General Relativity

Raghu Mahajan

October 24, 2018

Contents

1 Bending of light 3

2 Pound-Rebka experiment 3

3 Basic GR 4

4 Some algebraic manipulations 8

4.1 Log derivative of determinant of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.2 Lie derivative of the metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5 Geodesics 9

6 Black Hole metrics 10

7 Killing Vectors 12

8 ADM Mass 13

9 Null hypersurfaces and Killing horizons 14

10 Light-like particle motion 15

1
11 Energy conditions 16

12 Frame formulation 16

13 Hamiltonian Formulation 18

14 The Gibbons-Hawking term 23

15 Gravitational Waves 25

16 Geodesic Congruences 26

17 Formulas in specific dimensions 27

17.1 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

17.2 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

17.3 Weyl transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

18 Spherically Symmetric Metrics 30

19 Vaidya Metric 31

20 Bondi Mass 33

21 Quantum Gravity on the Lattice 33

22 Induced Gravity 34

23 Black hole thermodynamics 34

23.1 Schwarzschild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

23.2 Charged Black holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2
1 Bending of light

How much velocity does light pick up downwards as it coasts by the sun in the horizontal direction?

2R/c × GM/R2 2GM

θ= =
c Rc2

2 Pound-Rebka experiment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound%E2%80%93Rebka_experiment
Retreived on 2017-11-02

Very nice Wikipedia article. It is a gravitational redshift experiment.

1. Consider two copies of an electron-atom system, one in the excited state (the emitter), the
other in the lower energy state (the receiver).

2. The emitter was placed at the top of tower with the receiver at the bottom. General relativity
predicts that the gravitational field of the Earth will cause a photon emitted downwards
(towards the Earth) to be blueshifted.

3. To counteract the effect of gravitational blueshift, the emitter was moved upwards (away from
the receiver) causing the photon frequency to be redshifted, according to the Doppler shift.

4. The 14 keV gamma rays emitted by iron-57.

5. Mössbauer spectroscopy. All atoms in a solid lattice absorb the recoil energy when a single
atom in the lattice emits a gamma ray. Therefore, the emitting atom will move very little
(just as a cannon will not produce a large recoil when it is braced, e.g. with sandbags).

3
 6. The result confirmed that the predictions of general relativity were borne out at the 10%
level. This was later improved to better than the 1% level by Pound and Snider. Another
test involving a space-borne hydrogen maser increased the accuracy to about 10−4 .

3 Basic GR

r
~G
`p =
c3
κ2 = 8πG

1
Γµab = g µc ∂a gbc + ∂b gac − ∂c gab


2 
R bcd = ∂c Γabd + Γµbd Γaµc − (c ↔ d)
a

Rab = R∗a∗b
1
Gab = Rab − gab R = (8πG)Tab
2

2
2
Wabµν = Rabµν − ga[µ Rν]b − (b ↔ a) + g g R
D−2 (D − 1)(D − 2) a[µ ν]b
W ∗b∗ν = 0

Wabµν = 0 when D = 3

The only independent contractions that one needs to check for the Riemann and the Weyl tensors
is between the first and the third indices.

Rabµν = R[ab]µν = Rab[µν]

Ra[bµν] = 0

D[c Rab]µν = 0

4
 D2 (D2 − 1)
Independent Riemann Components:
12

The Weyl tensor is zero in three dimensions, since the number of components of Riemann is six,
which is the same as the number of components of the Ricci tensor. The Riemann tensor Rabcd has
to do with two planes (ab) and (cd), which in three dimensions, is the same as two axes. When
we parallel transport, one of these two planes is the one that contains the two directions of the
parallelogram, and the other two have to do with the plane in which the vector got rotated. This
also means that in the three-dimensional vacuum, the field equation Rab = 0 implies Rabcd = 0, and
thus there is no gravitational radiation.

R

Maximally Symmetric ⇐= Rabµν = gaµ gbν − (µ ↔ ν)
D(D − 1)
R
=⇒ Rbν = gbν
D

R
Einstein Manifold ⇐= Rbν = gbν
D

δV 3 = R3∗12 V ∗ A1 B 2

D1 , D2 V 3 = R3∗12 V ∗
 

A rough way to right the first equation is

δθ = R δa,

where δθ is the angle by which the vector rotates as you take it around a small loop of oriented area
δa. Note that this also determines the sign of the cruvature, so it would be different to a sphere vs
a hyperboloid. The simplest place to look for this is on a cone, where all the curvature is at the
tip. Cones with angular excess have negative curvature, and cones with angle deficit has positive
curvature.

