Main

 Events  in  the  British  History,  Culture  and  Civilization    

 
 
Period   Rulers/  Monarchs   Main  characteristics  and  events  
 
The   The  Iberians   The  Iberians  represent  the  primitive  populations  of  the  British  Isles.  
Beginnings   (ab.  3000  BC)    
v they  are  of  Mediterranean  origin  (believed  to  have  come  from  Spain  in  ab.  3000  BC)  
   
v they   built   henges   –   wooden   buildings   and   stone   circles   situated   in   circular   areas  
  delimited  by  ditches  
  v they   are   associated   with   the   megalithic   civilisation   (megalithic   monuments   were  
generally   built   out   of   religious   reasons;   in   Britain,   this   type   of   megalithic   monuments  
called  “henge”  was  also  a  centre  of  political  and  economic  power)  
v Stonehenge   –   the   most   spectacular   megalithic   monument   of   this   type   with   a   religious      
function   related   to   the   cult   of   the   sun   and   the   cult   of   the   dead;   apparently   it   was   used   to  
measure   the   movement   of   the   sun,   moon   and   stars,   and   also   for   pagan   religious  
practices.  (*  It  was  built  in  several  stages  over  o  period  of  more  than  1,000  years!  **  It  
was   probably   built   at   about   the   same   time   as   the   Great   Pyramid   of   Giza   in   Egypt   –   ab.  
2300  BC)  
   
The  Beaker  Folk   The  Beaker  Folk  was  made  of  groups  of  people  coming  from  Europe  (ab.  2500  BC).  
(ab.  2500  BC)    
v they  introduced  the  Bronze  Age  culture    
v bronze  tools  and  stone  monuments  (*  Stonehenge  was  finalized  during  this  period)  
 
The  Celts     The  Celts,  tribes  originally  from  Central  Europe,  arrived  in  Britain  after  700  BC.  
(after  700  BC)    
v they  were  strong,  fearless  warriors  and  conquered  an  extensive  part  of  Europe  
v they  were  tall,  blonde-­‐  or  red-­‐haired  and  blue-­‐eyed,  just  like  the  Germanic  type  
v imposed  their  form  of  tribal  organisation  in  most  regions  of  the  British  Isles    
v they  met  little  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  local  populations,  because  the  descendants  of  
the  Iberians  were  not  warriors  
v they  were  organized  in  tribes  ruled  by  a  king  or  chief  
v divided  in  3  main  social  orders:      

  1  
 o warriors  and  noblemen  
o the   Druids   –   most   honoured   class,   they   were   learned   people   who   underwent   a  
20-­‐years   period   of   training;   they   had   priestly   duties,   they   were   warriors   and   they  
were  also  specialised  in  religion,  law  astronomy,  poetry,  music,  and  calendrics,  i.e.  
solar  and  lunar  movements  
o ordinary  people  
 
v family  was  very  important  for  the  Celts  
v women   enjoyed   rights   and   privileges   more   in   line   with   the   modern   mentality   and,  
certainly,  unusual  for  those  times  
v they  believed  in  immortality  and  that  the  soul  resided  in  the  head  
v the  Celtic   art  –  considered  to  be  the  1st  great  contribution  that  the  non-­‐Mediterranean  
peoples   made   to   the   development   of   the   European   art.   (*   with   bronze   and   gold   they  
created   primarily   decorative   objects:   coins,   mirrors,   ornaments,   small   statues   and  
beautiful   jewellery–   torcs,   rings,   neck   rings,   brooches,   shields;   the   Celtic   cross   -­‐   the  
carved  stone  cross)  
v they  did  not  write  their  own  history,  but  fortunately  the  Greeks  and  Romans  wrote  about  
them  
v their   language   is   still   spoken   today   (Celtic   languages:   Gaelic   English,   Scots,   Welsh,  
Cornish  and  Breton)  
 
The  Romans   In  43  AD  the  Roman  Emperor  Claudius  and  his  army  conquered  Britain,  which  became  part  of  
(43  AD  –  406  AD)   the   Roman   Empire   and   was   called   Britannia   =   a   province   of   the   Roman   Empire,   ruled   by   a  
governor  (nevertheless,  local  Celtic  chiefs  were  still  used  to  keep  order).  
 
v the   Romans   brought   their   laws,   their   religion   (Christianity),   a   written   language   (even  
though  the  Celtic  language  also  continued  to  be  spoken)  and  written  numbers  
v they   were   skilled   engineers:   they   built   forts,   towns   and   beautiful   houses   decorated  
with   painted   walls,   elaborate   mosaics   and   statues,   and   excellent   roads,   some   of   which  
still   exist   today,   they   introduced   the   sewage   system,   public   baths,   theatres,   shops,  
forums  etc.    
 
*Hadrian’s   Wall  –  one  of  the  greatest  feats  of  engineering  in  the  roman  world,  a  monument  that  
came   to   symbolise   Roman   Britain.   It   measures   80   Roman   miles   (120   km),   cutting   the   country  
from  coast  to  coast  (from  Solway  Firth  to  the  River  Tyne)  and  it  was  built  mainly  in  stone  with  
  2  
 forts  and  turrets  at  regular  intervals.  Hadrian,  who  visited  the  British  colony  in  122  AD,  was  the  
first   emperor   in   Roman   history   to   build   a   wall   in   order   ‘to   separate   the   “barbarians”   (rebellious  
tribes  who  were  never  brought  completely  under  control)  from  the  Romans’,  as  his  biographer  
says.  
 
The  Anglo  Saxons   After  the  Romans  left,  Britain  was  soon  invaded  by  the  Anglo-­‐Saxons.  
(btw.  the  5th  –  7th    
v they   were   tribes   from   Germany   who   were   great   warriors   and   took   the   Celts’   land   and  
centuries  AD)  
treasures  
v from   about   513   AD   to   537   AD   a   Celtic   leader   named   Arthur   fought   bravely   on   the   side   of  
the   Romano-­‐British   Celts   against   the   Anglo-­‐Saxon   invaders   and   became   the   figure   of  
legend,   King   Arthur   (*his   most   important   heritage   –   the   Arthurian   Legends   –   the  
central  part  of  the  British  traditions  and  folklore.)  
v they  were  tall,  blonde  and  blue-­‐eyed  (the  English  =  “the  land  of  the  Angles”)  
v they  set  up  a  number  od  kingdoms  
v they  were  organised  under  the  form  of  kingship  and  the  royal  family  was  considered  to  
be  of  divine  origin  
v in   Anglo-­‐Saxon   times,   the   kingdom   was   administratively   divided   into   shires   (the   term  
‘shire’  is  present  nowadays  in  the  name  of  some  administrative  areas,  or  counties,  such  
as  Oxfordshire  or  Yorkshire)  
v they   belonged   to   the   Germanic   heathen   religion   while   the   locals,   i.e.   the   Celts,   were  
Christians   (Christianity   represented   one   of   the   most   important   aspects   of   the   Roman  
heritage  and  it  had  been  firmly  established  in  Britain  before  the  Romans  left  the  country)  
v although   the   Anglo-­‐Saxons   drove   the   Celts   and   implicitly   their   religion   into   the   west   and  
north,   Christianity   was   nevertheless   re-­‐established   in   England   by   missionaries:   in   597  
AD,   Augustine,   a   missionary   sent   from   Rome,   arrived   in   Kent   and   established   a   Christian  
Church  at  Canterbury,  where  he  became  the  first  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  During  this  
period  monasteries,  where  monks  studied  and  copied  religious  books,  were  being  built  
all   around   Britain   (*   the   religious   books   produced   by   the   monks   –   particularly   in   Ireland  
–   are   precious   artistic   treasures   in   which   the   spirit   of   ancient   Celtic   decoration  
flourishes)  
 
The  Vikings   At   the   end   of   the   8th   century   the   Vikings   from   Scandinavia   (Norway   and   Denmark)   attacked  
(the  9th  century  AD)   Britain  and  soon  settled  throughout  most  of  the  British  isles.  
 
