leaf
- ○2 Phloem transports the products of photosynthesis away from the leaf

4. Adaptations for reducing water loss

- ○1 The upper epidermis and lower epidermis of the leaf are covered by a thin layer of waxy cuticle
- This reduces water loss by evaporation from the leaf surfaces so that water is conserved for photosynthesis

- ○2 In terrestrial plants, the upper epidermis of the leaf usually contains fewer stomata than the lower
epidermis.
- This helps reduce water loss

Structure of a leaf Adaptation for photosynthesis

Leaf blade - Broad and flat - Provide a large surface area for absorbing
light
- Thin - Light and gases can reach the
photosynthetic cells easily
Palisade - Located at the upper part - Maximize absorption of light
mesophyll of a leaf
- Cells closely packed and
numerous chloroplasts

Spongy - Cells loosely packed with - Allow gases to diffuse freely inside the leaf
mesophyll a lot of air spaces
between them
 Upper and - Covered by waxy cuticle
lower - Contain numerous
epidermis stomata
- More stomata on lower
epidermis
- Each stoma surrounded
by a pair of guard cells
Midrib - Contains vascular bundles
made up of xylem and
phloem
- Branches into an
extensive network of
veins
- Reduces water loss by evaporation
- Guard cells control the opening and closing
of the stoma to regular the passage of
gases and wate vapour into and out of the
leaf
- Transports water to the leaf and products
of photosynthesis away from the leaf
- Supports and maintains the shape of the
leaf
- Ensures efficient transport of materials

B. How are Chloroplasts adapted for photosynthesis?

- Chloroplasts are organelles where photosynthesis takes place in plant cells
- Chloroplasts are surrounded by a double membrane
- The outer membrane is smooth while the inner membrane gives rise to flattened membranous sacs called
thylakoids
- The pigment chlorophyll is located in the thylakoid membranes

- The interior of the chloroplast is filled with a jelly-like fluid, called stroma
- ○1 Stroma contains enzymes that catalyse the photosynthetic reactions
- It also ○
2 contains starch grains which act as temporary stores for the products of photosynthesis

- Within the stroma, ○ 3 thylakoids are arranged in stacks, called grana (singular: granum)
- A chloroplast contains about 50 grana, each consisting of up to 100 thylakoids
- The stacking arrangement of thylakoids provides a large surface area to pack more chlorophyll for the
absorption of light, without taking up too much space
- Some ○ 4 thylakoids have tubular extensions which interconnect adjacent grana
- Therefore, the photosynthetic products can be transported efficiently within the chloroplast

Structure of a chloroplast Adaptation for photosynthesis

Stroma - Jelly-like fluid
Thylakoid - Large numbers of
thylakoids arranged in
stacks called grana
- Grana are interconnected
- Contains enzymes that catalyse the
photosynthetic reactions
- Contains starch grains which act as
temporary stores for the products of
photosynthesis
- Provide a large surface area to pack
more chlorophyll for the absorption
of light
- Allows efficient transport of
photosynthetic products within the
chloroplasts
 The Process of Photosynthesis

A. Photochemical reactions [Thylakoid membrane of chloroplast]

- Light-dependent stage/Light reactions (as they require light)
- These reactions take place on the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast where chlorophyll is present

○1 Absorption of light
- When a chlorophyll molecule absorbs light energy, the energy is passed to an electron which is raised to
higher energy levels
- The excited electron is emitted from the chlorophyll
- The electron enters the electron transport chain (which is made up of a series of electron carriers of
decreasing energy levels in thylakoid membrane)

○2 Photophosphorylation
- Energy released by the electrons is used to make ATP (adenosine triphosphate) by phosphorylation (adding a
phosphate to ADP)

○3 Photolysis of water
- Some energy released by electrons is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen
- Hydrogen is taken up by hydrogen acceptor called NADP to form NADPH
- Oxygen, a by-product, is released as a gas to atmosphere
B. Carbon fixation [Stroma]
- Also called dark reactions (as it does not require light)
- Calvin Cycle requires ATP and NADPH from the photochemical reactions and it would stop soon if light is not
available

○1 Carbon fixation
- Carbon dioxide combines with 5-C compound to form an unstable 6-C compound, which immediately splits
into two 3-C compounds.

○
2 Reduction of 3-C compound to triose phosphate
- ATP and NADPH produced from photochemical reactions is used to reduce 3-C compound into triose
phosphate, a 3-C sugar
- ADP and NADP is regenerated and reused in photochemical reactions

○3 Formation of glucose or Regeneration of CO2 acceptor

- For each 6 molecules of CO2 are input, 12 triose phosphate (3-C) are formed
- 2 molecules of triose phosphate combine to make 1 molecule of glucose (6-C)

- 10 remaining molecules of triose phosphate are used to regenerate 5-C CO2 acceptors by using ATP, so that
the cycle can be repeated
 The Conversion of Photosynthetic Products

A. Synthesis of carbohydrates
- Triose phosphate are synthesised into glucose, which is the main source of energy for plant cells
- If glucose is not used immediately for metabolism, it is converted to starch for temporary storage in leaf cells
o Advantages:
o 1 It has compact structure, it allows packing more food in less space
o 2 It is insoluble in water, hence it will not affect the water potential of cells

- For transport, glucose is converted to sucrose which is transported by phloem, or other parts of plants, e.g.
roots or storage organs such as stem tuber
- It may be broken down into glucose for respiration, or converted back to starch for storage

- Glucose is also used to synthesise cellulose to build up cell walls.

B. Synthesis of lipids
- Plants can use intermediates of photosynthesis to synthesise glycerol and fatty acids, which then combine to
form lipids

Function
- Lipids are stored as food reserves in some plants
- Also it is used as component of cell membrane (phospholipids)

C. Synthesis of proteins
- The intermediates of photosynthesis, together with inorganic ions (e.g. nitrates and sulphates), are used to
form amino acids

Function
- Amino is the building block of proteins, which are essential for growth and repair
- Protein is also components of cytoplasm and cell membrane
- It is also used to make enzymes
 Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity

- In the dark, no photosynthesis takes place

- Initially, the rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing

light intensities. This is because more energy is supplied to the
photochemical reactions

- The rate of photosynthesis levels off when it reaches a

saturation point. Further increase in the light intensity no
longer increases rate of photosynthesis. This is because some
other factors (e.g. CO2 concentration or temperature)
becomes limiting factors. The light intensity at saturation
point is the optimum light intensity.

Carbon dioxide concentration

-
- The percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is
around 0.03% to 0.04%

- Under normal conditions, CO2 concentration is a major

limiting factor of rate of photosynthesis

- If CO2 concentration increases, the rate of

photosynthesis will level off at a higher rate

Temperature
-
- In general, a higher temperature leads to a higher metabolic
rate, hence a higher rate of photosynthesis

- However, if temperature exceeds a certain level, enzymes

involved in photosynthesis may be denatured and the rate of
photosynthesis will decrease
-
Ch 23 Respiration

Basic concept of respiration

- Respiration (or cellular respiration) is the process of controlled oxidative breakdown of food substances by
living cells to release energy
- Energy is needed for metabolism

Burning of food
- A one-step process that release all the energy at once
- If this occurs in living cells, the cells would be killed by the high temperature

- When a piece of food is burned, it reacts with oxygen (i.e. being oxidised)
- Food is broken down, forming carbon dioxide and water
- Chemical energy stored in food is released in the form of heat and light

Respiration of food
- A gradual process with a series of enzyme-controlled reactions
- Glucose and other organic food substances are broken down to release energy, some of which are used to
make a compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- The rest of the energy is lost as heat

Word equation:
enzymes
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
(ATP and heat)

Burning of food Respiration of food

Similarities
- Both are oxidative processes
- Oxygen is needed for burning and aerobic respiration
- Carbon dioxide and water are usually produced

Differences
- A one-step process
- Takes place anywhere, with the
presence of fuel (food), oxygen and a
high temperature
- Does not involve enzymes
- All the energy is released rapidly
- Energy is released in forms of light
and heat
- A series of reactions
- Takes place in living cells
- Controlled by enzymes
- Energy is released gradually
- Some of the energy released is
used to make ATP, while rest is lost
as heat

Role of ATP
- ATP is a small organic molecule made up of ○1 the nitrogenous base adenine, ○
2 ribose, and ○3 three
phosphate groups (P)
- Energy released during respiration can be used to form ATP by adding a phosphate group to ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) i.e. phosphorylation
- Phosphorylation is the process of adding phosphate to a compound
 Hydrolysis of ATP
- For release of energy, ATP can be converted to ADP and phosphate by hydrolysis
- The reaction is catalyzed by ATPase

Word equation:
ATPase
ATP ADP + P + energy

- Energy released can be used for:

- ○1 Active transport of substances across the cell membrane
- ○2 Synthesis of complex substances from simpler ones
o e.g. synthesis of polypeptides and proteins from amino acids, DNA replication
- ○3 Movement
o e.g. muscle contraction, spindle action in cell division
- ○4 Transmission of nerve impulses
- ○5 Activation of chemicals
o e.g. phosphorylation of glucose at the first stage of respiration

Conversion of ATP and ADP

- The conversion between ATP and ADP is a reversible reaction
- Energy released from energy-yielding reactions (e.g. respiration) is used to make ATP from ADP by
phosphorylation
- ATP acts as an energy carrier
- ATP is broken down to ADP by hydrolysis to release energy for cellular activities that require energy
 Types of Respiration
A. Aerobic respiration
- Aerobic respiration is respiration that uses oxygen
- Most organisms respire aerobically
- Glucose is ○1 completely broken down to ○ 2 release a large amount of energy
- ○ 3 Carbon dioxide and water are formed

B. Anaerobic respiration
- Anaerobic respiration is respiration that does not need oxygen
- Glucose is only ○1 partially broken down and a ○ 2 relatively small amount of energy is produced
- ○
3 In lactic acid fermentation, lactic acid is formed
- ○
3 In alcoholic fermentation, ethanol and carbon dioxide are formed

Sites of Respiration
- Both aerobic and anaerobic respirations start in cytoplasm where specific enzymes are present
- If oxygen is available, the remaining reactions take pace in mitochondria
- In fact, mitochondrion is the main site of ATP production during aerobic respiration

- Mitochondria are particularly abundant in metabolically active cells such as muscle cells, liver cells and sperm
cells

Structure of Mitochondrion
- The mitochondrion consists of a smooth outer membrane and highly-folded inner membrane

- The outer membrane of mitochondrion is differentially permeable

- It controls the entry and exit of substances

- The highly-folded inner membrane gives rise to a large number of finger-like projections (called cristae)
- They provide a large surface area for attachment of enzymes and carriers involved in aerobic respiration

- The fluid-filled space enclosed by the inner membrane is called matrix

- It contains enzymes that catalyse reactions of aerobic respiration

Structure Adaptation for respiration

Smooth outer membrane
Highly folded inner membrane
- Differentially permeable
- It controls the entry and exit of substances
- Give rise to a large number of finger-like projections
(cristae)
- They provide a large surface area for attachment of
enzymes and carriers involved in aerobic respiration

Matrix - Contains enzymes for aerobic respiration

A. Aerobic Respiration

Net amount of
Site of Requirement
Stage Reactions involved ATP formed per
occurrence of oxygen
glucose molecule
Glycolysis Cytoplasm
• Glucose is broken down into two
triose phosphate molecules; energy
from ATP is used to activate glucose
No 2
• Triose phosphate loses hydrogen and
is oxidised to pyruvate
• NADH and ATP are formed
Link reaction Matrix
• Pyruvate is decarboxylated,
(Conversion of
dehydrogenated and combined with
pyruvate to Yes 0
coenzyme A to give acetyl-CoA
acetyl-CoA)
• Carbon dioxide and NADH are formed
Krebs cycle Matrix • Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-C
compound to give a 6-C compound
• The 6-C compound goes through a
Yes series of reactions to regenerate the 2
4-C compound
• Carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH and ATP
are formed
Oxidative Inner • NADH and FADH lose hydrogen and
phosphorylation membrane of are oxidised to regenerate NAD and
mitochondrion FAD
• Hydrogen atoms from NADH and
FADH split into hydrogen ions and
electrons; electrons pass along the
Yes 34
electron transport chain, releasing
energy to form ATP (oxidative
phosphorylation)
• Electrons and hydrogen ions are
finally accepted by oxygen to form
water
Total 38
1 Glucose = Direct ATP + ATP from NADH & FADH
= 2 + 1x2 + 10 NADH + 2 FADH
= 2 + 2 + 10x3 + 2x2
= 2 + 2 + 30 + 4
= 38 ATP
 ________________________________________________________________________________________
○1 Glycolysis
- 1 Breakdown of Glucose to Triose Phosphate
o Two ATP molecules are used to phosphorylate a glucose molecule → This activates glucose molecule
(This raises energy level of glucose to make subsequent reactions easier)
o Glucose is broken down into two triose phosphate (3-C) molecules

- 2 Oxidation of triose Phosphate to Pyruvate

o Two triose phosphate is oxidized to two pyruvates (3-C) by losing hydrogen
o The hydrogen is accepted by hydrogen acceptor NAD to form NADH
o Two ATP molecules are also formed by the energy released by oxidation of each triose phosphate

o Overall: 2 ATP and 2 NADH is formed by one glucose molecule

▪ Pyruvates are formed

▪ Pyruvate still contain a substantial amount of energy
▪ If oxygen is available, more energy can be released by entering link reaction to undergo
aerobic respiration

○
2 Link reaction (Conversion from pyruvate to acetyl-CoA)
- 1 Active transport
o In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is transported by active transport from cytoplasm, through the
outer and inner membrane of mitochondrion, into matrix of mitochondrion

- 2 Decarboxylation
o Carbon is removed as carbon dioxide

- 3 Dehydrogenation
o The remaining 2-C compound is dehydrogenated and combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA
(2-C) → Hydrogen removed is accepted by NAD to form NADH

o Overall (For each pyruvate): 1 NADH 1 CO2

○
3 Krebs cycle
- 1 Combination of Acetyl-CoA with 4-C compound
o Acetyl-CoA transfer its acetyl group to a 4-C compound, forming a 6-C compound
→ Coenzyme A is regenerated and reused in link reaction to carry another acetyl group