D2 µ
Geodesic deviation: 2
S = Rµabc T a T b S c
dt

5
 p
1 δ |g| 1
p µν
= − gµν
|g| δg 2

∂a g
g ∗? ∂a g∗? =
g

∂a g
Γ∗∗a =
2g
1
D∗ V ∗ = p ∂∗ |g| V ∗
p

|g|

−2 δS
Tµν = p
|g| δg µν
For Euclidean signature, flip overall sign

Z Z
1 p p
(8πG)S = |g| (R − 2Λ) + |γ| K
2 M ∂M

For Euclidean signature, flip overall sign

1
Rµν − gµν R − 2Λ = κ2 Tµν


2  
2 2 1
Rµν − Λgµν = κ Tµν − gµν T
D−2 D−2
D−2
− R + DΛ = κ2 T
2

One way to motivate the Einstein equations is to use the Newtonian equation ∇2 φ = 4πGρ and note
that in the weak-field limit φ is related to gtt , and ρ is Ttt . Thus, this says that the second-derivative
of the metric must be related to the stress tensor.

6
 Z  
D
p 1 2
S[φ] = − d x |g| (∂φ) + V (φ)
2
For Euclidean signature, flip overall sign

 
1 2
Tµν [φ] = ∂µ φ∂ν φ − gµν (∂φ) + V (φ)
2

D−2
Z
1 p h i
S[g, φ] = − dD x |g| (∂φ)2 + Bφ2 R , B=
2 4(D − 1)

7
4 Some algebraic manipulations

4.1 Log derivative of determinant of a matrix

Suppose M (t) is a one-parameter family of matrices.

d det M (t + dt) − det M (t)

det M (t) = lim
dt dt→0 dt
det M (t + dt)M −1 (t) − 1

= det M (t) lim
dt→0
h dt i
det 1 + dt Ṁ (t)M −1 (t) − 1
= det M (t) lim
dt→0 dt
−1
= det M (t) Tr Ṁ (t)M (t)
1 d
det M (t) = Tr Ṁ (t)M −1 (t)
det M (t) dt

1
∂µ g = g ab ∂µ gab
g

4.2 Lie derivative of the metric

The Lie derivative of the metric

(Lξ g)ab = ξ ? ∂? gab + ga? ∂b ξ ? + g?b ∂a ξ ?

= ξ ? ∂? gab + (∂b ξa − ξ ? ∂b ga? ) + (∂a ξb − ξ ? ∂a gb? )

= ∂a ξb + ∂b ξa + ξ ? (∂? gab − ∂b ga? − ∂a gb? )

∇a ξb + ∇b ξa = ∂a ξb + ∂b ξa − 2Γ? ab ξ?

8
5 Geodesics

Z  
1 1 µ 2
S= dτ Ẋ Ẋµ − η m
2 η
Z q
= −m dτ −Ẋ µ Ẋµ (if m 6= 0)

Ẋ 2 = −η 2 m2
dX ∗
 
d 2 1 ∂g∗? ∗ ?
gµ∗ = Ẋ Ẋ
dτ η dτ η ∂X µ

Affine parameterization: η̇ = 0
1
Massive affine parameterization: η =
m

In a weak gravity field when particles are moving slowly, the only Christoffel term that is important
is Γi00 . This tells us that the gravitational acceleration is given by these Christoffel symbols. As
expected, they are the first derivatives of the gravitational potential which is encoded in the metric.