  3  
 v the   Anglo-­‐Saxon   king,   Alfred   the   Great,   fought   against   them   successfully,   but   after   his  
death  in  899  the  Vikings  attacked  again  and  soon  Britain  was  ruled  by  Viking  kings  (*one  
of   the   Viking   kings   was   King   Canute,   a   wise   and   honest   king,   who   brought   peace   and  
prosperity  to  his  people)    
v they  were  expert  navigators  and  brave  warriors  (they  were  a  warrior  society  ,  i.e.  groups  
led  by  of  warrior  chiefs  to  whom  the  warriors  showed  loyalty)  
v they  were  pirates  and  traders  (they  revived  the  town  life)  
v they  settled  in  the  lands  they  had  raided  and  were  often  converted  to  Christianity  
 
Middle  Ages   The  Norman   A  very  important  event  took  place  in  1066:  the  Battle  of  Hastings.  
(10th  –  15th   Conquest  of  Britain      
v the   phases   of   the   battle   are   recorded   on   the   Bayeux   Tapestry   –   an   embroidered  
century)   (1066)  
chronicle   (a   70   m   long   woollen   embroidered   linen   canvas)   representing   not   only   a  
  remarkable  work  of  art  but  also  an  exceptionally  rich  source  of  information  (*initially  it  
The  Normans   was  meant  to  be  a  pictorial  story  for  a  public  who  couldn’t  read)  
(1066-­‐  1087)     v Edward  the  Confessor,   the   king   of   England,   was   half   Norman   and   half   Anglo-­‐Saxon   and  
as  he  had  no  son  of  his  own  he  promised  in  1051  to  leave  his  throne  to  Duke  William  of  
Normandy,  who  was  his  cousin  on  his  mother’s  side  
v Edward  sent  Harold   Godwinsson,  who  was  the  son  of  the  most  powerful  Anglo-­‐Saxon  
noblemen,   the   earl   of   Wessex,   to   swear   allegiance   (promise   under   oath)   to   William.  
However,   in   1066,   when   King   Eduard   died,   Harold   took   the   crown   of   England   with   the  
support  of  the  Anglo-­‐Saxon  aristocracy  
v hearing   this,   William   of   Normandy   decided   to   invade   England   with   an   army   of   7,000  
men   and   after   assembling   a   fleet   he   crossed   the   English   channel   and   landed   on   the  
Sussex   coast   (the   Norman   ships   were   technically   were   advanced,   they   carried   sails   but  
were  so  light  that  they  could  also  be  rowed  at  speed)  
v on   14   October   1066   the   Norman   fought   and   defeated   the   Anglo-­‐Saxons   at   Hastings;  
Harold  Godwinsson  was  killed  when  an  arrow  struck  him  in  the  eye  
v after   his   victory,   William   was   called   ‘the   Conqueror’   and   became   king   of   England   on  
Christmas  Day  1066  
 
William  the   When  William  the  Conqueror  became  king,  he  also  became  the  direct  owner  of  the  land  which  
Conqueror   before  the  Battle  of  Hastings  belonged  to  Harold,  his  family  and  his  Anglo-­‐Saxon  allies.  The  King  
wanted  to  carry  out  a  survey  to  find  out  exactly  what  he  and  the  other  landlords  owned:  how  
(1066  -­‐  1087)  
much  land,  how  many  animals,  how  many  manors,  how  many  castles,  how  many  churches  and  
  4  
 how  many  people.  All  this  information  was  written  in  1086  in  the  Domesday  Book.  The  result  
of  this  was  a  unique  picture  of  the  English  society:  
 
v almost  all  population  (about  one  and  a  half  million)  worked  in  agriculture  
v there  was  little  or  no  industry  or  commerce  
v one  fifth  of  the  land  in  England  belonged  to  William,  a  quarter  of  the  land  belonged  to  the  
Church  and  the  rest  to  the  Norman  noblemen  
 
William   the   Conqueror   was   the   one   who   brought   the   feudal   system   to   England.   Under   this  
system:  
v the  land  was  owned  by  the  king  
v the   king   permitted   barons   to   use   his   land   in   return   for   military   service;   the   barons   lived  
in  manor  houses  (country  houses)  and  built  castles  for  defence.  They  had  private  armies,  
which   were   commanded   by   knights.   When   the   king   called   them,   they   went   to   fight   for  
him  
v the   barons   permitted   their   knights   to   use   the   king’s   land,   which   the   knights   divided  
among  the  farmers,  who  were  free  men  
v the   peasants   or   serfs   were   at   the   lowest   level   of   the   feudal   system   –   they   were   the  
property  of  the  baron  
 
During  William  the  Conqueror’s  reign,  there  were  built:  
 
• forts  and  castles  on  hills,  near  rivers  or  roads  (in  order  to  control  the  territory)  
• the   famous   castle   the   White   Tower   of   London   –   1076   (today   called   the   Tower   of  
London).   While   the   first   Norman   castles   were   made   of   earth   and   timber,   this  
impressive   structure   near   the   Thames   was   built   in   stone   and   its   walls   were  
whitewashed  (>  this  is  how  it  got  its  name  the  White  Tower).  During  its  long  history,  
this   architectural   symbol   of   Norman   military   supremacy,   the   tower   has   been   a  
fortress,  a  palace,  a  prison  and  a  royal  mint  (a  government  building  where  coins  are  
made)  
• beautiful  Romanesque  churches  and  cathedrals  (the  Durham  Cathedral)  
 
King  William  II     After  his  death,  William  the  Conqueror  was  followed  at  the  throne  by  his  sons,  William   II  and  
(1087-­‐1100)   later,  Henry   I.  In  1120,  Henry  I’s  son  and  heir,  William,  died  and  despite  the  fact  that  the  king  

  5  
   tried   to   persuade   his   barons   to   accept   his   daughter   Matilda   as   his   heir,   she   never   became  
King  Henry  I   queen.  Nevertheless,  Matilda  remained  famous  in  the  British  history  as  a  she-­‐wolf.  She  was  the  
granddaughter   of   William   the   Conqueror   and   daughter   of   Henry   I,   and   she   married   the   Holy  
(1100-­‐1135)  
Roman   Emperor.   She   was   the   rightful   heir   on   her   father’s   death   in   1135   but,   partly   because   she  
  was   a   woman,   her   cousin   Stephen   of   Blois   seized   the   throne.   Matilda   nevertheless   gained  
King  Stephen     control   for   a   few   months   in   1141.   Yet,   the   result   was   almost   20   years   of   civil   war   that   ended  
(1135-­‐1154)   with  King  Stephen’s  agreement  to  leave  the  throne  to  Matilda’s  son,  Henry  II.  
 