- 2 Regeneration of 4-C compound

o 6-C compound undergoes decarboxylation and dehydrogenation
▪ Two carbon atoms are removed and released as carbon dioxide
▪ Hydrogen is accepted by hydrogen acceptors NAD and FAD to form NADH and FADH
▪ One ATP molecule is produced directly
o The 4-C compound is regenerated at the end of the cycle

o Overall (For acetyl-CoA): 1 ATP 3 NADH

1 FADH
2 CO2
 ○
4 Oxidative phosphorylation
- 1 Regeneration of NAD and FAD
o Hydrogen carriers NADH and FADH release their hydrogen and are oxidized to NAD and FAD
(This regenerates NAD and FAD to accept hydrogen in glycolysis and Krebs cycle)
o Hydrogen released split into hydrogen ion (H+) and electron (e-) → Hydrogen ions remain in the
mitochondrial matrix while electrons enter the electron transport chain (made up of a series of
electron carriers) in the inner membrane of mitochondrion
o Finally the hydrogen ion and electrons are accepted by oxygen to form water

- 2 Formation of ATP
o As electrons pass from a carrier at a higher energy level to a lower one, energy is released to form
ATP
→ Three ATP can be produced from each NADH and two ATP can be produced from FADH

o Overall: 1 NADH → 3 ATP

1 FADH → 2 ATP

________________________________________________________________________________________

Investigation into Aerobic Respiration

- Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a by-product of aerobic respiration
- It is a colourless gas
- It can be tested by using lime water (Ca(OH)2) or hydrogencarbonate indicator

Lime water colour colourless milky

Presence/absence of CO2 CO2 is absent CO2 is present

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Experiments

Release of CO2 by a living mouse

Flask A: Potassium hydroxide solution Absorb CO2

Flask B: lime water Test for CO2 → Remains clear: confirm no CO2 in air entering bell jar

Test for CO2 → Turns milky: shows the presence of CO2 and it is
Flask C: lime water
produced by respiration

Release of CO2 by germinating seeds

Disinfectant:
Kills microorganisms in the seeds,
ensures that changes in
concentration is due to respiration
of germinating seeds

Hydrogencarbonate indicator in tube A turns yellow. It shows that germinating seeds release CO2.

Hydrogencarbonate indicator in tube B remains red. It acts as a control of the experiment, showing that colour
change in tube A is due to presence of germinating seeds.
Investigation of heat production in living mouse

- Before the experiment starts, the clips are opened to equalise air pressure on both sides of U-shaped
capillary tube
- Cotton wool around the container acts as insulator to prevent heat loss

- After the experiment, liquid level in arm A rises and liquid level in arm B falls
- This is because the mouse releases heat which warms up the air in test tube above. The air inside the tube
expands, hence the air pressure inside increases, pressing the coloured liquid in arm B downwards.
B. Anaerobic Respiration
- The breakdown of food to release energy without using oxygen
- In human, some cells (e.g. muscles cells) are able to respire anaerobically for a short period when oxygen
supply is not fast enough to sustain high metabolic activities
- Some other organisms (e.g. yeast) can survive on anaerobic respiration when oxygen supply is low

- Without oxygen, glycolysis can still occur, but link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation are
stopped
- Pyruvate at the end of glycolysis start anaerobic respiration and all reactions take place in cytoplasm

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation (Formation of Lactic Acid in Skeletal Muscles)

- Like usual, 2 NADH are produced in glycolysis but in lactic acid fermentation, due to the lack of oxygen, there
is no oxygen to accept hydrogen ion and electron in oxidative phosphorylation, causing a shortage of NAD
and FAD
- Thus pyruvate cannot enter link reaction

- Process:
- After glycolysis, NADH reduces pyruvate to lactic acid (3-C)
- NAD is regenerated and allows glycolysis to continue under anaerobic condition (No O2)

glucose 2 lactic acid + energy (2ATP)

- It produces 2 ATP (net) (for each glucose)

o Much of the energy remains locked in lactic acid
o The benefit is that lactic acid fermentation supply energy quickly because it is simple and do not
depend on oxygen

During exercise
- Most of the time, muscle can obtain required energy for contraction by aerobic respiration
- However, during vigorous exercise, oxygen may not be supplied fast enough for aerobic respiration to meet
energy demand
- Muscle cells can use aerobic and anaerobic respiration [lactic acid fermentation] at the same time
- This provides additional energy in a very short time for fast and powerful muscle contraction

After exercise
- Lactic acid is toxic and must be removed
- It is transported in blood to the liver and converted back to pyruvate

- When oxygen is available again, some pyruvate enters Krebs cycle and is oxidised to carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) to release more energy
- The remaining pyruvate are converted to glycogen and stored in liver
- The extra amount of oxygen required to remove all lactic acid from anaerobic respiration is called oxygen
debt
2. Alcoholic Fermentation (Formation of Ethanol and Carbon Dioxide in Yeast)
- Like muscle cell, yeast can undergo aerobic respiration when oxygen is present
- Certain plant tissues (e.g. root) and germinating seeds may temporarily do alcoholic fermentation when
oxygen is absent

- Process:
- Without oxygen, after glycolysis, pyruvate is decarboxylated (carbon dioxide is removed) and reduced to
ethanol (2-C)
- NAD is regenerated

glucose 2 ethanol + 2 carbon dioxide + energy (2ATP)

- Alcoholic fermentation produces only 2 ATP molecules for each glucose

- Ethanol is a waste product and still contains a lot of energy
 Applications of Anaerobic Respiration

1. Brewing beer and wine [Alcoholic fermentation]

- Beer: Beer is made by fermenting the sugars extracted from malted barley [maltose]
- The yeast undergoes anaerobic respiration, breaking down sugars into ethanol

- Wine: Wine is made by fermenting sugars in grape juice by yeast

2. Bread-making [Alcoholic Fermentation]

- Yeast is mixed into the dough 麵團, it ferments the sugars and produce carbon dioxide
- Carbon dioxide helps to raise the dough
- The dough is then baked in oven and forms light spongy bread
- Alcohol produced during alcoholic fermentation evaporates during baking

3. Production of yoghurt and cheese [Lactic Acid Fermentation]

- Yoghurt: Lactic acid bacteria ferment sugars in milk [lactose] and produce lactic acid which gives the sour
taste of yoghurt
- Cheese: Lactic acid formed helps coagulate milk to form cheese

Type of anaerobic
Occurrence in organisms Reactions involved
respiration
Lactic acid Skeletal muscle and certain bacteria
• Glucose undergoes glycolysis and is oxidised to
fermentation
pyruvate; NADH and ATP are formed
• Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid by NADH
Alcoholic fermentation Yeast and germinating seeds • Glucose undergoes glycolysis and is oxidised to
pyruvate; NADH and ATP are formed
• Pyruvate is reduced to ethanol by NADH; carbon
dioxide is released

Similarities between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respirations

- Both are oxidative process of breaking down organic substances to release energy
- Some of the energy released is used to form ATP, while some is lost as heat
- Some processes involve a number of enzymatic reactions
- Both processes begin with glycolysis

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Occurrence • In cytoplasm and mitochondria of • Only in cytoplasm
most living cells • In micro-organisms (e.g. yeast and
certain bacteria), some plants
tissue (e.g. root) and skeletal
muscle cells
Oxygen supply • Required • Not required
Breakdown of organic food substances • Complete • Incomplete
End products • Carbon dioxide and water • Lactic acid in lactic acid
fermentation; ethanol and carbon
dioxide in alcoholic fermentation
Energy yield
• Larger (38 ATP per glucose • Smaller (2 ATP per glucose
molecule oxidised) molecule oxidised)
 Relationship between Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis

- Raw materials: &

- Products: &

Respiration (Aerobic)

- Raw materials: &

- Products: &

- The products of photosynthesis are raw materials for respiration and the products of respiration are raw
materials for photosynthesis
- The exchange of molecules between photosynthesis and respiration allows recycling of materials and energy
flow in ecosystem

Ecosystem
- Energy enters the ecosystem as sunlight
- During photosynthesis, light energy is
converted to chemical energy stored in glucose
and other organic compounds
- These organic compounds are in turn broken
down in respiration to release energy
- Some of the energy is used to form ATP for
cellular activities while some is lost as heat
Ch 24 Personal Health & Infectious Diseases

Infect (v.) - 感染
Infectious (adj.) – 傳染性的
[Infectious disease] (n.) – 傳染病

24.1 Meaning of Health

Health ≠ Absence of disease

According to WHO, health has three dimensions of health

- Physical well-being:
o Body functions properly and is free from disease and injury
- Mental well-being
o The person feels positive about himself/herself
o He/she can cope well with stress and perform daily activities effectively
- Social well-being
o The person has good inter-personal relationships
o He/she respects others, gets along well with others and gives a helping hand to people in need

Health is affected by many factors

- E.g. heredity
- environmental factors (E.g. air and water quality)
- Lifestyle
- aging
- access to health care services and social support networks

24.2 Types of Diseases

Disease is an abnormal condition of an organism in which one or more of its body fail to function properly.
- Associated with signs and symptoms

Symptoms VS signs
- symptoms = subjective evidence perceived by patient
o E.g. Headache, muscle pain, abdominal pain
- signs = objective evidence noticed by other people
o E.g. Runny nose, rash, vomiting

Examples of signs and symptoms

- Nasal congestion
- Sneezing
- Sore throat
- Cough (with or without sputum)
- Loss of appetite
- Fever
- Fatigue
- Chills
- Shivering
- Red eyes
- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Diarrhoea
- Pain
o Headache, muscle pain, abdominal pain, joint pain
Pathogens (Disease-causing agents)
- Infectious diseases are diseases that can be transmitted from one person to another
- Non-infectious diseases are diseases that cannot be transmitted from person to person.

24.3 Causes of Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases
- caused by pathogens that invade our body and cause harm

Types of pathogens
A. Virus
1. When virus invade a cell (the host), they modify the DNA of the host cell
2. They disrupt the synthesis of the host cell’s nucleic acids and protein
3. Then take command of the host cell to produce new viruses
4. When new viruses leave the host cell, they destroy the cell membranes of host cell and causes cell death
- Characteristics
o Can only multiply within living cells
- Examples
o Common cold
o Influenza 流感 (= Flu)
o AIDS 愛滋病 (caused by HIV)
o SARS
o Dengue fever
o Measles
o Chickenpox

*AIDS = Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

*HIV = Human immunodeficiency virus
*SARS = Severe acute respiratory syndrome

B. Bacteria
- *Produce enzymes and toxins → Damage tissues of the host or disrupt normal functioning of cell
- For example, the bacterium that causes cholera produces toxins that irritate the intestines. It causes signs
and symptoms such as diarrhoea
- Examples
o Cholera 霍亂
o Bacterial pneumonia
o Tuberculosis
o Typhoid

C. Protists 原生生物
- Live inside a host
- Examples
o Malaria 瘧疾
▪ The protozoan Plasmodium invade and reproduce in the liver, then in red blood cells
▪ The infected cells finally burst and the parasites escape to infect other cells
▪ Also Plasmodium release toxins to cause symptoms such as shivering & sweating
o Amoebic dysentery
▪ Entamoeba histolytica invade intestines and cause diarrhoea, abdominal pain
 D. Fungi 真菌
- Grow outside of the human body, such as on or in the skin, nails, hair
- Produce enzymes or toxins that damage tissues of host
- Examples
o Athlete’s foot

24.4 Ways of Transmission of Infectious Diseases

A. By Air & Droplets

- Air-borne and carried by dust particles
- The small particles can 1) suspend in the air for a long time and 2) dispersed over a long distance
- When an infected person speaks, sneezes or coughs, tiny droplets of saliva and mucus and expelled through
the mouth and nose
- When breathed in, these pathogens invade our mucous membranes of eyes, mouth or respiratory tract (e.g.
nose), to enter our body
- For example
o Common cold, influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis, measles

- To control spread of air-borne diseases,

o Cover our months and nose with tissues paper or a handkerchief when we sneeze or cough
o Cleans our hands with liquid soap or disinfectants after sneezing and coughing
o Maintain good ventilation indoors
o Wear a surgical mask if infected or when in close contact with infected people
o Avoid crowded and poorly ventilated public spaces

B. By Water & Food

- If water and food are not handled properly, they will be contaminated by pathogens
o Water and food can be contaminated if:
o Faeces containing pathogen are discharged directly into drinking water sources without proper
sewage treatment
o People handle food with unclean hands, especially after going to the toilet
o Pests, e.g. houseflies and cockroaches, may carry pathogens and contaminate water or food
- When we ingest the contaminated water/food, diseases are caused

- Examples
o Cholera, gastroenteritis, food poisoning, amoebic dysentery, hepatitis A

- Precautions
o Proper disposal of faeces
o Treat sewage properly
o Avoid drinking untreated water (e.g. water from rivers, streams)
o Wash hands after going to toilet and before handling food
o Cook food and boil drinking water before consumption
o Refrigerate food at the right temperature (below 4oC)

C. By Direct Contact
- Infected by:
o Touching an infected person
o Share personal items (e.g. towels and combs) with an infected person
o Touch surfaces on which pathogen exist
o Touch our eyes or nose with contaminated hand
- For example
o Chickenpox, athlete’s foot, herpes & hand, foot and mouth disease
 - To avoid these diseases
o Avoid direct physical contact with infected people
o Frequently clean and disinfect surfaces in public areas, such as door handles, handrail
o Be aware of hygiene of our hands
o Wash hands after visiting infected people

D. By Body Fluid
- Body fluid, e.g. blood, semen, vaginal secretion

1. By Blood: Blood of an infected person may get into another person by

o Wounds
o Sharing of syringes, needle, toothbrushes, razor
o Blood transfusion
o From mother to infant during birth
- Blood-borne disease examples
o Hepatitis B
o HIV infection