9
6 Black Hole metrics

10
 dr2
ds2 = −f dt2 + , (dr = f dr∗ )
f
= −f (dt2 − dr∗2 ), (v = t + r∗ )

= −f dv 2 + 2 dv dr

= −f du dv, (U = −e−κu , V = eκv )

32M 3 −r/2M
=− e dU dV
h r r i
UV = 1 − er/2M ≤ 1
2M

κ f0
T = , κ=
2π 2
A
SBH =
4`2p

Linearization near the horizon

Near the horizon of a general Schwarzschild type black hole, the emblackening factor has a simple
zero.

f (r) ≈ 2κ(r − rH )
1
r∗ ≈ log(r − rH )
2κ

U V = − exp[2κr∗ ] ≈ −(r − rH )

ds2 = −f dudv
f
= dU dV
κ2 U V

11
7 Killing Vectors

Dµ ξ ν + Dν ξ µ = 0

D1 D2 ξ 3 = R321∗ ξ ∗

D∗ D2 ξ ∗ = R2∗ ξ ∗
Z Z
c
Qξ (Σ) = 2 dS∗? D∗ ξ ? = dS∗ J ∗
2κ ∂Σ Σ
µ c µ∗
J (ξ) = 2 R ξ∗
κ
D∗ J ∗ = 0

For energy c = −2, and for angular momentum c = 1.

For electric charge

I Z
1 ∗?
Q= dS∗? F = D∗ F µ∗
2 ∂Σ Σ

12
8 ADM Mass

Let’s say you have a vector field k which is asymptotically Killing.

Dµ k ν + Dν k µ = O(r−3 )

We can use this antisymmetry to define a conserved charge.

Z
1
EADM = 2 dS∗? D∗ k ?
κ 2
S∞
Z
1
EADM = − dΩd−2 ni ∂i h00
8πG
Z
1
EADM = 2 (∂∗ hi∗ − ∂i h)
2κ S∞ 2

Let us give more detail about how to go from the first expression to the second.

dSµν Dµ k ν = DSi0 Di k 0

Di k 0 ≈ g ij Γ0 0j ≈ Γ0 0j
1
Γ0 0j = g 0µ (−g0j,µ + g0µ,j + gµj,0 ) only µ = 0 is relevant
2
1
≈ − (−g0j,0 + g00,j + g0j,0 )
2
1
= − ∂j h00
2

Let us check this for Schwarzschild, where g00 = −1 + 2GM/r.

d 2GM 2GM
ni ∂i h00 = =− 2
dr r r  
1 2 2GM
EADM =− × (4πr ) × − 2 =M
8πG r

The final expression in terms of the spatial components of the metric can be obtained by looking
at the 00-component of the Einstein equation, together with the trace of Einstein’s equations.

An even more down-to-earth way of thinking about the ADM mass is to think of the Poisson
equation ∇2 φ = 4πG ρ, and recall that h00 = −2φ. This gives
Z Z
1
4πG M = dΩ ni ∂i φ = − dΩ ni ∂i h00 .
2

13
9 Null hypersurfaces and Killing horizons

The Frobenius theorem says that if ω is a normal to a family of hypersurfaces, that is ωµ =

α(x)∂µ f (x), then

ω[ 1 D 2 ω3 ] = 0

For a null hypersurface N , the normal nµ is null. This implies that nµ is also a tangent vector
to N . One can show that the integral curves of nµ are geodesics.

If it so happens that a Killing vector ξ is normal to N , we say that N is a Killing horizon for
ξ. Now we can pick a coordinate v on N such that ξ = ∂/∂v. The relation of v to affine parameter
V of the geodesics is V = eκv .

The surface gravity is defined as

ξ · D ξ µ =: κξ µ .

This relation holds because the integral curves of ξ are geodesics. If these geodesics were affinely
parameterized via v, the right hand side would be zero; but they are not affinely parameterized by
v, the affine parameter is V . Let us check this for Schwarzschild, where the Killing vector is ξ = ∂v .

M M (r − 2M )
Dv ξ µ = ∂v + ∂r
r2 r3
1
= ∂v (on the horizon)
4M

Thus we have κ = 1/4M for Schwarzschild.

14
10 Light-like particle motion

Coordinates (U, V, . . .)

U =T −X T = (V + U )/2
V =T +X X = (V − U )/2

∂U = (∂T − ∂X )/2 ∂T = ∂V + ∂U
∂V = (∂T + ∂X )/2 ∂X = ∂V − ∂U

ds2 = −dT 2 + dX 2 = −dU dV

   
0 −1/2 0 −2
g?? = , g ?? =  
−1/2 0 −2 0

Surface: U = constant

Parallel to the V axis

Trajectory of particle moving to the right

Wavepacket is only a function of T − X = U

Nonzero component of momentum is pU = −pV /2 = −i∂U φ

Contributes to TU U ' (∂U φ)2

n? = (1, 0, 0, 0) = dU = dT − dX

n? = (0, −2, 0, 0) = −2∂V = −∂T − ∂X

Tµν = flux of pµ through a surface of constant xν .