The   Henry  II   Henry   II   married   Eleanor   of   Aquitaine.   Eleanor  of  Aquitaine   is   better   known   than   Matilda   and  
Plantagenets   (1154-­‐1189)   she  apparently  was  a  political  animal  of  much  skill.  She  was  the  powerful  heiress  of  Aquitaine  in  
her  own  right,  queen  consort  of  first  France  and  then  England,  and  at  various  times  during  the  
(the  12th    
late  12th  century  she  challenged  male  dominance.  Like  her  mother-­‐in-­‐law,  Matilda,  she  has  also  
century)   remained   in   history   known   as   a   she-­‐wolf.   She   helped   her   sons   to   rebel   against   her   husband  
  Henry   II,   paying   for   it   with   a   decade   of   house   arrest   –   and   later   she   effectively   ruled   England   on  
behalf  of  her  son,  Richard  the  Lionheart,  who  was  on  crusade  during  the  early  1190s.  
 
King  Richard  I     Richard  may  have  been  a  very  brave  soldier,  but  he  wasn’t  a  very  good  king.  He  only  spent  seven  
(1198-­‐1199)   months  of  his  10-­‐year  reign  in  England.  The  rest  of  the  time  he  was  either  fighting  on  Crusades  
in  the  Middle  East  or  defending  his  territory  in  France.  
 
 
v his  nickname  was  Richard  the  Lionheart  for  his  bravery  in  battle  
v in  1192,  he  was  imprisoned  in  Austria  on  his  return  from  the  Crusades  and  he  was  only  
released   on   payment   of   a   huge   ransom   (money   demanded   for   the   return   of   a   captured  
person)  that  nearly  bankrupted  England  
 
King  John     King  John  inherited  his  throne  of  England  and  huge  ancestral  lands  in  France  from  his  brother  
(1199-­‐1216)   Richard  I.  He  also  inherited  a  lot  of  problems,  including  serious  financial  difficulties.  Very  early  
in  his  reign,  by  1204,  he  lost  all  his  French  territories  in  a  conflict  with  the  King  of  France,  and  
the   effect   of   this   was   to   leave   John   seriously   weakened,   and   particularly   so   in   relation   to   his  
senior   barons,   who   almost   all   held   domains   in   Normandy   as   well   as   England.   He   imposed   harsh  
laws  and  high  taxes,  making  himself  unpopular  with  the  people.  
v Magna  Carta,   issued   in   June   1215,   was   an   attempt   to   prevent   an   immediate   civil   war.   It  
was  the  result  of  negotiations  between  the  king’s  party  and  a  group  of  rebellious  barons,  
negotiations   facilitated   by   the   Archbishop   of   Canterbury,   Stephen   Langton.   These   took  

  6  
 place   on   ‘neutral’   territory   at   Runnymede,   near   the   royal   castle   at   Windsor.   By   this  
agreement,  the  king  guaranteed  many  rights  which  he  or  his  officials  had  disputed,  and  
these   included   such   things   as   the   freedom   of   the   Church,   the   rights   of   towns,   and   that  
justice   could   not   be   bought   or   sold.   The   agreement   at   Runnymede   also   placed   several  
restrictions  on  the  king’s  future  action.  
v Magna   Carta   (Latin   for   "Great   Charter")   is   one   of   the   most   celebrated   documents   in  
English   history.   At   the   time   (1215)   it   was   the   solution   to   a   political   crisis   in   Medieval  
England  but  its  importance  has  endured  as  it  has  become  recognised  as  a  cornerstone  of  
liberty  influencing  much  of  the  civilized  world.  
v Magna  Carta  is  famous  as  a  symbol  of  justice,  fairness,  and  human  rights.  For  centuries,  it  
has  inspired  and  encouraged  movements  for  freedom  and  constitutional  government  in  
Britain   and   around   the   world.   But   when   it   was   issued   by   England’s   King   John   in   June  
1215  it  was  an  attempt  to  prevent  a  civil  war  between  the  king  and  his  powerful  barons.  
v Many   experts   today   regard   the   Magna   Carta   as   the   first   step   towards   parliamentary  
democracy.  
 
*  As  the  fourth  child,  inherited  lands  were  not  available  to  him,  giving  rise  to  his  nickname,  John  
the  Lackland.  
 
*  The  Middle     v During  the  Middle  Ages,  the  concept  of  courtly  love  emerged  and  became  a  widespread  
Ages   feature  of  the  Arthurian  legends  and  the  songs  of  the  troubadours.  Aristocratic  men  and  
women   in   medieval   literature   formed   extramarital   liaisons;   sometimes,   young   men   grew  
enamoured   of   a   married   woman,   who   was   more   often   than   not   trapped   in   a   loveless,  
passionless   marriage,   forged   out   of   economic   or   political   reasons.   The   young   man   would  
then  woo  the  lady  with  flowers  and  tokens  of  love:  “A  lover  may  freely  accept  from  her  
beloved  these  things:  a  handkerchief,  a  hair  band,  a  circlet  of  gold  or  silver,  a  brooch  for  
the   breast,   a   mirror,   a   belt,   a   purse,   a   lace   for   clothes,   a   comb,   cuffs,   gloves,   a   ring,   a   little  
box  of  scent,  a  portrait,  toiletries,  little  vases,  trays,  a  standard  as  a  keepsake  of  the  lover,  
and,  to  speak  more  generally,  a  lady  can  accept  from  her  love  whatever  small  gift  may  be  
useful  in  the  care  of  her  person,  or  may  look  charming,  or  may  remind  her  of  her  lover,  
providing,   however,   that   in   accepting   the   gift   it   is   clear   that   she   is   acting   quite   without  
avarice”;  she,  in  turn,  would  encourage  him  with  a  furtive  glance.  The  relationship   was  
not   physically   consummated,   although   there   were   separate   cases   when   the   two  
protagonists  would  step  beyond  the  literary  convention,  such  as  Guinevere  and  Lancelot.  
Similarly   to   the   jousting   moments   during   the   tournaments,   courtly   love   may   also   be  
  7  
 considered   the   exact   counterpart   of   those   tournaments.   During   a   tournament,   the   young  
knight  would  risk  his  life  with  a  view  to  enhancing  his  worth  and  defeating  his  adversary.  
Similarly,   in   the   game   of   courtly   love,   the   young   man   is   constantly   trying   to   break   the  
lady’s   defences,   to   capture   his   possession.   Yet,   the   game   of   courtly   love   was   a   game   of  
moderation,  as  the  young  man  had  to  learn  how  to  control  his  insatiable  carnal  desires.  
 