2. By semen, vaginal secretion

o During sexual intercourse (when semen and vaginal secretions are exchanged between an infected
person and a non-infected person)
- Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
o Gonorrhoea, genital herpes, syphilis, HIV infection (or AIDS)

- Preventive measures
o Wear gloves when handling wounds and body fluid
o Avoid sharing syringe, needles, toothbrushes, razors and other objects that may be contaminated
with blood
o Screen blood before transfusion
o Practise safe sex and wear a condom during sexual contact

3. By Vectors
- Vector = an organism that carries pathogens from one host to another
- E.g. Houseflies, mosquitoes, fleas
o Houseflies → pick up bacteria from contaminated food/water to uncontaminated ones → cause
cholera
o Flea → pick up bacteria of plague → bite human
o Mosquitoes → bites and sucks blood from an infected person → bites another person → malaria,
dengue fever, Japanese Encephalitis

- Precautions
o Store food properly in covered containers (do not leave food unattended)
o Eliminate nesting places for rats and other pests
o Spray pesticides around mosquito’s habitats to kill adult mosquitoes and their larvae
o Clear stagnant water to eliminate breeding places for mosquitoes
o Wear long-sleeved clothing and apply insect repellent to exposed parts of the skin
o Do not travel places where vector-borne diseases are common

24.5 Treatments for Infectious Diseases

A. Antibiotics 抗生素
- Antibiotics are chemicals naturally produced by microorganisms to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria
- Used to treat infectious disease caused by bacteria
- First known antibiotics is penicillin
- Actions of antibiotics
o Inhibit cell wall synthesis
▪ Without a cell wall, water enters the bacterial cell by osmosis, making the cell swell and
eventually burst
o Inhibit replication of nucleic acids or protein synthesis
▪ The bacteria cannot grow and reproduce
o Destroy bacterial cell membrane
▪ The cell contents leak out and the cell dies

- Indiscriminate use of antibiotics

o Antibiotics have been renowned as ‘wonder drug’ and used extensively in past decades
o Speeds up the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
o Disease caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria may become incurable

o Consequences
▪ Multidrug-resistant bacteria (‘superbugs’) may emerge. Diseases caused by ‘superbug’ may
be incurable and pose serious threats human health
▪ New antibiotics or other drugs are needed to replace antibiotics that are no longer effective.
More money and efforts are needed to develop new drug.
▪ Antibiotics kill both beneficial and pathogenic bacteria in human body. When beneficial
bacteria are killed, pathogenic bacteria face less competition for resources, which encourage
their growth

o Precaution when using antibiotics

▪ Doctor should prescribe antibiotics only when necessary to reduce the exposure of bacteria
to antibiotics
▪ Patient must finish the whole course of antibiotic prescription, in order to kill all pathogenic
bacteria in the body
▪ Doctor should use narrow-spectrum antibiotics that only act on the pathogenic bacteria. This
avoids killing the beneficial bacteria and cause the development of antibiotic resistance
bacteria
▪ Farmers should minimize the use of antibiotics in livestock farming.

B. Sulpha drugs
- Also called sulphonamide
- First antibacterial drugs used to treat bacterial infections in human
- Can cause allergy in some people → replaced by antibiotics
- Enzyme inhibitor
o They are structurally similar to the substrate for making folic acid
o Occupy the active sites of enzymes involved in synthesis of folic acid
o Slows down or stops production of folic acid
o As a result, bacteria cannot grow and eventually die
Ch 24 Revision Exercise

14.
Method How it works Comment
(Advantage or disadvantage)
Spraying of pesticides or larvicidal To kill adult mosquito and their One of the following (1):
oil around mosquito’s habitat larvae (1)
- Advantage: Very fast
- Disadvantage: Strong and toxic
smell. It can affect the neighbours
- Disadvantage: The mosquitoes
may develop resistances against the
pesticides

Clearance of accumulated water in a
neighbourhood
To eliminate breeding places of
mosquitoes (1)
One of the following (1):
- Advantage: Reproduction rate of
mosquito will decrease
- Disadvantage: Takes a longer time
relatively

15.
(a)
To prevent bacteria being brought by visitors into the hospital wards, so the chance of patients getting infected is
decreased (1)
To prevent visitors from bringing bacteria away from the wards into the community (1)

(b)
MRSA is resistant to multiple antibiotics (1)
After getting infected, MRSA bacteria reproduce to a huge amount (1)
They will cause damage to body tissues and interfere with metabolism (1)
Ch 25 Non-infectious Diseases and Disease Prevention

25.1 Non-infectious Diseases

Non-infectious disease = Diseases that cannot be transmitted from person to person

Risk factors
- Inborn, e.g. heredity, gender, age
- Related to behaviour & lifestyle, e.g. unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, smoking, alcohol abuse
- Related to environment, e.g. exposure to sunlight and pollution

A. Cancer

Formation of Cancer
- DNA undergoes mutations
- Results in uncontrolled and excessive cell division
- Form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumour

Male Female
1. Lung cancer 1. Lung cancer
2. Liver cancer 2. Colorectal cancer
3. Colorectal cancer 3. Breast cancer
4. Stomach cancer 4. Liver cancer
5. Prostate cancer 5. Stomach cancer

Types of Tumour 腫瘤
1. Benign tumour
- Surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue
- Remain at the site of formation
- Do NOT invade or spread to other parts of body

2. Malignant tumour
- Can spread to other parts of body (metastasis), through bloodstream or lymphatic system
- Invade other tissues to form new malignant tumours

Benign tumour Malignant tumour

Mutation of DNA causes cells to divide uncontrollably and excessively
Similarity
(Cause of tumour)

Localized or Surrounded by a capsule of Do not have a surrounding capsule

not connective tissue
Difference Metastasis Do not invade or spread to other Invade and spread to other parts of
parts of the body the body, by bloodstream or
lymphatic system

Risk factors of Cancer

- Exposure of carcinogen (agents that induce chances in DNA and make cells cancerous)
- Include radiation, certain chemicals and pathogens
1. Unhealthy diet
- Diet high in fats and low in dietary fibre increases chance of developing colorectal cancer
- Consuming foods containing carcinogens increases the risk of developing nasopharyngeal cancer, stomach
cancer, and colon cancer
o These foods include
o salted fish
o foods preserved with nitrites, e.g. bacon, sausages, ham
o charred or burned meats
o deep-fried food, e.g. fried potatoes

2. Tobacco and Alcohol use

- Smoking is the main cause of lung cancer, as cigarette smoke contains many carcinogens
- Risk of lung cancer is proportional to the number of cigarettes smoked and duration of smoking
- Smokers are advised to give up smoking
- Smoking also increases risk of oesophageal cancer, stomach cancer and bladder cancer

- Drinking alcohol increases the risk of cancers of the mouth, oesophagus, pharynx, larynx, stomach, liver,
colon and rectum
o A carcinogen (acetaldehyde) is produced when breaking down alcohol
o Alcohol can also damage liver cells, causing cirrhosis (hardening) of liver

3. Viral or Bacterial Infection

- Certain viral and bacterial infections are linked to onset of cancer
o Infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (幽門螺旋菌) increases the chance of developing
stomach cancer
o Infection with hepatitis B virus increases the risk of developing liver cancer
o Infection with human papilloma virus (HPV) may cause cervical cancer. HPV is transmitted by sexual
intercourse, therefore having sex at an early age and having several sexual partners can increase the
risk of HPV infection.

4. Exposure in Ionising Radiation and Ultraviolet Light

Ionising radiation
- Ionising radiation, e.g. gamma rays & X-rays, is high-frequency radiation that contains high energy
- When passed through cells, ionising radiation damages the DNA in cells, leading to cancer formation or cell
death

- Cells of the thyroid gland and bone marrow cancer are particularly sensitive to radiation
- Leukemia (leukaemia), a type of cancer that arises in the bone marrow, is the commonest radiation-induced
cancer
o Large amount of abnormal white blood cells is produced → Loss of immunity against pathogens
(Easy infection)
o Reduced production of red blood cells → Anemia and fatigue

Ultraviolet light
- Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light is a major risk factor for skin cancer
o Excessive exposure to strong sunlight
o People living in regions with year-round, bright sunlight
- People with lighter skin colour are also easier to have skin cancer
- People are advised to put on sunscreen to protect against UV light and sunburn

- UV light contains lower energy than ionising radiation but can still damage the DNA of skin cells
5. Exposure to Carcinogenic chemicals
- Exposure to carcinogenic chemicals, e.g. asbestos, benzene, formaldehyde, diesel exhaust, can cause cancer

6. Heredity
- Certain cancers tend to develop more often in some families than others (Linked to heredity)
- Including cancers of the breast, ovary, prostate and colon

- Mutated genes called oncogenes have the potential to cause cancer

- Offspring who have inherited these oncogenes have a higher risk of developing cancer

7. Old Age
- Single mutation in DNA rarely cause cancer
- Cancer develops when mutation accumulate to a certain level
- As we grow old, we may be exposed repeatedly to carcinogens. Therefore, the risk of cancer gradually
increases with age

Treatments of cancer
1. Surgery
- If a tumour is localised and not yet spread, surgical removal of the whole tumour is an effective method

2. Chemotherapy
- Anti-cancer drugs are used to slow down the rapid division of cancer cells/ to kill cancer cells
- The drugs also kill normal cells, such as hair cells, blood cells, cells lining the mouth → severe side effects:
hair loss, mouth infection
- Giving the anti-cancer drugs in cycle can help relieve the side effects
o Each cycle is followed by a rest period (drug-free period) to allow normal tissues to recover

3. Radiotherapy
- High-energy radiation, such as X-rays and gamma rays, is used to kill cancer cells
B. Cardiovascular Diseases 心血管疾病

Formation of cardiovascular diseases

- Atherosclerosis
o ○ 1 Cholesterol in blood deposits on the inner wall of an artery
o ○ 2 Plaque slowly builds up. Lumen of artery becomes narrower and arterial wall becomes harder
o ○ 3 blood clot is formed on the surface of plaque, further reducing the blood flow through the artery

- In serious cases, the artery may be completely blocked

Cardiovascular Diseases
1. Coronary heart disease 冠心病

- When atherosclerosis develops in one or more of the coronary arteries, coronary heart disease occurs
- Coronary arteries are narrowed or blocked, reducing blood flow to cardiac muscles

- As coronary arteries supply oxygen and nutrients to cardiac muscles, oxygen and nutrients supply to cardiac
muscles becomes inadequate

- Cardiac muscles around the blocked artery may die

(A severe case is called heart attack 心臟病發) Heart attack causes:
o Severe chest pain
o Irregular heartbeat or the heart may stop completely
o Death

2. Stroke 中風
- If an artery is brain is blocked or it bursts, it is a stroke
- Then the blood supply to that part of the brain is reduced and brain cells may die due to insufficient oxygen
supply
- It damages the brain
- Symptoms: Paralysis, difficulty in speech and death (in serious cases)
 Risk Factor of Cardiovascular Diseases
1. Unhealthy diet
- A diet high in saturated fats and cholesterol raises the blood cholesterol level
- It leads to a higher risk of plaque formation in arteries and promotes atherosclerosis

2. Physical Inactivity
- Exercise is an effective means to control body weight and prevent obesity

- Being overweight or obese increases the burden of the heart

- Being overweight or obese also increases the risk of hypertension, high blood cholesterol level and high blood
glucose level (→ These factors can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases)

3. Smoking
- Nicotine in cigarette smoke causes blood vessels to constrict and stimulates heart rate to increase
- This leads to an increase in blood pressure
- It also increases the stickiness of blood platelets and the chance of forming blood clots in blood vessels

- Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood and thus reduces the
amount of oxygen supplied to cardiac muscles
- This increases the workload of the heart
- Leading to a higher risk of heart attack and other cardiovascular diseases

4. Heredity
- People with family members who have suffered from cardiovascular diseases have a higher risk of
developing cardiovascular diseases

5. Ageing
- The build-up of plaques in arteries is a continuous process
- As we get older, the sizes of plaques in the arteries gets larger

- It is estimated that over 80% of people who die of coronary heart disease are older than 60 years old
- The risk of stroke doubles every decade after age 55.

6. Gender
- Men have greater risk of heart diseases than pre-menopausal women
- Before menopause, ovaries produce the female sex hormone oestrogen.
- It helps prevent cholesterol from building up on the arterial wall, reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.

- However, once after menopause, a woman’s risk is similar to a man’s.

 Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases
1. Balloon angioplasty 通波仔
- ○ 1 A small inflatable balloon device is inserted into the blocked region of the artery
- ○ 2 It is inflated to re-open the lumen of the blocked area. The balloon crushes the plaque deposited on the
artery wall, clearing the blockage for improved blood flow
- ○ 3 The balloon is deflated and withdrawn. A wire mesh tube called a stent may be inserted to ensure the
vessel stays open

2. Coronary bypass surgery 搭橋

- ○1 A piece of a vein or an artery from another part of the body (usually the leg) is grafted to connect the
aorta around a blocked coronary artery
o The graft bypasses the blocked section of the coronary artery. It creates a new path (‘the bypass’) for
blood to flow to cardiac muscle

C. Diabetes Mellitus
- Diabetes mellitus (or diabetes) is a chronic disease characterised by abnormally high blood glucose level
- Other symptoms: Frequent urination, excessive thirst and feelings of fatigue and hunger
- Over time, high blood glucose levels may damage nerves and blood vessels, resulting in complications that
affect the kidneys, heart, brain, eyes, hands and feet

Forms of diabetes
1. Insulin-dependent diabetes (Type I Diabetes)
- Pancreas produces little or no insulin because the insulin-producing cells (β cells) in the pancreas are
destroyed
- Due to insulin deficiency, the liver cells cannot take up enough glucose from the blood
2. Non-insulin-dependent diabetes (Type II Diabetes)
- Pancreas can produce sufficient amount of insulin, but the target cells (e.g. liver cells and muscle cells) do
not respond to insulin
- Due to insulin resistance, the blood glucose level remains high even though the body has increased the
release of insulin into blood

Risk factors
For insulin-dependent diabetes:
- Insulin-dependent diabetes is usually related to hereditary factors or disorders of the immune system
- The immune system mistakes the body’s own cells as foreign substance and destroys the insulin-producing
cells in the pancreas
- This form of diabetes usually occurs in childhood or adolescence

For non-insulin-dependent diabetes:

- Obesity and unhealthy lifestyles such as over-eating and lack of exercise are the major risk factors for non-
insulin-dependent diabetes
- This form of diabetes usually occurs later in life

Control of Diabetes
- There is still no cure for diabetes. We can only control diabetes and prevent it from becoming worse
- ○1 Diabetic patients must monitor their blood glucose level regularly
- As the causes for the two forms of diabetes are different, they are controlled by different methods

- For insulin-dependent diabetes:

- The blood glucose level is controlled by ○
2 regular injection of insulin or ○
3 regular inhalation of insulin
through the nasal cavity

- From non-insulin-dependent diabetes:

- The blood glucose level is controlled by ○
2 restricting the dietary carbohydrate intake, ○
3 weight
management and ○ 4 regular exercise

Insulin-dependent diabetes Non-insulin-dependent diabetes

Causes Insulin-producing cells in the pancreas Target cells (e.g. liver cells and
are destroyed by the immune system muscle cells) do not respond to
insulin
Production of insulin Little or no insulin is produced Sufficient amount of insulin can be
produced
Risk factors - Hereditary factors - Obesity
- Unhealthy lifestyle, such as over-
eating and lack of exercise
Occurrence Unusually childhood or adolescence Usually later in life
Control methods ○
1 Monitor blood glucose level regularly
○
2 Regular insulin injection, or ○
2 Restricting carbohydrates intake
○
3 Regular insulin inhalation through ○
3 Weight management
nasal cavity ○
4 Regular exercise
25.2 Prevention of Diseases

- With scientific advances, scientists understand the mechanisms of disease better and can develop more
effective ways to prevent diseases

- However, prevention of disease is becoming more and more difficult

- Globalisation allows people to travel across the world frequently and hence increases the speed and
geographic scale of the transmission of infectious disease, e.g. Ebola virus disease and Middle East
Respiratory Syndrome
- People may catch an infectious disease during travel and do not show any symptoms after they returned
home

In developed countries
- Stressful lifestyle and unhealthy eating habits are linked to the incidence of cancers, cardiovascular diseases
and diabetes

In developing countries
- Poverty and poor hygiene are the major causes for many nutrient-deficiency diseases and infectious diseases

A. Vaccination and Immunisation Programme

- Vaccination is the process of introducing a vaccine into the body
- A vaccine is a dose of a weakened pathogen, killed pathogen or its components
- It can induce immunity against the pathogen so that the person is protected from catching the disease

- The first vaccine was made to prevent smallpox 天花

In Hong Kong
- The Department of Health implements a comprehensive immunisation programme provided for all children
from birth to primary 6

Vaccines include:

B.C.G. Vaccine → Prevent tuberculosis

Hepatitis B Vaccine
MMR vaccine (Measles, Mumps & Rubella)
DTaP-IPV vaccine (Diphtheria, tetanus, acellular Pertussis and poliomyelitis)

Remarks:
MMR = Measles 麻疹, Mumps 腮腺炎 and Rubella 德國麻疹
DTaP-IPV = Diphtheria 白喉, tetanus 破傷風, acellular Pertussis 百日咳 and poliomyelitis 小兒麻痺)

B. Healthy Lifestyle

Dos Don’ts

✓ Have a balanced diet  Smoke, abuse alcohol or drugs

✓ Exercise regularly
✓ Have enough sleep and rest
✓ maintain good personal hygiene
✓ Have regular body check-ups
✓ Use condoms during sexual intercourse
 have over-exposure to direct sunlight
 Have exposure to ionising radiations
 Have multiple sexual partners
 Share personal items such as
toothbrushes
 Slimming drugs
- Inhibit central nervous system to inhibit their appetite
- Once they stop having the slimming drugs, their appetite will come back and gain
weight back quickly again

C. Community Health
- Community health awareness by the general public has increased since the outbreaks of various infectious
diseases (e.g. SARS, avian flu 禽流感, swine flu 豬流感)

1. Provision of medical services

- Provides various medical services, such as out-patient clinics, specialist clinics and hospitals

2. Promoting health education

- Promotes health education in schools and through the mass media to educate the public about the
prevention and control methods against diseases

3. Infectious diseases surveillance

- Monitors the local prevalence of diseases
- Carries out timely intervention measures to control the spread of diseases
- Warns the public of any possible health risks

4. Promoting screening programmes

- Encourage the public to take screening tests regularly for the early detection of diseases
- Many diseases are curable if they are detected at an early stage

5. Monitoring water and food safety

- The Water Supplies Department provides clean drinking water
- The Food and Environmental Hygiene Department monitors food safety

6. Maintaining environmental hygiene

- Provides cleansing services to keep the city clean, e.g. street sweeping, street washing and waste collection
Ch 26 Body Defence Mechanism

The Importance of Body Defence

- Body defence prevent pathogens from entering our body and destroy pathogens that have entered our body

- Defence mechanisms of the human body can be grouped into two types according to their specificity of
action:

○
1 Non-specific defence mechanisms
- Act against all types of invading substances, including both pathogens and non-pathogenic substances

○
2 Specific defence mechanisms
- Act against specific pathogens

Non-Specific Defence Mechanisms

- Non-specific defence mechanisms are inborn and provide general, non-selective protection against any
foreign substances

First Line of Defence

○A Physical Barrier
○B Chemical Barrier
- To prevent pathogens from entering our body

Second Line of Defence

○C Blood clotting
○D Phagocytosis
○E Inflammatory response
- They are activated to immobilise and destroy pathogens

Last line of Defence

Immune response [Humoral response & Cell-mediated response]

A. Physical Barrier
- Our body surface and the respiratory tract are common sites to be invaded by pathogens as they are
constantly in contact with external environment
- These body parts are covered by skin and mucous membranes, which are effective barriers to pathogens

○1 Skin
- The outer layer of the skin is epidermis which consists of several layers of cells

Action
- The outermost layer of epidermis consists of dead cornified cells
- It is waterproof and impermeable to pathogens
 ○2 Mucus and cilia
- When we breathe, pathogens in the air may enter the body through the respiratory tract
- There are special structures in the respiratory tract to prevent infections

Action
- Hairs in nostrils can filter large dust particles

- Respiratory tract is lined with ciliated epithelium consisting of mucus-secreting cells and ciliated cells
- Epithelial cells are closely packed to act as a physical barrier
- Mucus-secreting cells produce mucus to trap pathogens and dust particles in inhaled air
- The mucus and trapped pathogens are swept towards the throat by the beating action of cilia
- The mucus is then swallowed or coughed out as sputum 痰

B. Chemical Barrier
- Chemical barriers are chemical secretions produced by the human body to kill or inhibit the growth of
pathogens
- They include:

○1 Sebum 皮脂
- Sebum is an oily secretion secreted by sebaceous glands of the skin
- It contains chemicals that kill certain pathogens

○2 Tear and Saliva 口水

- Tears are secreted by tear glands and saliva is secreted by salivary glands
- Both tear and saliva contain an enzyme called lysozyme
- This enzyme catalyses the breakdown of the cell walls of certain bacteria and kills them
- Tear also wash away the pathogens and dust particles trapped on the surface of eyes

○3 Gastric juice
- Gastric glands of the stomach wall secrete gastric juice which contains hydrochloric acid
- The acid kills most pathogens

○
4 Vaginal secretion
- Vagina produces an acidic secretion that inhibits the growth of pathogens in vagina
 C. Blood clotting
- if a blood vessel is damaged, blood leaks out and is lost through the wound

- Our body can stop the bleeding by forming a blood clot to seal the wound
- This process is called blood clotting
- It i) reduces blood loss and ii) prevents pathogens from entering our body through a wound on the skin

- Blood clotting is a complex process involving a chain of reactions that occur one by one
- The process starts when a blood vessel is damaged, the platelets are attracted to the wound
- Platelets and the injured tissues release substances into blood to convert a soluble plasma protein fibrinogen
into insoluble fibrin
- Fibrin is a thread-like protein fibre
- Fibrin forms a network to trap red blood cells, platelets and pathogens
- These trapped substances together form a blood clot
- The blood clot dries and hardens after some time and becomes a scab

Process of Blood clotting/scabbing:

○
1 When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets are attracted to the wound
○
2 Platelets and injured tissues releases substances into blood to convert soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin
○
3 Fibrin forms a network to trap red blood cell, platelets and pathogens to form a blood clot
○
4 The blood clot dries and hardens to become a scab
 D. Phagocytosis 吞噬作用
- When pathogens enter the body through a wound, white blood cells called phagocytes are attracted to the
wound and they squeeze out of capillaries
- Phagocytes engulf pathogens by phagocytosis and digest them with enzymes

E. Inflammatory Response
- Inflammation is a rapid response to tissue damage (e.g. a cut, an insect bite, burns or infection by pathogens)
- Mast cell within the damaged tissues release a chemical called histamine to initiate the inflammatory
responses

Process:

All inflammatory responses have the same typical signs: [紅腫熱痛]

- Redness – Histamine causes the arterioles near the wound to dilate (vasodilation). This increases blood flow
to the wound so that more phagocytes are brought to the wound

- Swelling – Histamine increases the permeability of capillary walls. More blood plasma and phagocytes are
forced into the wound. Tissue fluid accumulates at the wound, hence the wound becomes swollen

- Heat – The increased blood flow also brings more heat to the wound

- Pain – The swollen tissues press on and stimulate pain receptors in the skin
Specific Defence Mechanisms
- Sometimes pathogens overcome the non-specific defence mechanisms (i.e. first and second lines of defence)
- When this happens, our immune system [the last line of defence] is activated to produce immune responses
to destroy pathogens

- Antigens are substances that stimulate immune responses

- They are present on cell surfaces for recognition
- Each antigen has a specific shape
- Certain white blood cells called lymphocytes can recognise foreign antigens of pathogens, infected cells,
cancer cells, toxin etc. as invaders and initiate immune responses to destroy them

- There are two main types of lymphocytes that can produce immune responses: B cells (B lymphocytes) and T
cells (T lymphocytes)

1. B cells [Humoral Immunity]

- B cells are produced and mature 成熟 in the bone marrow
- As B cells matures, antigen receptors of special shapes are formed on its cell surface
- All the antigen receptors on a B cell are identical and fit only to a specific antigen
- There are different types of B cells that are specific to different antigens which may enter our body
- Mature B cells circulate around the body or may be stored in lymph nodes

Production → Maturation → Circulation

When B cells detect free pathogens present in body fluids (e.g. blood)
- When the antigen receptors on B cells come into contact with specific antigens, the B cells are stimulated to
multiply and differentiate into plasma cells and memory B cells

➢ Plasma cells produce specific antibodies to act against particular pathogens

➢ Memory B cells are responsible for immunological memory. When the same antigen enters the body
again, memory B cells and initiate specific immune response more quickly

(i.e. When same antigen enters body again, memory B multiply and differentiate into plasma cells to
produce antibodies rapidly)
Humoral Response

Antibodies and Their Actions

- Antibody is a Y-shaped protein molecule with two identical antigen-binding sites
- The shape of these biding sites is specific to a particular antigen only
- This allow the antibody to combine with a specific antigen to form an antigen-antibody complex
- The production and action of antibodies are highly specific
- An antigen stimulates the production of a type of antibody that combines with that antigen only

The shape of this antigen does not fit

the antigen-binding site

The shape of this antigen

matches the shape of
the antigen-binding site.

They form an antigen-

antibody complex
 Antibodies act against pathogens in the following ways:

○1 Lysis
- Antibodies can attach to antigens of pathogens and make holes in the surfaces of pathogens
- The pathogens are lysed (burst open) and killed

○2 Enhanced phagocytosis
- Antibodies bind to antigens of pathogens
- This helps phagocytes to detect pathogens more easily and hence facilitates phagocytosis

○3 Clumping of pathogens
- Some antibodies may cause pathogens to clump together
- This prevents them from multiplying or entering body cells due to their larger size

○4 Antitoxin
- Some antibodies combine with toxins secreted by pathogens and neutralise them, making them harmless
- Antibodies that can neutralise toxins are called antitoxins
2. T cells [Cell-mediated Immunity]
- T cells are produced in the bone marrow
- The immature T cell move to the thymus gland and mature there
- Similar to B cells, each T cells has receptors on its surface that fits a specific antigen
- Mature T cells then circulate around body or stored in lymph node

Production → Maturation → Circulation

- T cells recognise the antigens present of surface of infected cells and cancer cells
- They are activated when their receptors match with a specific antigen
- Activated T cells can differentiate into different types [Helper T cells, Killer T cells and Memory T cells] for
different purposes

When a helper T cell detects infected cells or cancer cells, it releases chemicals called lymphokines to activate

- ○
1 More T cells to multiply and differentiate into killer T cells and memory T cells

Killer T cells bind to antigens on the surfaces of infected cells or cancer cells and destroy them directly.

Memory T cells are responsible for immunological memory.