15
11 Energy conditions

1. Strong energy condition. tRt ≥ 0, or (Tµν − gµν T /(D − 2))tµ tν ≥ 0. Violated by positive cc,
or a scalar field.

2. Weak energy condition. tT t ≥ 0 for all future-pointing timelike vectors t.

3. Dominant energy condition. Weak energy condition, and also that −T µ ? k ? should be a future
pointing vector which is timelike or null.

4. Null energy condition. kT k ≥ 0 for all future-pointing null vectors k. Violated by quantum
effects in a black hole background. Also violated by the Casimir effect.

12 Frame formulation

Frame 1-forms ea

Torsion 2-forms T a := dea + ω ab ∧ eb

If Γ(g) is the usual Christoffel connection that we use in torsion-free general relativity, then

Γ = Γ(g) − K

Here Γ is the actuall connection under which the metric is covariantly constant.

0 = D1 g23 = ∂1 g23 − Γ∗12 g∗3 − Γ∗13 g∗2

The object K is built out of the torsion

−2K1[23] = T[12]3 + T[31]2 − T[23]1

h
i h
i
R12ab := ∂1 ω2ab − 1 ↔ 2 + ω1a∗ ω2?b η ∗? − 1 ↔ 2

16
de + ω ∧ e = T

dω + ω ∧ ω = R

17
13 Hamiltonian Formulation

Denote the spacetime manifold by M. Define a function t on M such that the surfaces of constant
t are spacelike hypersurfaces. Denote these hypersurfaces by Σt . Also define a time like vector
field ta which represents the flow of time. The vector field ta is such that ta ∇a t = 1. This is a
normalization condition that says that the rate of change of the time function t along ta is unity.

P ab = δ ab − σna nb , σ = −1

hab = gab − σna nb

N := σ n · t (1)

N a := P ab tb = ta − σ(n · t)na ( =⇒ n · N = 0) (2)

Na = gab N b = hab N b = hab tb (3)

The logic for determining the various vector fields in component form is as follows

• t? = (1, 0, 0, 0) since this is the timelike vector field.

• n? = (−N, 0, 0, 0) since its the normal to hypersurfaces Σt .

• N ? =: (0, N 1 , N 2 , N 3 ). The 0th component is zero because of (2).

1
• n? = 1 2 3
N (1, −N , −N , −N ). This is implied by (2), na = (ta − N a )/N .

• hab nb = 0 implies that ha0 = 0. This implies that g a0 = −na n0 . This allows us to fix uniquely

18
 the inverse metric g ab = hab + σna nb .
   
−1/N 2 N i /N 2 0 0
g ?? =  , h?? = 
hij − N i N j /N 2 hij

• Inverting this matrix, we find the metric

   
−N 2 + Ni N i Ni Ni N i Ni
g?? = , h?? = 
hij hij

As a 3 × 3 matrix, h?? is the inverse of h?? .

• To get the shift with indices lowered, use (3), Na = hab tb = ha0 = (Ni N i , Ni ).

• We can write the metric as a line element

ds2 = −N 2 dt2 + hij (dxi + N i dt)(dxj + N j dt)

• The determinants are related by det(g) = −N 2 det(h).

19
 The extrinsic curvature can (almost) be defined as the covariant derivative of the normal vector.
But this is not good, because we want the extrinsic curvature tensor to have only indices that are
tangent to the hypersurface. So we project.

Kab := ha c ∇c nb

= ∇a nb + na nc ∇c nb

This is not explicitly symmetric in a and b. We would like to show that. The idea is to use Frobenius
theorem (contracted once with the normal). We will also use the fact that na na = 1, and hence
n∗ ∇b n∗ = 0, and also n∗ ∇b n∗ = 0.

na (∇b nc − ∇c nb ) + nb (∇c na − ∇a nc ) + nc (∇a nb − ∇b na ) = 0

nc na (∇b nc − ∇c nb ) + nc nb (∇c na − ∇a nc ) − (∇a nb − ∇b na ) = 0

−nc na ∇c nb + nc nb ∇c na − ∇a nb + ∇b na = 0

∇a nb + nc na ∇c nb = ∇b na + nc nb ∇c na

Kab = Kba

We can also use

Ln na = nc ∇c na + nc ∇a nc = nc ∇c na

Ln hab = Ln gab + na Ln nb + nb Ln na

= (∇a nb + ∇b na ) + na nc ∇c nb + nb nc ∇c na

Now, let us deal with the extrinsic curvature tensor. Let us denote by D the covariant derivative
built out of g and by ∇ the covariant derivative built out of h.