v However,  the  status   of   women   during   the   Middle   Ages  was  somehow  different  from  
the   idealized   image   of   the   lady   of   the   manor:   “Women   were   considered   inferior   in  
medieval   society.   The   relationship   between   the   sexes   was   based   on   power,   and   women’s  
major   function   was   seen   as   that   of   gratifying   basic   drives,   providing   physical   pleasure  
and   sensual   satisfaction.   The   knights   of   the   ninth   and   tenth   centuries   did   not   behave  
particularly   delicately   towards   their   own   wives,   or   women   of   lower   rank.   Wife-­‐beating  
and   rape   (inside   or   outside   marriage)   was   not   uncommon.   Women   in   the   castles,  
especially  when  their  husbands  were  away  on  battles,  were  constantly  vulnerable  to  the  
advances   of   other   men,   familiar   or   passers-­‐by.   The   pervasive   image   we   have   of   the  
‘courtly   love’   tradition   is   the   exception   that   proves   the   rule.   It   is   only   the   relation   of   a  
socially  inferior  and  dependent  man  to  a  woman  of  a  higher  rank  (troubadour  to  a  lady)  
that   leads   to   the   restraint   and   consequent   transformation   of   drives.   Courtly   love   was  
intended   as   a   showcase   for   values   of   virility,   and   the   skills   of   a   cultivated   and   refined  
person.  In  courtly  love  women  were  portrayed  as  objects  of  love.  Love,  not  the  woman  
herself,  caused  the  hero  to  act.  It  gave  him  an  excuse  for  self-­‐restraint  and  provided  a  test  
of  honour  and  virtue  in  front  of  the  two-­‐faced  lady.  One  face  of  this  lady  is  the  virginal  
woman   who   embodies   divine   virtues,   whereas   the   other   is   a   demonic   heartless  
seductress   whose   earthly   sensuality   makes   her   a   sexual   (but   unattainable)   object   of  
desire.  The  first  image  personifies  the  lover’s  dream,  the  other  his  nightmare”.  
 
(the  14  and  
th The  Plantagentets   § For   more   than   a   hundred   years   England   was   at   war   with   France.   This   was   called   The  
15  centuries)   House  of  Lancaster  
th Hundred   Years   War   (1337-­‐1453),   during   which   five   English   kings   fought   against   five  
French  kings.  The  English  kings  wanted  to  get  back  their  lands  in  France,  but  by  1453  England  
House  of  York  
had  lost  all  its  lands  in  France  except  for  Calais.  
 
v The  Hundred  Years  War  was  interrupted  in  1348  by  the  Black  Death.  This  plague,  which  
was  carried  by  rats  from  Asia,  killed  thousands  of  people  all  over  Europe  including  about  
one  third  of  the  English  population.  
v In  1398  Geoffrey  Chaucer  published  The   Canterbury   Tales,  the  most  important  work  of  
  8  
 literature   in   English   from   the   Middle   Ages.   It   is   an   excellent   account   of   fourteenth  
century  life  and  customs  in  medieval  England.        
 
§ A  civil  war  began  in  England  in  1455  between  two  rival  families  who  both  wanted  the  English  
throne.  The  war  was  called  the   Wars   of   the   Roses  because  the  emblem  of  both  families  was  a  
rose   –   the   House   of   Lancaster   had   a   red   rose   and   the   House   of   York   had   a   white   one.   The   war  
ended   in   1485   when   Henry   Tudor,   a   member   of   the   House   of   Lancaster,   married   Elizabeth   of  
York,  uniting  thus  the  two  houses.  
 
The  Tudors     King  Henry  VII   In   1458,   Henry   Tudor   of   the   House   of   Lancaster   defeated   King   Richard   III   at   the   Battle   of  
  (1458-­‐1509)   Bosworth  (1458)  and  became  thus  King  Henry  VII.  He  adopted  the  Tudor  rose  as  his  badge.  It  
combined  the  red  rose  of  Lancaster  and  the  white  Rose  of  York.  
(the  16th  
 
century)   Henry  VIII  is  probably  England’s  most  famous  monarch.    
King  Henry  VIII  
   
(1509-­‐1547)  
The   v He  became  king  in  1509,  at  the  age  of  17.  
Renaissance   v He  was  a  tall,  robust,  athletic  young  man  who  excelled  at  sports.  
  v He  played  several  musical  instruments  and  composed  music.  
  v He  spoke  English,  Spanish,  French  and  Latin.  
v He  loved  reading  books.  
v He  loved  luxury  and  lavished  huge  a  amount  of  money  on  splendid  royal  residences  and  
palaces   (Whitehall   Palace   and   St   James’s   Palace   were   home   to   the   English   court   before  
Queen  Victoria  moved  it  to  Buckingham  Palace  in  the  19th  century).  
v He  was  married  six  times.  
v His  greatest  desire  was  to  have  a  son  who  would  be  king    after  his  death.  Since  his  first  
wife,  Catherine  of  Aragon,  did  not  give  him  a  male  heir,  he  wanted  to  divorce  her,  marry  
again   another   woman   and   produce   a   son   to   secure   the   Tudor   dynasty.   The   Catholic  
Church   however   did   not   permit   divorce   and   this   infuriated   him.   This   led   him   to   break  
with   the   Catholic   Church   in   Rome   and   so   he   founded   the  Church  of  England   (1534)  and  
became  its  leader.    
v He   chose   the   famous   German   artist   Hans   Holbein   as   Court   painter   and   he   painted  
splendid   portraits   of   Henry   VIII   and   his   family.   These   portraits   were   designed   to   show  
the   king’s   economic   power,   his   wealth   (the   formal   clothing   –   embroidered   velvet,   gold  
cloth,  fur  cape,  heavy  jewellery  and  precious  stones  -­‐  he  wears  in  theses  portraits  cost  as  
much  as  a  ship)  and  also  his  chivalry.  
  9  
  
King  Edward  VI     King   Edward   VI  was  the  only  son  of  Henry  VIII  and  his  third  wife,  Jane  Seymour.  He  was  the  
(1547-­‐1553)   first  English  monarch  to  be  born  and  brought  up  as  a  Protestant  in  the  new  English  Church.  
 
v He   was   only   nine   when   he   became   king,   so   his   uncle,   the   Duke   of   Somerset,   ran   the  
country  for  him.  
v Under  his  uncle’s  influence,  Edward  suppressed  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  while  bringing  
the  English  Church  closer  to  the  ideas  of  European  Protestants.  (*  People  in  those  times  
in   Europe   were   disillusioned   with   the   Catholic   Church,   because   it   was   too   rich   and  
powerful.   The   Reformation,   begun   by   the   German   theologian   Martin   Luther,   divided  
Christians   all   over   Europe   and   gave   rise   to   the   Protestant   Church,   which   Henry   VIII  
himself  adopted  to  secure  his  divorce  from  his  first  wife,  Catherine  of  Aragon)    
 
Queen  Mary  I     Mary   was   the   daughter   of   Henry   VIII   and   his   first   wife,   the   Catholic   Catherine   of   Aragon.  
(1553-­‐1558)   Although   during   the   first   year   of   her   reign   she   was   supported   by   the   majority   of   the   English  
people,  after  she  tried  to  re-­‐impose  the  Catholic  Church  and  then  married  her  catholic  cousin,  
Prince  Phillip  of  Spain,  she  became  very  unpopular.    
 