- ○
2 B cells to carry out their immune response
- ○
3 Phagocytes to carry out phagocytosis
 Cell-mediated Response

Primary and Secondary Response

- Why we catch certain diseases only once and never get it again?
- For instance, after recovering from chickenpox, you will never get it again
- You are immune to chickenpox since
- This is due to the specificity and memory of immune responses

1. Primary Response
- Primary response is the immune response initiated by the first exposure to an antigen

- When an antigen enters the body for the first time, only a few specific lymphocytes can recognise it
- It takes time to these lymphocytes to come into contact with the antigen and to produce antibodies
- Therefore, primary response is slow and there is a latent period of several days before the antibody
concentration in the blood begins to rise
- As lymphocytes multiply, the antibody concentration gradually rises to a peak
(This usually takes one to two weeks)

During primary response

- The person may develop disease symptoms as the immune response is not fast enough to stop the pathogen
from causing harm to the body
2. Secondary Response
After primary response
- Memory cells (Memory B cell and Memory T cell) for the particular antigen are produced and they can last for
years

When the same antigen enters the body again

- Memory cells can quickly recognise the antigen and produce a secondary response
- Memory cells multiply and differentiate quickly into a large number of plasma cells and killer T cells
- The plasma cells produce a large number of antibodies within a short time while
- Killer T cells destroy the infected cells directly

The secondary response is faster, stronger and lasts longer than primary response
- When the pathogens are killed before they can multiply and cause harm, our body is said to be immune to
the pathogen

Primary Response Secondary Response

Occurs when a antigen enters the body Occurs when the same antigen enters
Occurrence
for the first time the body again

A longer latent period A shorter latent period

Duration of latent period
(slow response) (faster response)

• Production of antibodies is slower • Production of antibodies is faster

• Amount of antibodies produced is • Amount of antibodies produced is

Response smaller larger

• Antibody concentration in blood • Antibody concentration in blood

declines quickly declines slowly
Duration of protection Lasts for a short period of time Lasts longer
 Active and Passive Immunity
- Immunity refers to the ability of the body to resist pathogens which may cause a disease
- Our body can acquire immunity through various ways

- The immunity provided by antibodies that are produced by our own body is called active immunity
- The immunity provided by antibodies that are transferred from other people or sources is called passive
immunity

1. Active Immunity
- Active immunity is acquired naturally after you have caught a disease and recovered

- Active immunity can also be acquired artificially through vaccination

- A vaccine is a dose of weakened or killed pathogens or its antigens

After vaccination
- Antigens in the vaccine stimulate primary response and memory cells for the particular antigen are produced
- On subsequent exposure to the same antigen, the memory cell can initiate secondary response quickly,
leading to the production of a large amount of antibodies and killer T cells within a short time

- As memory cells are produced, active immunity lasts for a long time
- However, active immunity takes time to develop and therefore cannot provide immediate immunity

2. Passive Immunity
- Passive immunity can be acquired naturally through the transfer of antibodies from mother’s blood to
foetus’ blood across the placenta during pregnancy
- Breast feeding can also provide passive immunity to the infant
- Breast milk contains antibodies which are transferred to infant during breast feeding

- Artificially, serum 血清 that contains a high concentration of ready made antibodies is injected into a
person’s body to provide immediate immunity
- It is often used to treat acute diseases and poisoning

- However, passive immunity is short-lived as the body does not develop memory cells
- The concentration of injected antibodies in blood will gradually fall as the antibodies are used up or broken
up
 Active Immunity Passive Immunity
Antibodies are produced by the Ready made antibodies are transferred
Production of antibodies
immune system into the body

Takes time to develop and thus does

Onset of immunity Provides immediate immunity
not provide immediate immunity

Duration of protection Lasts for a long time Short-lived

• Naturally: Recover from a disease • Naturally: From mother to
• Artificially: Vaccination foetus/infant through placenta or
How to acquire breast feeding
• Artificially: Injection of serum
Ch 27 Basic Genetics

Genetics
- Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variations in organisms

- Children look like their parents in some ways because they get their in-born characteristics from their
parents
- The passing on of characteristics from parents to offspring is called heredity
- On the other hand, we develop certain characteristics (e.g. height and body weight) which may be different
from our parents
- The differences in characteristic among individuals of a species are called variations

Chromosomes, Genes and Nucleic Acids

- Inherited characteristics are passed from parents to offspring through genes

In Ch12
- We learned that inside the nucleus of a cell, there are thread-like structures called chromosomes
- Chromosomes are made up of the genetic material DNA [deoxyribonucleic acid]
- A gene is a length of DNA, which is a sequence of nucleotide bases located on a particular chromosome

Genetic material [DNA + histone]

- Not during cell division: Chromatin 染色質
- During cell division: Chromosome 染色體

Gene
- Genes are the basic unit of heredity
- The sequence of bases on a gene provides the genetic code or instructions for making a particular
polypeptide or protein
- Protein serve various functions in our body, including

○
1 Enzymes for catalysing chemical reactions in cells

○
2 Hormones for regulating metabolism

○
3 Membrane proteins (e.g. channel proteins and carrier proteins) for controlling the transport of substances
across differentially permeable membranes

○
4 Structural protein for making new cells
- Gene can control the amount and types of proteins made, so can determine the characteristics (or traits) of
an organism
- Each inherited characteristic is controlled by one or several genes
- The position of a gene on a chromosome is called a locus (plural: loci)

Allele
- A gene may have two or more alternative forms
- Each form is called an allele
- The alleles of any given gene lie at the same locus of both members of homologous chromosomes

Nucleic Acid

In Ch2
- We learned that DNA and RNA are two types of nucleic acids
- This part will focus on the structural and functional relationships of DNA
- RNA and its role in protein synthesis will be discussed in Ch28

Structure of DNA
- DNA consists of two long chains of nucleotides (polynucleotide chains) with a sugar-phosphate backbone
made up of sugars (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups joined together
- These two strands run in opposite directions to one another and are twisted to form a double helix

- Attached to the deoxyribose sugar of each nucleotide is one of the 4 nitrogenous bases:
- Adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C)
 Complementary base pairing
- A of one chain always pairs with T of another chain, forming two hydrogen bonds
- C pairs with G, forming three hydrogen bwefdfwdwonds
- This is called complementary base pairing

How is the DNA structure adapted to its function

- The structure of DNA makes it an ideal genetic material
- The base sequence is an example of information storage
- The information is in the form of genetic code to make proteins
- Since DNA molecules are long, a large amount of information can be stored

DNA is a stable molecule

- It has ○1 strong sugar-phosphate backbone
- The ○2 hydrogen bonds between the double helix maintains the two strands and give the molecules further
stability

DNA replication
- It is essential that DNA can replicate (copy) itself accurately before cell division so that identical genetic
information can be passed to the new cells formed
- This is made possible by complementary base pairing
 Monohybrid Inheritance
- Long before the discovery of DNA, people had observed that certain characteristics can be passed on from
parents to offspring

Selective Breeding
- For thousands of years, people have made use of this concept to breed animals or plants selectively for the
production of offspring with desirable characteristics
- However, the science behind heredity of these characteristics remained unknown until early 20th century

Gregor Mendel’s Experiments

- Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) was one of the first people who studied heredity in a scientific way
- He carried out a series of breeding experiments on pea plants (Pisum sativum)
- He studied several characteristics of pea plants and proposed hypotheses for explaining heredity of these
characteristics

Contrasting Characters in Pea Plants

Mendel’s breeding experiments on Monohybrid Inheritance [Monohybrid cross]

- Mendel crossed pure-breeding tall plants with pure-breeding short plants
- The seeds resulting from this cross were collected and sown 播種

It was found all F1 generation* plants were tall

*F1 generation = the first filial generation

- Then the F1 tall plants were allowed to self-pollinate

- Seeds of these F1 plants were collected and sowed to produce the second filial generation (F2 generation)

Phenotype Ratio of tall plants to short plants in F2 was about 3:1

Process:
1. What can you conclude about the F1 offspring produced from the pure-breeding parents?

- F1 offspring showed only one of two contrasting characters

- They did not show a ‘blending’ of characters of the parents

2. What is the monohybrid ratio?

- 3:1

Mendel’s Interpretation of the Experimental Results

Results of the above monohybrid crosses reveal that

Recessive character disappears in F1 but reappears in F2 隔代遺傳

- Only one of the two contrasting characters was shown in the F1 generation. The other contrasting character
was hidden
- The hidden character reappeared in the F2 generation and the ratio of the two characters in offspring was
always about 3:1

No blending
- F1 offspring were not intermediate between the two parental varieties. This suggests that there was no
blending or mixing of the characters

All Dominant and No Recessive Expression in F1

- As only one of the characters (e.g. tallness) was shown in the F1 generation, Mendel assumed this character
was dominant to the other
- The character which did not express itself in the F1 generation (e.g. shortness) was said to be recessive
 Mendel attempted to explain his finding in the following ways:
- Each inherited characteristic is determined by a pair of hereditary factors

- Each pure-breeding parent has two identical hereditary factors.

o For example, a pure-breeding tall plant has two factors for tallness and a pure-breeding short plant
has two factors for shortness

- The hereditary factors separate during gamete formation, so each gamete produced by the parents carries
only one of the pair of hereditary factors

- Fertilisation of gametes from the two parents produces the F1 generation which has one factors from each
parent.
o For example, each F1 plant receives one factor for tallness, and one factor for shortness

- In F1 generation, only the effect of the dominant hereditary factor (e.g. the factor for tallness) is expressed

- Nevertheless, the F1 generation can produce two types of gametes that contain either of the two hereditary
factors

- With random fertilisation of the gametes from F1 plants, both factors can be expressed in the F2 generation

Mendel’s first law [Law of Segregation]

- The above ideas are summarised into the hypothesis known as Mendel’s first law (or the Law of Segregation)

Law of Segregation:
During gametes formation, separation (segregation) of each pair of hereditary factors occurs so that each gamete
receives only one factor from each pair

Modern Interpretation of Mendel Monohybrid Crosses

Naming hereditary factor ‘Allele’

- Mendel know nothing about DNA or meiotic cell division at his time
- In fact, ‘hereditary factors’ are alleles of the same gene, which exist in pairs and located on same locus on a
pair of homologous chromosomes

Term Meaning Example

The genetic makeup of an organism
Genotype TT, Tt, tt
- It describes the alleles each cell has for a certain characteristic
Phenotype The observable characteristic of an organism Tallness, shortness

The condition in which the genotype of an organism has two identical

Homozygous TT, tt
alleles for a particular characteristic

The condition in which the genotype of an organism has two different

Heterozygous Tt
alleles for a particular characteristic

A dominant allele can express its effect whether in homozygous or

Dominant TT, Tt Tallness
heterozygous condition [In capital letter]
A recessive allele can express its effect only in homozygous condition
Recessive tt shortness
[In small letter]
 [Genetic Diagram]
Cross between Parents
Let T be the allele for tallness
Let t be the allele for shortness
- A pure-breeding tall pea plant has two alleles
for tallness in each cell and its genotype is TT
- A pure-breeding short pea plant has two alleles
for shortness in each cell and its genotype is tt
- Both are homozygous for the gene of stem
length
Cross between F1
- All F1 offspring have one allele for tallness (T)
and one allele for shortness (t)
- Their genotype is Tt and heterozygous
i.e. They are heterozygotes
- All are tall as allele T is dominant
- During gamete formation by meiotic cell division,
each pair of the homologous chromosomes
separates, so do the pair of alleles controlling
same characteristics
- As a result, each gamete receives only one allele
from each pair
- Thus all gametes produced by the pure-breeding
tall pea plant (TT) contain the allele T, while all
gametes produced by the pure-breeding short
pea plant (tt) contain the allele t
- F1 offspring can produce gametes containing
either allele T or allele t
- When F1 offspring cross (Tt x Tt), their gametes
combine randomly during fertilisation
- There are four possible combinations of gametes
- Monohybrid ratio of tall to short offspring in F2
is 3:1
 [Punnett Square]

- The above cross produces offspring with three different genotypes, LL, Ll and ll in the ratio of 1:2:1
- This results in both phenotypes, long wings and vestigial wings
- The expected phenotypic ratio is 3:1, which can predict the proportion/probability of offspring with a certain
genotype or phenotype

However
- it should be noted that genetic diagrams and Punnett squares only give the expected results of crosses
- In reality, the observed results might not match perfectly with the expected results
- Usually larger the number of offspring produced, closer the observed results match the expected result
[A bigger sample size]

Identifying the Genotype of An Organism

- For an organism showing a dominant character, its genotype can be homozygous or heterozygous
- In this case, we can carry out a breeding experiment called test cross to confirm its genotype

Method
- In test cross, the organism (with unknown genotype) is crossed with an organism with the corresponding
homozygous recessive character
- E.g. To find out the genotype of a fruit fly with long wings, we can test cross with it a fruit fly with vestigial
wings

Case 1: The fruit fly is homozygous (LL)

- All offspring produced have dominant character (long wings)

Case 2: The fruit fly is heterozygous (Ll)

- Half of the offspring have dominant character and half have recessive character
- Expected ratio of offspring with dominant character to recessive character is 1:1
 Dihybrid Inheritance
- Mendel also study simultaneous inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters
- This kind of inheritance is called dihybrid inheritance

In His Experiment
- He studied inheritance of the seed shape (round or wrinkled) and seed colour (yellow or green) in pea plants
- From monohybrid crosses, he knew that round seeds and yellow seeds are dominant characters over
wrinkled seeds and green seeds
- He crossed pure-breeding pea plants with round and yellow seeds with pure-breeding pea plants with
wrinkled and green seeds

It was found that all F1 seeds were round and yellow

- He then planted F1 seeds and allowed the F1 plants to self-pollinate

Phenotype ratio of round and yellow: round and green: wrinkled and yellow: wrinkled and green in F 2 = 9:3:3:1

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Interpretation of Mendel’s Experimental Results

- Based on the results of his dihybrid crosses, Mendel put forward his second law, the Law of Independent
Assortment

Law of Independent Assortment:

It states that the separation of alleles for one gene is independent of the separation of alleles for other genes
during gamete formation
 It states that
- Any one pair of contrasting characters may combine (assort) with either one of the another

With our present knowledge of genetics, this law could be interpreted in this way:
- During gamete formation, alleles for one gene separate independently of the alleles for another, so that each
member of an allele pair may combine randomly with either one of another pair

- Independent assortment can only occur when the genes of the characteristics concerned are carried on
different chromosomes