Kij = Dj ni = −Γ0ij (−N )

1 h i
= ḣij − ∂i Nj − ∂j Ni + 2Nk Γkij
2N
1 h i
= ḣij − ∇i Nj − ∇j Ni
2N

20
 The Einstein-Hilbert term can be massaged into the following form

p √ h i
|g| R = h N R + Kab K ab − K 2 + total derivative.

When we substitute for Kij from the above expression, we see that the time derivatives of neither
the lapse N , nor the shift Ni appear.

∂L √
π ab = = h (K ab − Khab ).
∂ ḣab

If one wants to use boundary conditions that preserve asymptotic flatness, then the boundary term
in the Hamiltonian is precisely the ADM energy.

21
 We should take the configuration space of general relativity to be the set if equivalence classes
of Riemannian metrics on Σt . This configuration space is known as superspace. The momentum
constraints are eliminated by the choice of superspace as the configuration space.

The energy constraint, however, remains. This is the sense in which GR is different from gauge
theory. Thus, it does not appear possible to find a choice of configuration space for GR such that
only the “true dynamical degrees of freedom” are present in its phase space. This provides a serious
obstacle to the formulation of quantum gravity by the canonical quantization approach.

22
14 The Gibbons-Hawking term

1  
δΓabc = g aµ Db δgµc + Dc δgµb − Dµ δgbc
2

δRabcd = Dc δΓabd − Dd δΓabc

δRab = D∗ δΓ∗ab − Db δΓ∗a∗

 
δR = Rab δg ab + Dµ g ab δΓµab − g aµ δΓ∗a∗

= Rab δg ab + Da Db δgab − (Dc Dc )g ab δgab

= Rab δg ab − Da Db δg ab + (Dc Dc )gab δg ab (4)

n2 = σ ∈ {+1, −1}

n1 n2 g 12 = σ =⇒ δnµ = αnµ
σ  σ 
=⇒ α = − na nb δg ab = na nb δgab
2 2

P ab = δ ab − σna nb

δK = Kab δg ab + g ab δKab

δKab = Da δnb − δΓαab nα

σ b 1
g ab δKab = D (nb nα nβ δgαβ ) − na Db δgab + nα Dα g ab δgab
2 2

Now we write σnb nα = δ αb − P αb . The term with the Kroncker delta gives us two terms. One
is K 12 δg12 , and the other combines with the second term. The guy with P αb is a total intrinsic
covariant derivative, so it vanishes when integrated over ∂M. Thus, we get

1 1 1
δK = Kab δg ab + K ab δgab − na Db δgab + nα Dα g ab δgab
2 2 2
1 1 1 α
= Kab δg + na Db δg − n Dα gab δg ab
ab ab
(5)
2 2 2

23
So we see that if the K term is taken with twice the coefficient, the second and third terms in (5)
√
cancel those in (4). The first term combined with the variation of the γ gives us the Brown-York
stress tensor.

√ 
Z
1 
total variation = dD−1 x γ Kab − γab K δγ ab
16πG δM

24
15 Gravitational Waves

g12 = η12 + h12

2R1234 = ∂2 ∂3 h14 + ∂1 ∂4 h23 − 3 ↔ 4

2R24 = ∂∗ ∂2 h∗4 + (2 ↔ 4) − ∂2 ∂4 h − h24

R = ∂∗ ∂? h∗? − h

hµν = µν eik·x

k ? = (ω, 0, 0, ω)

The equation of motion is

Rµν = 0
h i
k 2 δµa δνb + kµ kν η ab − kµ k a δνb − kν k a δµb ab = 0 (6)

Let us denote the most general polarization tensor as

 
a b c d
 
 e f g 
∗∗ =
 


 h i 

j

There are four gauge transformations which can shift ∗∗ by the following matrices
       