v Her  nickname  was  “Bloody   Mary”  on  account  of  her  persecution  of  Protestants.  They  
were   hounded   out   of   important   jobs   and   300   were   burned   at   the   stake   for   their  
religious  beliefs.  
v She  was  the  first  woman  to  be  proclaimed  queen  regnant  of  England.  (*  until  then,  the  
only  meaning  of  the  word  queen  was  ‘the  wife  of  a  king’)  
 
Queen  Elizabeth  I   Elizabeth   was  the  daughter  of  Henry  VIII  and  his  second  wife,  Anne  Boleyn.  She  is  one  of  the  
(1558-­‐1603)   most  famous  monarchs  in  British  history  for  several  reasons:  
 
v She  became  Queen  of  England  when  she  was  25vyears  old.  
v She   was   a   strong,   intelligent   and   dedicated   queen.   An   extremely   skilled   politician,   she  
turned   England   from   a   weak,   divided   kingdom   into   a   proud   and   prosperous   nation.   She  
brought  peace,  unity  and  progress  to  England.  
v She  is  known  as  the  “Virgin   Queen”  as  she  never  married.  Moreover,  she  claimed  she  
was  married  to  England.  
v She   is   famous   for   defeating   the   Spanish   Armada,   a   fleet   of   ships   sent   by   Philip   II   of  
Spain  to  invade  England  in  1558.  (*  Apparently,  the  Spanish  Armada  was  defeated  more  
  10  
 by   the   weather   than   by   the   English   navy   and   the   war   with   Spain   seriously   damaged   the  
English   economy.   Yet,   this   event   is   remembered   as   a   truly   glorious   event   in   history   and  
it  has  remained  a  symbol  of  Britain’s  seafaring  success.)  
v Elizabeth’s   reign   was   a   golden   age   –   the   Elizabethan   Age   –   when   arts   flourished.  
Elizabeth  was  a  true  patron  of  the  theatre  and  the  arts.  Her  court  became  a  centre  for  
musicians,   playwrights   and   artists.   Theatres   opened   in   London   and   people   from   all  
social   classes   went   to   the   theatre,   which   became   a   popular   form   of   entertainment.  
William   Shakespeare   (1564-­‐1616),   the   famous   English   poet   and   playwright,   lived  
during   the   Elizabethan   Age.   His   theatrical   company   performed   at   the   famous   Globe  
Theatre  and  at  Elizabeth’s  Court.  Shakespeare  was  the  most  popular  playwright  of  his  
time.  Other  important  poets  and  writers  who  produced  dazzling  works  to  be  performed  
at  her  court  were  Edmund  Spencer,  Ben  Jonson  and  Christopher  Marlowe.    
v She  commissioned  a  great  number  of  portraits  of  herself.  These  portraits  contributed  to  
ensuring  the  loyal  devotion  of  her  subjects  and  to  her  popularity  and  were  part  of  the  
political  propaganda.  In  these  portraits  every  detail  has  a  symbolic  meaning.  
v She  was  the  last  Tudor  monarch.  
 
  **   During   the   English   Renaissance   (1509-­‐1603)   the   world   changed   considerably.   New  
methods   of   navigation,   the   compass   and   a   new   worldview   opened   the   seas   for   European  
countries,   among   them   England   (Britain   from   1707).   Explorations   and   discoveries   led   to  
opportunities   never   available   before   and   England,   with   King   Henry   VIII   (1509-­‐1547)   and   his  
daughter   Elizabeth   I   (1558-­‐1603)   on   the   throne,   began   to   take   advantage   of   trade,   both   for  
commercial   and   political   reasons.   Henry   made   himself   King   of   Ireland   in   1541   and   imported  
products  like  wine  and  cheese  from  France,  and  Elizabeth  sent  an  expedition  to  Virginia  (named  
after  Elizabeth  who  was  called  the  Virgin  Queen)  in  America  in  1584.  The  Colony  of  Virginia  was  
established  in  1607  and  the  general  notion  in  the  17th  century  was  that  trade  would  be  far  more  
productive  and  commercially  profitable  if  colonies  were  founded.  
 
The   thirteen   American   colonies   formed   the   core   of   Britain’s   First   Empire.   But   when   the  
colonies   gained   independence   from   Britain   after   the   American   War   of   Independence   in   1776,  
Britain   had   to   look   elsewhere   for   replacement   territories.   During   the   17th   and   18th   centuries  
Australia  and  New  Zealand  gradually  came  under  British  control.  Canada  remained  loyal  to  the  
British  crown  despite  American  independence.  
 

  11  
The  Stuarts   King  James  I  of   King  James  VI  of  Scotland  became  King  James  I  of  England.  
and  the  Civil   England    
v He   was   the   first   king   of   the   house   of   Stuart.   When   he   ascended   the   English   throne  
War     (1603-­‐1625)  
(1603),  after  Queen  Elizabeth’s  death,  he  had  already  been  king  of  Scotland  for  36  years.  
    v He  united  the  crowns  of  Scotland  and  England.  
(the  17th   v He  was  unpopular,  particularly  with  the  Catholics.  
century  and   v He  was  arrogant,  lazy  and  lavished  money  on  hunting  and  banquets.  
early  18th   v He   strongly   believed   in   the   Divine   Right   of   kings.   His   belief   however   (that   his   power  
century)   was  divine)  was  not  shared  by  the  majority  of  Parliament  or  the  people.  
v He   was   the   first   to   have   the   Bible   translated   into   English   (King   James’s   Authorised  
Version  is  probably  the  most  famous  version  of  the  Bible).  
v The   most   significant   image   we   have   of   James   I   is   probably   the   portrait   which   Rubens  
painted  as  part  of  the  decorations  for  the  ceiling  of  the  Banqueting  House  of  London.      
 
King  Charles  I   Like  his  father,  King  James  I,  King  Charles  I  believed  that  a  king  ruled  by  Divine  Right,  and  when  
(1625-­‐1649)   the  Parliament  tried  to  limit  his  power,  he  dismissed  it  (1629)  and  ruled  without  it  for  eleven  
years.  In  1640  however,  he  called  Parliament  together  again  because  he  was  in  desperate  need  
 
of   money   to   fight   against   the   Scots.   Yet,   the   permanent   rivalry   between   Parliament   and   the  
monarchy  gave  rise  to  the  Civil  War,  one  of  the  most  violent  upheavals  in  British  history.    
Puritans,   a   strict   group   of   Protestants,   members   of   the   Parliament   and   working   people   who  
disliked   paying   the   king’s   taxes   were   known   as   ‘Roundheads’   and   fought   against   the   King.  
Catholics,   the   nobility   and   people   who   opposed   Parliament   were   known   as   ‘Royalists’   or  
‘Cavaliers’  and  fought  with  King  Charles  I.  
 
v Eventually,   King   Charles   was   taken   prisoner   and   after   a   seven-­‐day   trial   for   treason   he  
was  found  guilty  and  executed  in  public  on  30  January  1649.  
v He  was  the  only  reigning  British  monarch  ever  to  be  executed.    
 