- The random assortment of homologous chromosomes and the subsequent separation lead to a variety of
allele combinations in gametes
Identifying Genotype of An Organism with Two Dominant Characters
 Linkage
- Normally, Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment states the inheritance of a pair of allele is independent
of another pair
- But if the genes for the two characters are on the same chromosomes, they are linked
- Hence the alleles for the two characters cannot segregate during gamete formation
 Co-dominance
- Blood groups are inherited from our parents like eye colour and other hereditary characteristics
- The most well-known blood group system in human is ABO system
- There are four different blood groups: A, B, AB, O
- It is determined by the presence or absence of antigens (antigen A and B) on the surface of red blood cells

Blood groups
- If antigen A is present, it is blood group A
- If antigen B is present, it is blood group B
- If both antigens A and B are present, it is blood group AB
- If both antigens are absent, it is blood group O
- The production of antigen on red blood cells is controlled by a gene, represented as I

Gene
- IA causes the production of antigen A
- IB causes the production of antigen B
- i causes no production of antigens

Co-dominance
- These alleles are multiple alleles
- Any two of these alleles may occur at the same locus on the homologous pair
- Allele combination IA and IB results in production of both antigens
- These two alleles are co-dominant (i.e. they jointly 聯合地 express their effects in the individual)

Antibodies
- Normal healthy people make antibodies against antigens A or B if they are not present in their red blood
cells
- For example, people with blood group A have antigen A on RBCs, so anti-A antibody is not produced because
they would destroy their own blood
- But as they do not have antigen B, anti-B is produced
 Sex determination
- In humans, sex determination depends on the inheritance of sex chromosomes
- Every human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes
- 22 pairs are called autosomes and the remaining pair is called sex chromosome
- Female: Two X chromosomes
- Male: One X chromosome + One Y chromosome

- In female, the two sex chromosomes have the same length and appearance
- In male, one sex chromosome is longer and the another [Y chromosome] is shorter

During gamete formation

- Ovum contains 22 autosomes and 1 X chromosome
- Sperm contain 22 autosomes and 1 X/Y chromosome

After gamete fusion

- The type of sex chromosome [X/Y] of the sperm that fuses with ovum during fertilisation determines the sex
of the child
- If the ovum fuses with a sperm with X chromosome, the resulting zygote would have a XX genotype and
develop into a girl
- If the ovum fuses with a sperm with Y chromosome, the resulting zygote would have a XY genotype and
develop into a boy

- Since the two types of sperms are formed in equal proportion in male testes, and fertilisation is a random
process, there is an equal chance (i.e. 50%) of having a boy or a girl for each birth
Inheritance of Sex-linked Characteristics
- Sex chromosomes do not just determine sex of an organism, they also carry genes that control body
characteristics
- Those genes located on the sex chromosomes are known as sex-linked genes
- Characteristics controlled by them are sex-linked characteristics

- Some genetic disorders in human are associated with sex-linked genes

- Two well-known examples are red-green colour blindness and haemophilia

X-linked Defects

1. Red-green colour blindness

- People with red-green colour blindness have difficulty in distinguishing red colour and green colour
- Red-green colour blindness is more common in males than females
- This is because the gene for red-green colour blindness is located on X chromosomes (X-linked) but is absent
in Y chromosome
- Females need two X chromosomes with allele for colour blindness to express red-green colour blindness, but
males only need one X chromosome

Allele for normal vision (B) is dominant, and allele for colour blindness is recessive
2. Haemophilia 血友病
- Haemophilia is a genetic disorder in which the blood does not clot properly because the affected person
cannot make an essential blood-clotting factor (factor VIII)

Problems
- This leads to slow and persistent bleeding from even a small wound
- Also, if people with haemophilia injure themselves, they suffer from internal bleeding as a result of normal
activity

Treatment
- However, they can usually live an active life by regular injections of the blood-clotting factor

Inheritance
- Like colour blindness, haemophilia is caused by a recessive allele on the X chromosome

3. G6PD deficiency
- G6PD (Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase) is an enzyme in humans
- G6PD deficiency is an enzyme deficiency disease caused by a recessive allele located on the X chromosome

Function of G6PD
- The enzyme G6PD is present in red blood cells
- It catalyses a chemical process that protect the cells from damage

Deficiency
- G6PD deficiency makes the red blood cells easily ruptured when exposed to certain chemicals such as those
present in mothballs or broad beans

Other X-linked diseases

Lack of the pigment melanin; skin cancer may develop; intolerance of
Albinism
bright light

Developing night blindness at adolescence; degeneration of rod cells

Retinal degenerative disease
and cone cells in retina

Wasting away of muscles, resulting in curved spine and inability to

Muscular dystrophy
walk by the teenage years

Fragile X syndrome Having learning difficulties

 Studying Inheritance in Humans
- To study inheritance in humans, we can obtain information about inheritance by studying a pedigree
- By analysing a pedigree, we can trace the inheritance of certain characteristics in a family and work out the
possible genotypes of family members
- We can also predict how likely a certain characteristic will occur in the next generation

○
1 As individual 4 has straight little fingers, he must receive at least 1 allele for straight little fingers from either
parents (individuals 1 or 2)

○
2 As both his parents have curved little fingers, both of them must have at least 1 allele for curved little fingers

○
3 Therefore, at least one parent is heterozygous

○
4 As only dominant character is shown in heterozygous condition

○
5 Curved little finger is the dominant character

Variation in Characteristics
- Members of the same species share some common characteristics that distinguish them from other
organisms
- For example, Homo sapiens, all walk upright, have both eyes pointing forwards, some hair but not as much
as other mammals and our brain is relatively large
- Nevertheless, no two people look exactly the same. Even identical twins differ in some ways
 The difference in characteristics among individuals of the same species are called variations

1. Continuous Variation
- Continuous variation describes quantitative difference where there is ○
1 a continuous range of intermediate
values between two extremes
- Human characteristics showing continuous variation include height, weight, foot length, intelligence quotient
(IQ)
- These characteristics are the ○
2 combined effects of many genes acting together and ○ 3 environmental
factors

- The frequency distribution for a continuous variation can be represented by a histogram

- If we join the mid-points at the top of each bar with a smooth line, it is a bell-shaped curve
- This is known as a normal distribution curve

- Most individuals fall in the middle of the range with approximately equal numbers on either side
- This is one of the characteristic features of continuous variation

2. Discontinuous Variation
- Discontinuous variation describes the kind of variation that falls into a few clearly distinguishable categories
with ○
1 no intermediate forms
- For example, people either have free ear lobe or attached ear lobes; some can roll their tongues while
others cannot
- Human blood groups and sex are also examples of discontinuous variation
- Discontinuous variations are ○
2 usually controlled by one gene and are ○ 3 relatively unaffected by the
environment
Cause of Variations
- Some variations within a species are caused by heredity and some are caused by the environment
- There are also combined effect of both

1. Heredity
- Variations caused by heredity are called genetic variations
- Organisms produced by asexual reproduction are generally identical to their parents
- On the other hand, organisms produced by sexual reproduction show considerable genetic variations
- Some sources of genetic variations are discussed below

Independent assortment of chromosomes at meiosis

- During meiosis, random separation of homologous chromosomes and the subsequent independent
assortment of chromosomes result in gamete with different combinations of alleles

Crossing over
- During meiosis, homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding sections of DNA, by breaking and
rejoining of chromatids
- This produces new combinations of alleles in gametes formed

Random fertilisation
- Male and female gametes with different genetic makeup fuse together randomly during fertilisation
- This produces offspring with different combinations of alleles and characters

Mutations
- Sometimes genetic material may undergo a sudden and permanent change [It is called a mutation]
- This may lead to a change in phenotype due to production of a new protein or failure to produce a
normal protein
- An organism with phenotypes changed by a mutation is called a mutant

- Mutation in somatic cells do not affect its offspring while mutation in gametes or gamete-producing
cells can be passed to future generation

2. Environmental factors
- Even identical twins with the same genotype may vary in some characteristics
- This is especially true if they grow up apart
- The different environments affect their physical, social and intellectual development in different ways

Environmental factors can affect the expression of certain genes:

Skin colour
- In humans, skin colour is primarily determined by genes that control production of skin pigment [melanin 黑
色素]
- If constant exposure to sunlight, a person’s skin will become darker

Chlorophyll production
- Light affects the production of chlorophyll in plants
- Although they have the genes for producing chlorophyll, when grown in darkness, plants cannot produce
chlorophyll

Vestigial wings
- In fruit flies, allele for vestigial wing (l) is recessive to allele for long wing (L)
- However, the expression of allele for vestigial wings only expressed at low temperature at which the larvae
develop
- Fruit flies that are homozygous recessive for vestigial wing will develop vestigial wings at 21oC but long wings
at 31oC
 Basic genetics Exercise

1. In Mendel’s breeding experiment, the flower was enclosed in a muslin bag after the pollens were introduced to

A. increase humidity.
B. protect the flower from mechanical damage.
C. shield sunlight.
D. prevent further pollination.

* 2. If a boy is colour-blind, which of the following is most likely to be colour-blind as well?

A. his sister
B. his father
C. his paternal aunt
D. his maternal uncle

3. Which of the following parameters shows discontinuous variation?

A. height
B. weight
C. sex
D. intelligence quotient (IQ)

4. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

A. Eye colour is controlled by one gene only.

B. Tongue rolling ability is a dominant characteristic.
C. Body height is controlled by many genes.
D. Blood group is a type of discontinuous variation.

6. A boy has a sister of blood group O and a brother of blood group B. Which of the following can be his blood group?

A. A
B. B
C. AB
D. All blood groups are possible.
□

* 7. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

A. Blood group is not a sex-linked characteristic.

B. Antigen A is present on the red blood cells of a person with blood group A.
C. Both antigens A and B are present on the red blood cells of a person with blood group AB.
D. There are no antigens on the red blood cells of a person with blood group O.
□

8. Colour blindness is
A. autosomal dominant.
B. autosomal recessive.
C. X-linked recessive.
D. X-linked dominant.
□
* 9. A mother of blood group B gave birth to a son with blood group A and a daughter with blood group O. What is the probability
that the mother will have another girl of blood group A?
A. 0.75
B. 0.5
C. 0.25
D. 0.125

11. Which of the following statements is correct?

A. The ovum can carry either X or Y chromosome.
B. For X-linked hereditary diseases, affected mothers always have diseased daughters.
C. Twins must have the same genotypes.
D. Genes that determine colour blindness are present in sex chromosomes.
□

14. A maize cob shows 21 red grains and 79 yellow grains. Which of the following is most likely to be the case about the
genotypes of the parent plants?
A. Both are heterozygous.
B. Both are homozygous recessive.
C. One of them is heterozygous and the other is homozygous recessive.
D. One of them is homozygous dominant and the other is heterozygous.
□

16. What causes two identical twins to become different in appearance when they are mature?
A. independent assortment of genes
B. random fertilisation of gametes
C. nutritional difference
D. mutation
□

17. Which of the following statements about DNA is/are correct?

(1) It is the hereditary material to determine characteristics of an organism.
(2) It controls the synthesis of different enzymes.
(3) It is found in the nucleus.

A. (1) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)
□

19. Alleles are

A. all of the genes on the same chromosome.
B. two adjacent genes on one chromosome.
C. genes located at the same relative position on the homologous chromosomes.
D. a pair of homologous chromosomes alike in shape and size. □
* 20.

Directions: Questions (a) to (c) refer to the following information: Two insects with grey wing-cases mated and the female laid
80 eggs. Of the offspring that developed from these eggs, 57 had grey wing-cases and 18 had black wing-cases.

(a) Which of the following was the percentage of the eggs that failed to develop?

A. 6.25%
B. 22.5%
C. 71.25%
D. 93.75% □

(b) If two of the insects with black wing-cases mate, the percentage of offspring with black wing-cases will approximately
be

A. 25%.
B. 50%.
C. 75%.
D. 100%. □

(c) If one of the insects with black wing-cases mates with one of its parents, the percentage of offspring with grey wing-
cases will approximately be

A. 0%.
B. 25%.
C. 50%.
D. 100%. □

23. Which of the following statements is/are incorrect?

(1) An allele of a gene is one of the alternative forms of the gene on one homologous chromosome.
(2) A recessive allele is expressed in heterozygous condition.
(3) The genotype refers to the physical appearance.

A. (3) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)
□

24. Which of the following features of garden peas was / were the reason(s) why Gregor Mendel, the “father of genetics”, chose
them for carrying out the classical breeding experiments?
(1) Their characteristics could easily be recognised.
(2) They could grow in large numbers.
(3) They could reproduce quickly.

A. (1) only
B. (1) and (2) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)

29. The phenotype of an organism describes

A. its genetic constituent.
B. the number of chromosomes in each cell.
C. the structure of chromosomes in each cell.
D. its observed characteristics.

□
* 32. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
(1) An ovum can carry either an X or a Y chromosome.
(2) The chance of giving birth to a boy or girl baby on each occasion is 1/2.
(3) It is possible that the cell of a baby can have two X chromosomes.

A. (2) only
B. (1) and (2) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)
□

41. Which of the following is/are the natural cause(s) of variations?

(1) random fertilisation
(2) genetic engineering
(3) meiosis

A. (1) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)
□

* 45.
It is sometimes very difficult to test for the presence of some genetic diseases in a child because these diseases might only become
obvious and could be diagnosed at a certain stage of development such as old age.
Which of the following methods can help doctors predict whether a child will possess those types of diseases when he/she gets
old?

(1) analysing the child’s DNA

(2) analysing the child’s blood component
(3) pedigree analysis

A. (1) only
B. (3) only
C. (1) and (2) only
D. (1) and (3) only
□

46. A man and his wife have nine sons but no daughters. Which of the following statements is/are correct?

(1) The sons do not have X chromosomes.

(2) The man does not have an X chromosome.
(3) The chance for the next baby to be a girl is 0.5.

A. (3) only
B. (1) and (2) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)
□
52.
Directions: Questions (a) and (b) refer to the following pedigree showing the inheritance of the blood disease thalassemia
(Mediterranean anaemia) in a family, which is controlled by a pair of alleles.