−2 1 −1 −1 −1
       
   −1 1     
, , ,
       
 
     −1 1   
       
1 1 1 −1 2

Use the first and the fourth gauge transformation to set a = 0 and j = 0. Use the second to set
b − g = 0 and the third to set c − i = 0. Thus the most general form of the polarization after fixing

25
the gauge is
 
0 b c d
 
 e f b 
∗∗ =
 


 h c 

0

Just like we did in the E&M case, the equations of motion imply that

• Contract with η µν . Get k ∗ ∗? k ? = ω 2 (a + j + 2d) = 0 =⇒ d = 0

• Contract with µν . Get (k ∗ ∗? )2 = ω 2 (2b)2 + (2c)2 = 0

• Using the first two items, look at the original equation of motion (6). Get  = 0 =⇒ e+h = 0.

Thus, we are left with the two physical modes

   
   
 1   1 
∗∗ = ,
   


 −1  
  1 


(D − 1)(D − 2)
In D dimensions number of graviton modes = −1
2

D= 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0 0 2 5 9 14 20 27 35 44

16 Geodesic Congruences

Four vector fields t, ηα with α ∈ {0, 1, 2}. They all commute with each other.

t·Dη = η ·Dt

26
 For the case of null geodesics pick t, n, ηα with α ∈ {0, 1}. The choice of the null n is such that
n · t = −1. Projector onto the space spanned by the η’s.

Pµν = gµν + nµ tν + tµ nν

t·Dt = t·Dn = 0

Bµν = Dν tµ projected (2 by 2 matrix)

= trace θ + sym traceless σ + anti-sym ω

The vector field t is normal to a family of null hypersurfaces if and only if ω = 0.

θ2
θ̇ = − − σ ∗? σ∗? + ω ∗? ω∗? − R∗? t∗ t?
2
θ2
≤− (assuming WEC)
2

17 Formulas in specific dimensions

17.1 2D

√
g 0 = e2ω g, g 0 R0 = g (R − 2∇2 ω)
p

R
Rabcd = (gac gbd − gad gbc )
2
R
Rbd = gbd
2

2
R= for S 2 of radius a
a2

27
 Z Z
1 1
χ= R+ k
4π M 2π ∂M

= 2 − 2g − b − c (handles, boundaries, cross-caps)

χ=2 for S 2

On the Description of the Riemannian Geometry in the Presence of Conical Defects

hep-th/9501127
D.V.Fursaev, S.N.Solodukhin

Consider a cone with half-angle θ. Let ρ be the coordinate radially outward from the tip.

α := sin θ

p
x = ρα cos φ, y = ρα sin φ, z = ρ 1 − α2

ds2 = α2 (dρ2 + ρ2 dφ2 ) + (1 − α2 )dρ2

= dρ2 + α2 ρ2 dφ2

Smooth out the tip by introducting

p
z = fa (ρ) 1 − α2 (7)

Here a is a regulator and could be, for example, that we deform the cone into a hyperboloid

1 − α2 2
z2 − (x + y 2 ) = a2
α2

The function f should have the following two properties. The first one recovers the cone in the limit
that the regulator goes away. The second one just says that the new tip should be a minimum.
Basically the derivative of f has to go from zero to one very quickly in the interval ρ ∈ (0, a).

f0 (ρ) = ρ, fa0 (ρ) = 0

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The new coordinate embedding (7) makes the metric

ds2 = (α2 + (1 − α2 )fa02 )dρ2 + α2 ρ2 dφ2

=: u(ρ)dρ2 + α2 ρ2 dφ2

The two conditions of f translate to two conditions on u

u(ρ  a) = 1, u(ρ = 0) = α2

The Ricci scalar of the metric written in terms of u(ρ) is

u0
R=
ρu2

√
Z Z
du
g R = 2πα
u3/2
= −4πα(1 − 1/α)

= 4π(1 − α)

17.2 3D

In three dimensions, the Riemann tensor can be expressed in terms of the Ricci tensor, since the
Weyl tensor is known to be identically zero.

17.3 Weyl transformation

gb = e2ω g
h i
b = e−2ω R − 2(D − 1)∇2 ω − (D − 2)(D − 1)∂µ ω∂ µ ω
R

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18 Spherically Symmetric Metrics

 
−a(t, r)
 
 b(t, r) 
g∗∗ =
 


 r2 

r2 sin2 θ

Points to note:

• Gtt = 0 can be solved for b. It gives b = r/(r + α) where α is some constant.