The  Protectorate   After  the  execution  of  King  Charles  I,  for  the  first  time  in  its  history,  Britain  was  governed  as  a  
(1649-­‐1660)   republic  known  as  Commonwealth.    
 
 
v Oliver  Cromwell  was  made  Lord  Protector  of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland  and  the  
Oliver  Cromwell  as   colonies.  
Lord  Protector   v The  Protectorate  was  a  period  of  Puritanism  –  dancing  and  drinking  were  forbidden  in  
public  and  theatres  were  closed.  The  people  were  also  forbidden  to  celebrate  Christmas  
  12  
 and  Easter,  or  play  games  in  Sundays    
v During  The  Protectorate  (the  republican  administration)–  Oliver  Cromwell  (the  
Lord  Protector)  –  who  was  a  Puritan  -­‐  had  far  greater  powers  than  king  Charles  I  had  
had;  he  wanted  to  govern  the  country  through  the  army  
 
The  Restoration   When  Cromwell  died  in  1658  his  son,  Richard,  became  the  new  Lord  Protector.  However  he  was  
  not   very   popular   and   consequently   in   1660   Charles   I’s   son,   Charles   II,   was   invited   to   return  
from  abroad  to  become  King.  
King  Charles  II  
 
(1660-­‐1685)   v The   people   were   very   happy   to   have   a   king   after   the   strict   Puritan   rule   of   Cromwell.  
  Charles  restored  many  forms  of  entertainment  (the  court  masques,  theatre,  coffee  houses  
etc.)  and  this  made  him  very  popular  with  the  people.  
v The  king’s  nickname  was  “the   Merry   Monarch”  because  of  his  pursuit  of  pleasure  (*he  
“never  said  a  foolish  thing,  nor  ever  did  a  wise  one”).  
v As  this  century  was  marked  by  great  progress  in  science,  the  Royal  Society  was  founded  
to   encourage   the   study   of   Science   (*Isaac   Newton   made   outstanding   discoveries   in   the  
fields  of  mathematics  and  physics)  
v During   the   Restoration   the   British   Empire   grew   in   North   America   and   in   the   Far   East.  
New  products  such  as  coffee,  tea  and  sugar  arrived  from  the  colonies  and  became  very  
popular,  creating  trade  and  wealth.  
v Two   disasters   hit   London   during   Charles   II’s   reign:   the   Plague   in   1665   and   the   Great  
Fire  in  1666  
v After   the   Great   Fire,   the   King   asked   the   great   architect   Christopher   Wren   to   design   a  
new  capital.  Wren  designed  many  churches  and  public  buildings  in  the  classical  style,  but  
his   masterpiece   was   St.   Paul’s   Cathedral   (started   1675   –   finished   1710)   with   its  
magnificent  dome  
 
King  James  II   After  the  death  of  Charles  II  in  1658,  his  brother  James   II  became  king.    Being  himself  a  Catholic,  
(1685-­‐1688)   King  James  II:  
v favoured  Catholics  with  important  jobs  
 
v planned  to  restore  Catholicism  as  the  country’s  official  faith  
 
His   plans   alarmed   Parliament   and   consequently   he   was   forced   to   flee   to   France.   His   escape  
became  known  as  the  Glorious  Revolution  (1688),  because  no  blood  was  shed.  

  13  
 Mary  II  and  William   After   the   Glorious   Revolution   (1688),   which   was   rather   a   coup   d’état   than   a   revolution,  
III  (of  Orange)   Parliament  made  William   of   Orange  (the  Protestant  ruler  of  Holland  married  to  king  James   II’s  
daughter,   Mary   II)   king,   not   by   inheritance   but   by   their   choice.   Parliament   was   now   beyond  
(1989-­‐1702)  
question   more   powerful   than   the   king,   and   would   remain   so   –   the   power   over   the   monarch   was  
written  into  the  Bill  of  Rights  in  1689.  
 
v In  1701  Parliament  finally  passed  the  Act  of  Settlement,  to  make  sure  only  a  Protestant  
could  inherit  the  Crown.  This  Act  has  remained  in  force  ever  since  –  even  today,  if  a  son  
or  daughter  of  the  monarch  becomes  catholic,  he  or  she  cannot  inherit  the  Crown  
 
Queen  Anne   Anne   was   the   last   of   the   Stuart   monarchs.   Her   reign   lasted   only   12   years,   but   is   saw   Britain  
(1702-­‐1714)   emerge  as  one  of  the  main  powers  in  Europe  after  a  series  of  victories  against  France  and  Spain.  
 
 
v During  her  reign,  in  1707,  the  Act   of   Union  united  England,  Scotland  and  Wales  under  
one  Parliament  and  they  become  known  as  the  United  Kingdom.  
v Anne  had  at  least  17  or  18  pregnancies,  but  she  gave  birth  to  only  five  babies,  and  none  
of  those  lived  beyond  the  age  of  eleven.  
 
  Important  scientific  developments:    
 
v Francis  Bacon  (he  became  King  James  I’s  Lord  Chancellor)    
v William  Harvey  –  discovered  the  circulation  of  blood  in  1628  
v Sir   Isaac   Newton   –   began   to   study   gravity   (1684)   –   his   work   remained   the   basis   of  
physics  until  Einstein’s  discoveries  in  the  twentieth  century  
v Improvement   of   the   printing   techniques   (the   first   newspapers   appeared   in   the  
seventeenth   century   and   they   represented   a   new   way   of   spreading   all   kinds   of   ideas,  
scientific,   religious   and   literary.   Many   of   them   included   advertising.   In   1660   Charles   II  
advertised  for  his  lost  dog)  
 
Entertainment:  coffeehouses  (visited  by  the  rich  of  London  to  discuss  politics)  and  ‘alehouses’  
(drinking  houses  visited  by  ordinary  people)  
 
The  Georgian   King  George  III   Before   the   end   of   the   18th   century,   most   British   people   lived   and   worked   in   the   countryside.  
Age  and  the   (1760-­‐1820)   Many   were   farmers,   others   worked   in   their   homes   as   carpenters   or   weavers.   New   inventions   of  
the   18th   century   brought   radical   changes   to   the   way   people   lived   and   worked.   Britain   was  
  14  
Industrial     rapidly   changing   from   an   agricultural   society   to   an   industrial   one.   Communication   and  
Revolution     King  George  IV     transportation  improved  as  a  consequence  of  the  Industrial  Revolution.  Roads  were  improved  
and  canals  were  built  to  transport  goods.  Stage  coaches  (vehicles  pulled  by  horses  that  carried  
  (1820-­‐1830)  
people  or  goods)  began  travelling  regularly  between  London  and  other  towns.  
(the  late  18th      
and  early  19th   King   George   III’s   60   years   reign   saw   the   Industrial   Revolution   and   the   expansion   of   the  
centuries)   British   Empire   make   Britain   one   of   the   world’s   powerful   nations.   Nevertheless,   it   was   also  
during   his   reign   that   the   British   colonies   in   North   America   won   their   independence.   (*The  
American  Revolution  was  the  first  colonial  revolt  in  the  British  Empire.)    
 