1 2

3 4

5 6

Key: Normal male

Male with thalassemia

Normal female

(a) Which of the following statements is/are incorrect?

(1) Individual 3 does not carry the allele for thalassemia.

(2) Individual 5 is heterozygous for the disease.
(3) Individual 6 must carry the allele for thalassemia.

A. (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)
□
(b) Anaemia may be caused by the lack of

(1) calcium.
(2) iron.
(3) glucose.

A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (2) only
D. (2) and (3) only

55. Colour blindness is a genetic disorder inherited by a gene on the

A. 6th pair of chromosome.

B. 21st pair of chromosome.
C. X chromosome.
D. Y chromosome.
□

57. Which of the following is not a hereditary disease in humans?

A. haemophilia
B. albinism
C. sickle cell anaemia
D. scurvy
* 58.
Directions: Questions (a) and (b) refer to the following pedigree showing the inheritance of a type of diabetes in a family, which
is controlled by a pair of alleles.

Key:
1 2
Male with diabetes

Female with diabetes

Normal male

Normal female

(a) Which of the following statements is/are correct?

(1) Individual 1 is heterozygous.
(2) Individual 2 is homozygous recessive.
(3) The allele for not having diabetes is dominant.

A. (1) only
B. (1) and (2) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)
□

(b) There are several kinds of diabetes. Which of the following is / are the possible cause(s) of the disease?
(1) The pancreas becomes defective.
(2) The liver cells become insensitive to circulating insulin.
(3) The pancreatic duct is blocked.

A. (1) only
B. (1) and (2) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)

* 61. A particular character is controlled by two genes each with two alleles. How many different possible genotypes would this
character have?
A. 2
B. 4
C. 9
D. 16
□

62. A woman who is a carrier of colour-blindness marries a man who has normal vision. Which of the following is not the
possible genotype of their children?
A. XHXh
B. XhXh
C. XHY
D. XhY
□
64. Which of the following statements explains Mendel’s second law?
A. Alleles separate so that half of the gametes receive one allele and the other half of the gametes receive the other allele.
B. The characteristics of organisms are controlled by pairs of alleles.
C. Alleles are inherited together.
D. Genes separate independently so that one gamete receives one gene independently and the other gamete receives the
other gene.
□

Answers

1. D 2. D 3. C 4. D 5. D
6. D 7. D 8. C 9. D 10. C
11. D 12. (a) B (b) B 13. C 14. A 15. D
16. C 17. D 18. A 19. C 20. (a) A (b) D (c) C
21. B 22. (a) D (b) C 23. C 24. D 25. B

26. C 27. A 28. B 29. D 30. (a) C (b) D

31. B 32. C 33. D 34. C 35. D
36. B 37. A 38. (a) B (b) D (c) B 39. C 40. B
41. B 42. (a) B (b) C (c) B (d) B 43. (a) C (b) C 44. A 45. D
46. A 47. C 48. D 49. D 50. (a) D (b) C (c) B

51. D 52. (a) D (b) B 53. C 54. B 55. C

56. (a) B (b) D 57. D 58. (a) A (b) B 59. C 60. A
61. C 62. B 63. D 64. A 65. B
 Structured Questions

1. Mendel’s first law of inheritance states that the characteristics of an organism are determined by hereditary
factors which occur in pairs, but only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete.

(a) Write down the modern term for

(i) a hereditary factor controlling part of an organism’s characteristics. (1 mark)
(ii) a pair of such factors. (1 mark)

(b) Explain why the factors occur in pairs rather than singly. (2 marks)

(c) Explain why only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. (2 marks)

Solution
(a) (i) Gene (1)
(ii) Allele (1)

(b) To conserve genetic variation and the gene pool (1) as some unexpressed genes may be useful in the
future (1).

(c) Gametes have to be a haploid cell (1) so that after fusion of gametes the double number of chromosomes
can be restored (1) to maintain continuity.

2. The diagram below shows a full set of chromosomes of a person:

(a) In what way do chromosomes A and B differ as regards their origin? (1 mark)

(b) In what way do chromosomes A and B resemble each other genetically? (1 mark)

(c) In what way do chromosomes A and B differ from each other genetically? (1 mark)

(d) What is the sex of the person? Give a reason for your answer. (2 marks)

Solution
(a) One chromosome come from the father and another chromosome come from the mother (1).

(b) They carry genes that control the same characteristics (1).

(c) They may contain difficult allele (1).

(d) Male (1) because he has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (1).
3. Three pairs of homozygous male and female long-winged fruit flies were crossed with twenty-two pairs of
homozygous male and female short-winged fruit flies. The inheritance of wing length follows Mendel’s first
law of inheritance. The flies were left in an experimental chamber to breed and the percentages of long and
short-winged flies were recorded over six months:

Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(months)
Long-winged
12 45 76 90 96 98 98
flies (%)
Short-winged
88 55 24 10 8 2 2
flies (%)

(a) What does Mendel’s first law of inheritance state? (2 mark)

(b) State the dominant character for the wing length. Explain your answer. (2 marks)

(c) Which phenotype would have a greater chance of survival if all the fruit flies at the end of (2 marks)
the experiments were released into the natural environment? Explain your answer.

Solution
(a) The law of segregation states that during gamete formation, each pair of hereditary factor separates so
that gametes only receive one factor from each pair (2).

(b) Long wings, because the above cross between long-winged flies and short-winged flies produce
heterozygous offspring (1). Only dominant character is expressed in heterozygous condition (1) which
cause the number of fruit flies with dominant character increase as time pass.

(c) Long wings (1), because they can fly faster to escape predator and reproduce (1).

4. In pigs, the black coat is controlled by the dominant allele B and the red coat is controlled by the recessive
allele b. Erect ears are controlled by the dominant allele E and flop ears are controlled by the recessive allele
e.

Draw a genetic diagram to illustrate the genotypes and phenotypes of a cross between a black erect-eared
heterozygous pig and a red flop-eared pig. What is the chance of the offspring have red and erect ears?
(5 marks)
5. Some people are born with thumbs that can bend backwards, so-called “hitch-hiker’s thumb” (Fig. 1). This is
caused by a dominant allele H. Fig. 2 shows the pedigree of the inheritance of this characteristic in a family:

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

(a) What is the genotype of June? Give the reasons for your answer. (3 marks)

(b) With the use of a genetic diagram, explain why some of the children of Mary and John had (4 marks)
hitch-hiker’s thumb, but others did not.

(c) What is the chance of the child of Jack inheriting this characteristic if he married a female (3 marks)
with normal thumbs? Give reasons for your answer.

Solution
(a) Hh (1).
As her sons have normal thumbs, they must receive one recessive allele (h) from June (1).
As June herself has the hitch-hiker’s thumb, she must have at least one dominant allele (H) (1).

(b)

(2)

As all their children must receive one recessive allele from John and one dominant or recessive allele
from June (1), their children can have the genotype of Hh or hh (1) which would express as the hitch-
hiker’s thumb or the normal thumb.

(c) ½ (1).
As Jack’s wife must give a recessive allele to her children, and Jack can either give a dominant or
recessive allele to them (1), they can either have the genotype of Hh or hh (1).

Half of the children have the hitch-hiker’s thumb and half have the normal thumb.
6. (a) What is the meaning of multiples? (1 mark)

(b) The coat colour in rabbit is controlled by three alleles:

C – allele for Ch – allele for Ca – allele for

normal coat Himalayan coat albino

Given that C is dominant to both Ch and Ca, and Ch is dominant to Ca.

A rabbit breeder suspects that one of his normal coat rabbits is not homozygous.

(i) What would you advise him to do in order to find out the genotype of the rabbit? (2 marks)
(ii) What results would you expect? Explain your answer by means of genetic diagrams. (3 marks)

(c) Explain the meaning of sex linkage. (1 mark)

Solution
(a) Multiple alleles mean that a gene exists in more than 2 alleles (1).

(b) (i) Test cross (1). Breed the rabbit with an albino rabbit (1).
(ii) There can be three cases:

Case 1: The rabbit is homozygous

(1)
 Case 2: The rabbit is heterozygous, CCh

(1)

Case 3: The rabbit is heterozygous, CCa.

(1)

(c) It means the concerned gene is located on sex chromosomes (1).

7. In domestic chickens, the length of the leg is controlled by a pair of alleles. The allele for normal leg (T) is
completely dominant over that for short leg (t).

When 50 pairs of normal leg chickens were allowed to cross, 250 eggs were laid and the offspring produced
were of different phenotypes. The leg length variation is shows in the chart below:

(a) What is the genotype of the parent chicken? Explain your answer. (3 marks)

(b) Draw a genetic diagram to illustrate this cross and work out the genotypic ratio of the F1. (3 marks)

(c) State separately the total number of normal leg chicken and short leg chicken. (1 mark)

(d) Calculate the percentage of the eggs which have developed into chicken. (1 mark)

(e) State the type of variation shown by the leg length of the chicken. Explain your answer. (2 marks)

(f) Give a reason why the normal legs are not of the same length. (1 mark)

(g) If the legs of the normal leg chickens were surgically transplanted with short legs, state the (1 mark)
phenotype of the offspring produced by the chickens.
 Solution
i. Tt (1). As it has normal legs, it has at least one dominant allele (1).
As the cross produces short-legged chicken, it has a recessive allele (1).

ii.

(3)
iii. Normal leg chicken: 171 (½)
Short leg chicken: 59 (½)

iv. Percentage
171+59
= x 100%
250

= 92% (1)

v. Discontinuous variation (1) as there is no intermediate between normal legs and short legs (1).

vi. Environmental factors affected the characteristic of leg length (1).

vii. Normal legs (1).

 Essay question

1. Discuss the occurrence, types and causes of variations. (8 marks)

Solution

Occurrence
Variations are differences in characteristics among individuals of the same species (1)

Types
Variations can be divided into continuous variation and discontinuous variation (1)

Continuous variation Discontinuous variation

A range of intermediates
No intermediates (1)
between two extremes (1)
Characteristic is usually
determined by one gene (1) and Characteristic is determined by many
not affected by environmental genes (1) and environmental factors (1)
factors (1)
A bell-shaped curve (1) which
Discrete bars (1)
represents a normal distribution
(Any 2x2)

Causes
Causes of variations include heredity and environmental factors (1)

Variations due to heredity are called genetic variations. They are resulted by a number of factors, including
independent assortment of homologous chromosomes, crossing over, random fertilisation and mutation (1)

They increase the combinations of alleles to produce a wide range of genetic variety in gametes.

For environmental factors, factors such as light exposure, education can affect characteristics as well (1).
Ch28 Molecular Genetics

DNA [Deoxyribonucleic acid] RNA [Ribonucleic acid]

- 5-C sugar: Deoxyribose - 5-C sugar: Ribose
- Nitrogenous base: A, T, G, C - Nitrogenous base: A, U, G, C
- ○ P : Phosphate group - ○
P : Phosphate group

Structure of Nucleic Acid

- Basic unit: Nucleotide

Characteristics of DNA as Genetic Code

○
1 Triplet code
- A sequence of three nucleotide bases code for one amino acid

○2 Degenerate code
- Some amino acids are produced by more than one code
- For example, mRNA codons GGA, GGU, GGC, GGG all code for the amino acid glycine

○3 Non-overlapping
- The genetic code is read in a sequential manner and non-overlapping

○4 Universal
- The same triplet code codes for the same amino acid in almost all organisms

○5 Commaless
- Each triplet code is immediately adjacent to the next, without any break in-between

○6 ‘Start signals’ and ‘stop signals’

- Some triplet codes act as ‘start signals’ for initiation of polypeptide synthesis and some triplet codes act as
‘stop signals’ do not code for amino acids but mark the end-point of a gene
 Process of Protein Synthesis
- Gene expression is the process the genetic code of a gene is used to direct protein synthesis
- The resulting protein is called a gene product

- Genes are located on DNA molecules in cell nucleus

- To synthesise a protein, the genetic information is carried from nucleus to cytoplasm in form of mRNA
[messenger RNA] because DNA molecules are too large to leave the nucleus through nuclear pores
- In cytoplasm, the protein is assembled by interpreting the mRNA

Protein Synthesis

1. Transcription – Genetic information is copied

from the DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA) in the
nucleus

2. Translation – mRNA directs the synthesis of a

particular polypeptide in cytoplasm
A. Transcription: DNA to mRNA

Process:

○1 Unwinding of DNA double helix

- An enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to a region of DNA that signals the start of a gene [promoter
region]
- Hydrogen bonds between bases of two strands break. This causes the double helix to unwind
- Only the template strand is used for synthesis of complementary mRNA. (The other DNA strand is called the
coding strand)

○2 Free RNA nucleotides bind with complementary bases in template strand

- RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, free RNA nucleotides in nucleus bind with
complementary bases in template strand
- RNA polymerase catalyses the formation of an mRNA strand (by joining RNA nucleotides together)

○3 mRNA strand is released and DNA rewinds

- The mRNA strand is released. It leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm through nuclear pores on
nuclear membrane
- The two DNA strands rewinds to form double helix

Transcription
1. RNA polymerase binds to promoter region. Hydrogen bonds between bases break and DNA double helix
unwinds.

2. Free RNA nucleotides in nucleus bind with complementary bases in template strand. RNA polymerase catalyses
the formation of the mRNA strand.

3. The mRNA strand is released and leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores. DNA rewinds to form a double
helix.