• Gtr = 0 implies that b is independent of t.

• Grr = 0 implies that a0 /a + b0 /b = 0 which means that ab = constant. This constant can be
set to 1 after rescaling time.

• Gθθ and Gφφ are just related by a multiplicative factor of sin2 θ.

• Solutions to Gtt and Grr equations automatically solve the Gθθ equation.

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19 Vaidya Metric

We want to throw in a shell, which is moving at the speed of light. The only non-zero component
of the stress tensor is Tvv and it is a delta function. So it is convenient to work in the Eddington-
Finkelstein coordinates. The basic algebra is below.

31
Note that the Gvr = 0 is easily solved to give f = 1 − α(v)/r. This means that we basically have
a Schwarzschild solution, but the mass is now a function of v. We expect it to jump from 0 to the
final black hole mass that is formed by the shell. The equation Gvv = 8πGN Tvv achieves this since
Gvv is proportional to α0 (v); the parameter α(v) is proportional to a theta function.

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20 Bondi Mass

Bondi mass cannot become negative in higher dimensions

Stefan Hollands and Alexander Thorne
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1307.1603.pdf

In general relativity, there are two notions of mass of an asymtptocially flat spacetime. The
ADM mass is defined at spatial infinity. It measures the total mass of an initial data set on
an asymptotically flat slice, i.e. a slice of constant t in an asymptotically Cartesian coordinate
system. The Bondi mass is defined at null-infinity. It measures the total mass associated with an
asymptotically hyperboloidal slice, i.e. a slice approaching constant retarded time u = t − R, in an
asymptotically Cartesian coordinate system. The ADM mass is independent of t, but the Bondi
mass is in general a function of u, or more precisely, of a cut of null-infinity. Its change reflects an
outgoing flux of gravitational radiation.

21 Quantum Gravity on the Lattice

Problems:

• For lattice QCD, we more or less know the UV Lagrangian, and that is how we know what
to write down for the lattice action. For gravity, we do not know the full-blown UV action.
String theory provides a candidate UV completion. So, in principle, if we know what String
Field Theory was, we could use that and latticize it. Counterargument: in four dimensions
(for example), maybe you could by hand write down all the invariant terms with dimensions
less than or equal to four and study that.

• What about the holographic principle? A local statistical system on the lattice has volume law
entropy, whereas black-holes are supposed to have area law entropy. Counterargument: the
reasoning in string theory that estalishes connections between black-hole entropy and string
states can be used for 3D building blocks also. So it seems that one could get area law entropy
from this kind of a setup.

• How do you get flat space as a solution? (Emphasized vehemently by Nathan Seiberg at a
lunch at the IAS, late September 2015)

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22 Induced Gravity

Sakharov’s Induced Gravity: A Modern Perspective

Matt Visser
http://arxiv.org/pdf/gr-qc/0204062v1.pdf

Integrating out matter fields in a fixed background geometry will generate kinetic terms for the
metric.

log det  + m2 + ξR

Z ∞
b ds h −as i
log = e − e−bs
a 0 s

Use the heat kernel expansion as s → 0.

p
h
2

i |g| h 2
i
exp − s  + m + ξR = a0 (g) + sa1 (g) + s a2 (g) + · · ·
(4πs)2

Need to cutoff the s integral near s = 0. Put a cutoff s = 1/κ2 , assuming κ large. In four-dimensions,
the divergent terms will be proportional to κ4 , κ2 and log κ. The quantity a0 is equal to one, a1 (g)
is equal to the Ricci scalar, etc. You will also generate higher-curvature terms, etc.

23 Black hole thermodynamics

23.1 Schwarzschild

Imagine calculating the Euclidean on-shell action with periodicity of the τ direction fixed. We are
working in the canonical ensemble. The log Z should be proportional to 1/GN and so by dimensional
analysis, we get

1
log Z ∼ −
GN T 2

This gives the entropy

dF d 1
S=− = (T log Z) ∼ ,
dT dT GN T 2

34
and the energy

d d 1
E=− log Z = T 2 log Z ∼
dβ dT GN T

23.2 Charged Black holes

35