The   power   of   Great   Britain   was   also   threatened   in   Europe.   At   the   beginning   of   the   1800s   the  
ambitious  French  Emperor  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  man  of  amazing  leadership  qualities,  ruled  
most   of   Europe.   The   Napoleonic   Wars   between   Great   Britain   and   France   begun   in   1803   and  
lasted  until  1815  when  the  French  were  finally  defeated  at  Waterloo,  in  Belgium,  and  Napoleon  
was  exiled  to  the  island  of  St.  Helena  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  where  he  died  in  1821.  After  
Napoleon’s  defeat  Britain  remained  the  greatest  military  and  industrial  nation  in  the  world.    
 
But  in  1811  when  George  III  became  too  ill  to  rule  (he  apparently  suffered  from  a  blood  disease  
called  porphyria,  which  affected  his  nervous  system  yet  at  the  time  people  thought  he  was  mad)  
his  son  George  IV  was  made  Prince  Regent.    
 
*The  Regency  is  a  period  when  the  state  is  ruled  by  a  person,  or  group  of  persons,  selected  to  
act   as   head   of   state   because   the   ruler   is   minor,   not   present,   or   debilitated   –   as   George   III   was  
supposed  to  be.  
 
v 1811-­‐1820:   The   English   Regency   was   a   flamboyant   era   highly   celebrated   for   its   art,  
architecture  and  fashion,  but  also  remembered  through  its  Prince  Regent,  George   IV,  a  
spendthrift,  a  sexual  adventurer  and  a  scandalmonger.  (After  9  years  of  regency,  George  
IV  became  king  for  10  years  during  1820-­‐1830.  When  he  died  he  was  extremely  fat  and  
unpopular.)  
v The   Regency   is   also   to   be   noted   for   its   creation   of   consumer   culture:   dandyism,   an  
aesthetic  doctrine  and  a  cultural  phenomenon.  
 
King  William  IV     After  George  IV’s  death,  he  was  succeeded  at  the  throne  by  his  brother  William  IV  (1830-­‐1837)  
who   was   much   more   down-­‐to-­‐earth   than   his   extravagant   brother.   (*He   was   nicknamed   “Silly  
  15  
 (1830-­‐1837)   Billy”   because   of   his   gruff   manner.)   He   made   a   good   king   and   important   social   changes   were  
  introduced  during  his  reign:    
 
v 1832:   The   Reform   Bill   –   made   the   parliamentary   system   fairer   (it   was   encouraged   by  
the   American   War   of   Independence   and   the   French   Revolution);   the   total   number   of  
voters   increased   by   50   per   cent.   The   Bill   was   a   political   recognition   that   Britain   had  
become  an  urban  society.  
v 1833:   The   Factory   Act   –   prohibited   small   children   from   working   in   factories   (slavery  
was  hence  abolished  throughout  the  British  Empire).  
 
The  Victorian   Queen  Victoria   William  IV  was  succeeded  at  the  throne  by  his  niece,  Victoria  (1837-­‐1901)  who  reigned  for  64  
Age   (1837-­‐  1901)   years   (*up   to   now   the   longest   in   British   history   –   the   present   queen,   Queen   Elizabeth   II  
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1952)  and  who  was  known  as   “the  Grandmother  of  Europe”  as  so  
 
many  of  today’s  European  royal  families  are  descendent  from  her.  
(the  19th    
century)   v During   Victoria’s   reign   the   British   Empire   grew   into   the  largest  empire  the  world   had  
ever  known.  It  covered  one  fifth  of  the  earth’s  surface,  with  a  population  of  about  370  
million   people.   (Canada,   Australia,   New   Zeeland,   India,   Burma,   large   parts   of   Africa,  
Singapore,  Malaysia,  parts  of  Indonesia,  Borneo  and  New  Guinea)  
v The   British   loved   Queen   Victoria   because   she   was   an   intelligent,   dedicated   and  
responsible  queen,  who  was  interested  in  all  aspects  of  British  life.  
v After   the   premature   death   of   her   beloved   husband,   consort   Prince   Albert,   Victoria  
retreated  from  public  life  for  13  years,  which  made  her  very  unpopular  at  the  time  (she  
was   even   nicknamed   “the  widow  of  Windsor”).   Nevertheless,   her   popularity   recovered  
after  she  went  public  again  when  she  attended  her  husband  death’s  anniversary  in  1872.    
v It   is   assumed   that   during   her   reign   the   monarchy   attained   the   prestige   it   enjoys  
nowadays,  as  her  predecessors  had  been  little  respected  and  their  scandalous  lives  had  
made  the  British  population  lose  their  respect  as  regards  the  institution  of  the  monarchy.    
o 1840:   The   Penny   Black   Stamp   introduced   cheap   postage,   ensuring   cheap  
communication   for   everyone   (it   only   cost   a   penny   to   send   a   letter   anywhere   in  
Great  Britain);  the  Royal  Mail  prided  itself  on  efficient  service;  over  the  years  it  
has   remained   one   of   the   best   postal   services   in   the   world.   (Efficient  
communication  enabled  radicals  and  workers  to  organise  themselves  across  the  
country   far   better   than   before.   Working   together   for   the   first   time,   unions,  
workers   and   radicals   put   forward   a   People’s   Charter   in   1838   –   the   Chartist  
  16  
 movement.)  
o It   was   the   century   of   steam   and   speed.   The   invention   of   the   railway   and   of   the  
steam   engine  revolutionised  Britain’s  travel  and  transportation-­‐  industries  and  
farms   were   able   to   transport   their   goods   to   all   parts   of   the   country.   Moreover,  
Victorians  started  going  on  day  trips  and  taking  holidays  at  the  seaside.  (Britain  
was  crossed  by  rail  lines  and  trains  by  the  middle  of  the  19th  century.)  
o As  Britain  became  more  prosperous  than  any  other  nation,  one  of  the  best  ways  
of   publicising   new   goods   was   to   show   them   at   the   Universal   Expositions,   the  
most  famous  of  which  was  the  Great   Exhibition,  held  in  London’s  Hyde  Park  in  
1851.    
o Paradoxically   however,   many   parts   of   London   and   other   large   cities   were   very  
dangerous,   particularly   after   dark   as   many   people   went   to   towns   and   cities   to  
find   jobs   and   these   became   overcrowded,   dirty   and   polluted.   It   was   for   this  
reason  that  the  first  regular  police  force  was  established  by  Sir  Robert  ‘Bob’  Peel,  
after   whom   the   new   police   were   nicknamed   “bobbies”.     (*The   rich   and   the  
middle  and  upper  classes  went  to  live  in  the  suburbs  where  the  air  was  clean.)  
o Charles   Dickens   wrote   about   social   injustice   and   poverty   in   his   unforgettable  
novels  which  awakened  the  public  conscience.  
o 1870-­‐1891:  the  Education  Act  according  to  which  education  was  compulsory  for  
children   from   five   to   ten;   public   school   was   supported   by   local   taxes.   However,  
the  terrible  problem  of  child  labour  still  remained.    
 