In transcription
- Every triplet code on DNA strand is transcribed into a complementary three-base sequence, called codon, on
mRNA
- For example, the DNA triplet code GAT will be transcribed into the codon CUA on mRNA (which codes for
amino acid Leucine)
- Each codon codes for a specific amino acid, except stop codons which acts as stop signals.
B. Translation: mRNA to Proteins
- During translation, the codon sequence on mRNA decides the specific sequence of amino acids, which will
make polypeptides
- This occurs at ribosomes which can be i) free in cytoplasm or ii) on the surface of rough ER [rough
endoplasmic reticulum]

tRNA
- Translation also requires a type of RNA called tRNA, which is transfer RNA

Features
- ○1 It is single-stranded
- ○2 It is held by hydrogen bonds formed between base pairs forming a
clover shape
- ○3 It has anticodon, which is a sequence of three bases which decides what
amino acid the tRNA carries
- ○4 It has a binding site for amino acid

Process:

○1
- mRNA moves out from nucleus to cytoplasm and binds to a ribosome
- The first tRNA with anticodon UAC binds to the start codon AUG

- tRNA carries a specific amino acid to the ribosome

- Start codon (AUG) is always the first codon on mRNA, hence it attracts the tRNA with the anticodon
UAC and they bind together

○2
- A second tRNA carrying another amino acid binds to the next codon on mRNA with its complementary
anticodon
- The two amino acids are joined by peptide bond to form a dipeptide

○3
- The ribosome moves along the mRNA, adding one amino acid at a time

○4
- Finally, the ribosome reaches a stop codon on mRNA and the polypeptide is released
- The polypeptide may then coil and fold to form a protein. In some cases, several polypeptides combine to
form a protein
mRNA → Amino acid
 Mutation
- A mutation is a sudden and permanent change in the amount, arrangement or structure of the genetic
material of an organism
- This produces a change in the genotype which may result in the failure to produce a normal protein,
leading to a subsequent change in the phenotype

- Mutations in body cells (i.e. somatic cells) will be passed to their daughter cells through mitosis
- It affects only the individual carrying the affected genetic material, but the change will not be inherited
to the next generation
- Alternatively, mutations occurring in gametes are inheritable and will affect future generations

Types of mutation
A. Gene Mutations
- A gene mutation invovles a change in the base sequence of the DNA in a gene
- This type of mutation can be caused by errrors in base pairing during DNA replication

- The base sequence can be changed by a susbtitution, an inversion, a deletion, or an insertion of base(s) in the
DNA
- The change in base sequence is transmitted to mRNA during transcription and may result in a change in
amino acid sequence of polypeptide formed during translation

Substitution, Inversion
- A substitution or inversion of bases usually leads to change in one codon only
- This may result in a differment amino acid in polypeptide

- So its effect can be variable

- A change in one amino acid may not have a signitificant effect if it occurs in a non-critical area
- However, if the change occurs at an important site that it alters the structure of the protein (e.g. active site),
the protein may become non-functional

Deletion, Insertion
- Since the genetic code is a triplet code read in a non-overlapping manner, deletion or insertion of one or
more bases will shift the reading frame (the grouping of bases)

- This kind of mutation is frameshift mutation

- This can cause the reading of codons after the point of mutation to code for an entirely different sequence of
amino acids
- The resulting poplypeptide or protein is non-functional

Substitution, Inversion Deletion, Insertion

- Frameshift mutation
- Code for one different amino acid in - Code for an entirely different
the sequence sequence of amino acid after point
- If occurs at a non-critical area, it may of mutation
not alter the function of protein - Non-functional protein
- If occurs at active site, it may be a non-
functional protein
Example: Sickle-cell anaemia 鐮狀細胞貧血
- Sickle-cell anaemia is a genetic disorder that affects the protein haemoglobin 血紅蛋白
- A haemoglobin molecule consists of four polypeptide chains
- Sickle-cell anaemia is caused by a base substitution in the gene that codes for one polypeptide chain

- In the mutant gene, base T is repalced by base A at one position

- Thus the polypeptide made has one different amino acid – valine (Val) instead of glutamic acid (Glu)

Effect
- The single change in amino acid sequence affects the structure and properties of haemoglobin formed

○1 Blocking blood vessels

- The abnormal haemoglobin molecules will form rod-like fibres at low oxygen concentrations
- This causes red blood cells to become sickle-shaped
- These sickle-shaped cells can block blood vessels easily

○2 Anaemia
- Also, these abnormal RBCs have a short life span
- Therefore, patients cannot make red blood cells rapidly enough to replace the detective cells that has broken
down
- This leads to anaemia (i.e. lowered ability to carry oxygen)

Normal RBC cell shape: Biconcave disc shape (雙凹盤狀)

Example: Cystic fibrosis
- Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common genetic disorder among the white populations in the United States
and Western Europe
- In these population, one in every 2500 infants born has CF
- This disorder is characterised by the secretion of sticky, viscous mucus in the nose, air passages and
intestines

Gene mutation
- Cystic fibrosis is caused by a defective recessive gene on chromosome 7
- The normal allele codes for a protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR)
- It controls the transport of sodium and chloride ions across the cell membrane of epithelial cells

The recessive cystic fibrosis gene can only be expressed in homozygous recessive condition.

- Normally, when sodium and chloride ions are secreted by epithelial cells, the water potential of the mucus is
reduced, so water moves out of the cells by osmosis
- This produces mucus that can be moved by cilia

Effect
- In cystic fibrosis, the CFTR protein differs in just one of its 1480 amino acids as a result of substituion
- This causes the protein not to work: it cannot transport the sodium and chloride ions across the cell
membrane
- Water potential of mucus cannot be lowered
- As a result, the mucus-secreting glands in several organs produce thick and sticky mucus (difficult to be
moved by the cilia)

Problems
○1 Breathing difficulties: People with CF usually have breathing difficulties as their lungs and air passage are
clogged up with mucus

○2 Lung infection: The mucus also provides a breeding ground for bacteria, so CF patients have many lung
infections such as pneumonia 肺炎 and bronchitis 支氣管炎
B. Chromosome Mutations
- A chromosome mutation may involve a change in the structure or number of of whole chromosomes
- Chromosome mutations may affect many genes and usuallly have a greater effect on the phenotype than
gene mutation

(a) Change in Structure of Chromosomes

Deletion
- The loss of a region of a chromosome
- This results in a chromosome becoming deficient in certain genes

Duplication
- A region of chromosome becomes duplicated (repeated)
- So that an additional set of genes exists in that region

Inversion
- A region of chromosomes breaks off and is inverted before rejoining
- The normal sequence of genes is thus reversed

Translocation
- A region of a chromosome breaks off and becomes attached to a non-homologous chromosome
- Reciprocal translocation between two non-homologous chromosomes involves an exchange of genes and
produces two chromosomes with gene compositions different from the original ones

(b) Change in Number of Chromosomes

- Cause: Errors in meiotic cell division during gamete formation

- Sometimes, homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to seaparte (i.e. non-dysjunction) and they
move together to the same gametes
- Then, some of the gametes formed will have two copies of the same chromosome, and some will lack an
entire chromosome
Example: Down syndrome 唐氏綜合症
- Examinations show that a person with Down syndrome has an extra chromosome 21 (i.e. 47 chromosome in
total) in their body cells

Karyotype: Trisomy 21

Parent’s Gametes formation

- A possible cause is that during gametes formation by meiotic cell division, the two homologous members of
chromosome 21 fail to separate from each other (i.e. non-dysjunction)
- Therefore, both chromosomes 21 are present in the gametes formed
- This is more likely to occur in the ova but may also occur in sperms

Fertilisation
- When the gamete (ova/sperm) containing an extra chromosome 21 fuses with a normal gamete, a zygote
with three chromosome 21 is produced

Symptoms
- Down syndrome is typically associated with ○
1 growth delays
- People with Down syndrome have ○ 2 characteristic facial features, such as a round face, a flattened nose
bridge
- They usually have ○
3 mild to moderate intellectual disability

- Incidence of Down syndrome is about 0.15% of all births

- Research shows that the risk of having children with Down syndrome increases with the mother’s age

Example: Turner’s Syndrome (XO), Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY)

- Abnormality in the number of sex chromosome
Causes of Mutation

1. Spontaneous mutation
- There are some mutations that occur naturally and randomly, they are called spontaneous mutation
- Spontaneous mutation occurs at a very low rate as organisms have mechanisms to repair some errors

2. Induced mutation – Mutagens

- Nevertheless, mutation rates can be increased by environmental factors called mutagens
- These include certain chemicals and radiations
- Mutation caused by exposure to mutagens are called induced mutations

Chemical mutagens
- Chemical mutagens can increase mutation rates by altering the chemical structure of DNA, e.g. base
sequence

- Examples of chemical mutagens include

o Nitrite in food preservatives (commonly used in cured meat 醃肉 like sausage, ham, bacon)
o Tar in cigarette smoke
o Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) from combustion of fossil fuels
o Asbestos in construction materials
o Dioxin in chemical waste

Physical mutagens
- They cause formation of highly reactive ions, called free radicals 自由基, which can damage DNA
- Examples:
o High-energy radiation (e.g. X-rays and Gamma rays)
o Ultraviolet radiation

- Ultraviolet radiation is found in sunlight. Prolonged exposure of ultraviolet radiation can result in mutations
in the skin cells and increase risk of skin cancer

Are mutations all bad?

- Mutations can have many harmful effects but sometimes mutation can be beneficial
- They are a source of genetic variation, leading to new characters that help organisms to better adapt to a
particular environment so that they can survive and reproduce
- This provides the basis of natural selection which is the driving force of evolution
 Molecular Genetics Exercise

1. (a) Name the enzyme involved in transcription stage of protein synthesis. (1 mark)
(b) The diagram shows some molecules involved in protein synthesis.

Complete the diagram to show

(i) the bases on the template DNA strand from which the mRNA was transcribed. (1 mark)
(ii) the bases forming the anticodons of the tRNA molecules. (1 mark)

(c) The diagram below shows the effects of two different mutations of the DNA on the base sequence of the
mRNA.

The table shows the mRNA codons for three amino acids.

Amino acid mRNA codon

methionine AUG
GUC
valine
GUU
GCA
alanine GCC
GCU

Use the information in the table to

(i) identify amino acid X in the diagram in part (b). (1 mark)
(ii) explain how each mutation may affect the polypeptide for which this section of DNA is (4 mark)
part of the code.
 Solution
(a) RNA polymerase

(b) (i) (ii)

(c) (i) X: Alanine

(ii) Both mutations are substitution (1)

- In the original mRNA, it codes for the amino acid sequence alanine – methionine – valine (1)
- In the mutated strand 1, the codon codes for same amino acid sequence (1) as GCA and GCU are
degenerate codes.
- In the mutated strand 2, the codon codes for a different amino acid sequence which is alanine –
methionine – alanine (1).

2. (a) Part of a particular sequence of bases on a DNA molecule is as follow:

TTATCTTTCGGGATG

(i) Given the sequence of nitrogenous bases on the mRNA which is obtained by using this DNA molecule
as a template. (1 mark)

mRNA codons Amino acid

UGC Cysteine (cys)
AAG Lysine (lys)
UCG Serine (ser)
AAU Asparagine (asn)
ACA Threonine (thr) UUG Leucine (leu)
AGA Arginine (arg) UCU Serine (ser)
AUA Isoleucine (ile)
UGG Tryptophan (trp)
CAU Histidine (his)
CGG Arginine (arg) UUA Leucine (leu)
CGU Arginine (arg) UAC Tyrosine (tyr)
CCC Proline (pro)
CCG Proline (pro)
CUU Leucine (leu)
GAU Aspartic acid (asp)
GAA Glutamic acid (glu)
GAG Glutamic acid (glu)
GCA Alanine (ala)
GGA Glycine (gly)
UAU Tyrosine (tyr)
 (ii) A sequence of nitrogenous bases on another section of mRNA is shown below:

UACAGAGCAUCGUUA

Using the table, determine the order the amino acids would be incorporated into the polypeptide
constructed from this mRNA sequence (the abbreviations of the amino acids in brackets can be used).
You may assume that the sequence is read from the left hand end. (1 mark)

(iii) Suggests how the cell ensures that the bode is read in the correct direction. (1 mark)

(iv) Proflavin, is a chemical which alters the base sequence of DNA. What is the name given to such a
change? (1 mark)

(v) If proflavin caused the deletion of the first adenine (A) in the DNA sequence which codes for the above
mRNA, what consequences would this have on the subsequent translation of the sequence ? (1 mark)

(b) Haemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells. Haemoglobin is a quaternary protein. There are three
different types of haemoglobin protein, There are three different types of haemoglobin found in adult
humans, HbA, HbA2 and HbF as shown in the table.

% found in
Haemoglobin type Types of polypeptide
adult

2 alpha chains
HbA 97
2 beta chains

2 alpha chains
HbA2 2
2 delta chains

2 alpha chains
HbF 1
2 gamma chains

(i) From this data suggest how many genes are involved in the production of the haemoglobins found in the
human. (1 mark)

(ii) Beta thalassaemia is a condition in humans caused by a change in the nucleotide sequence which codes
for the primary structure of the beta polypeptide chain.

Scientists have now discovered a drug which can switch on the gene for the production of HbF (HbF is the
type of haemoglobin found in the foetus). Explain, using your knowledge of protein synthesis, how this drug
results in the production of HbF. (4 marks)

(iii) Give one disadvantage in an adult human of not producing beta chains of haemoglobin. (1 mark)

(iv) Give one possible disadvantage if an adult has foetal haemoglobin. (1 mark)

Solution
(a) (i) AAU AGA AAG CCC UAC (1)
(ii) tyr – arg – ala – ser – leu (1)
(iii) Start codon is the first codon on mRNA and the ribosome moves along the mRNA (1)
(iv) Induced mutation (1)
(v) It would a frameshift mutation (1) which will produce a polypeptide with an entirely different amino acid
sequence (1)
(b) (i) 4 (1)
(ii) The drug stimulates the expression the gene coding for the haemoglobin HbF (1)
A polypeptide strand with specific amino acid sequence is formed (1)
It then forms a helical structure and coil and fold (1)
Two alpha chains and two gamma chains and combine to form a HbF protein (1)
(iii) He or she will have anaemia (1) which include symptoms of fatigue and pale skin
(iv) HbF may have a low oxygen-carrying capacity (1)
Ch 29 Biotechnology
Ch 32 Regulation of Water Content