The  House  of   King  Edward  VII   After   Queen   Victoria’s   death   in   1901,   her   son   Edward   VII   became   king.   He   was   59   when   he  
Hanover  and   (1901-­‐1910)   became   king,   with   a   reputation   as   a   pleasure-­‐seeking   playboy.   So   he   surprised   everyone,   by  
being  rather  good  at  the  job.  Great  Britain  had  just  stepped  into  the  20th  century  when:  
the  House  of  
 
Windsor   v the  first  cars  appeared  on  the  roads  but  only  the  rich  could  afford  them  at  first  
  v telephones  and  electric  lightning  were  beginning  to  appear  in  the  homes  of  the  wealthy  
(the  20th   v the  first  cinemas  with  silent  films  opened  (this  was  a  huge  success  with  everyone)  
century)   v the  first  Women’s  Social  and  Political  Union  (WSPU)  was  founded  in  1903;  members  of  
the   WSPU   were   called   suffragettes,   and   fought   for   women’s   right   to   vote   (suffrage)   by  
protesting   in   the   streets.   They   were   often   taken   to   prison!   Women   over   30   finally  
obtained  the  right  to  vote  in  1918.  
v about  one  third  of  the  population  was  poverty  stricken  and  lived  in   miserable  conditions  
and  the  government  passed  several  laws  to  alleviate  the  suffering  of  the  poor:  it  started  
  17  
 giving   free   school   meals   to   poor   children   and   pensions   to   people   over   70   years   of   age.  
The  National  Insurance  Act  gave  workers  free  medical  help  and  a  small  amount  of  money  
when  they  were  ill.  
 
King  George  V   In  May  1910  King  Edward  VII  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  who  became  King  George  V.  
(1910-­‐1936)   He   proved   to   be   a   capable   and   dedicated   leader   during   the   World  War  I   (1914)   and   during   the  
difficult  period  which  followed.  
 
v In  1917,  because  of  strong  anti-­‐German  feeling  of  the  British  during  the  World  War  II,  the  
king  changed  the  royal  family’s  name  of  Hanover  (Saxo-­‐Coburg-­‐Gotha)  to  Windsor.  
v All   of   Europe   was   worried   about   the   growth   of   German   power.   Eventually   the   great  
European   powers   split   into   two   alliances:   Britain,   France   and   Russia,   and   Germany  
and  Austria-­‐Hungary.  
v Due   to   the   post-­‐war   economic   situation   and   the   worldwide   depression   (1931)  
characterised  by  high  unemployment,  hunger  and  poverty,  Britain  could  no  longer  afford  
to  keep  an  empire.  
v In   1931   Parliament   passed   a   statute   (law)   that   recognised   the   dominions’   complete  
independence   from   Britain.   The   dominions   became   equal   members   of   the   organisation  
known  as  the  British  Commonwealth.  
v The  most  important  change  was  the  decline  in  British  trade,  since  Britain  was  no  longer  
the   only   international   industrial   power.   The   United   States   and   Germany   had   become  
strong  competitors.  Japan  and  China  entered  the  world  market.  
v In   1932,   George   V   became   the   first   British   monarch   t   make   a   Christmas   broadcast   on   the  
radio.  
 
King  Edward  VIII   Edward  VIII  preferred  parties  to  royal  duties,  and  was  determined  to  marry  Wallis  Simpson,  an  
(1936)   American  woman  who  had  already  been  married  twice.  He  was  advised  that  he  had  to  choose  
between  her  and  his  throne.  He  abdicated,  marrying  Mrs  Simpson  six  month  later.  
After  his  abdication,  Edward  became  known  as  the  Duke  of  Windsor  and  lived  in  exile  in  France  
until  his  death  in1972.    
 
King  George  VI   George   VI   became   king   when   his   brother   Edward   VIII   abdicated.   He   was   extremely   shy   and  
(1936-­‐1952)   reluctant  to  be  king.  Two  years  after  his  coronation,  the  Second  World  War  (1939)  broke  out.  
During   the   bombing   of   London,   George   and   his   family   remained   in   the   city,   winning   the  
admiration  of  the  British  people.  
  18  
  
v Winston   Churchill,   a   brilliant   politician,   an   exceptional   leader   and   a   man   of   great  
courage,   became   Prime   Minister   in   1940.   During   that   summer   and   autumn   the   german  
Luftwaffe   attacked   British   airfields   and   then   bombed   London   and   other   cities   almost  
non-­‐stop.   Despite   the   dangerous   living   conditions   (300   to   600   were   killed   only   in  
London),  the  British  did  not  give  up.  The  battle  of  the  skies  was  known  as  the  Battle   of  
Britain.    
v Unlike   the   United   States,   Britain   was   devastated   by   the   war.   The   economy   was  
exhausted,   the   country   was   heavily   in   debt,   the   task   of   reconstruction   was   huge   and  
Britain   was   no   longer   an   empire.   She   received   several   billion   dollars   from   the   united  
States  Marshall  Plan,  which  greatly  helped  Britain  and  other  European  nations  destroyed  
by  the  war.  Britain’s  role  in  the  world  was  changing.  
 
Queen  Elizabeth  II   The   standard   of   living   rose   quickly   and   when   Elizabeth   II   was   crowned   in   1952   the   British  
(1952-­‐present)   optimistically   talked   about   Britain   entering   a   “New   Elizabethan   Age’.   During   her   reign   there  
have   been   great   changes   to   Britain’s   status   in   the   world,   with   the   end   of   empire   and   loss   of  
world  power.  Elizabeth  has  also  had  to  steer  the  monarchy  itself  through  a  period  of  change  and  
midernization.  
 
v In  the  twenty  years  following  World  War  II  Britain  experienced  an  economic  boom.  The  
government   was   committed   to   the   Welfare   State   and   to   maintain   a   high   level   of  
employment.  Money  was  spent  on  building  new  houses,  hospitals  and  roads.  
v Many  people  had  their  first  telephone  installed  and  bought  their  first  car,  record  player,  
portable  radio  and  television.  
v New  labour-­‐saving  devices  such  as  the  washing  machine  and  the  vacuum  cleaner  became  
common  household  goods.  
v The  symbols  of  a  new  lifestyle  became  the  symbols  of  Pop  Art,  one  of  the  most  important  
art  movements  of  the  second  half  of  the  20th  century.  
v The  word  ‘teenager’  was  first  used  in  the  1950s  to  indicate  a  new  generation  of  young  
people  with  buying  power  and  new  revolutionary  ideas  about  entertainment,  music  and  
fashion.    
v Pop   groups   such   as   The   Beatles   and   The   Rolling   Stones   have   had   an   enormous  
influence  on  youth  culture.  
v Young  designers  like  Mary  Quant  revolutionised  fashion  with  the  miniskirt  and  colourful,  
informal  clothes.  
  19  
 v During  the  1950s  and  1960s  Britain  remained  a  European  leader  economically  as  well  as  
politically.   But   Britain   suddenly   begun   to   slip   rapidly   behind   its   European   neighbours  
economically.  Among  the  most  alarming  problems:  
o rising  prices  
o growing  unemployment  
o new  social  problems  particularly  after  the  arrival  of  immigrants  in  Britain  
v Margaret   Thatcher   was   Britain’s   first   woman   Prime   Minister   and   also   the   longest  
serving   Prime   Minister   of   the   20th   century.   Her   style   and   her   views   appealed   to   many  
British  people  who  had  lost  confidence  in  the  Welfare  State.  In  some  ways  she  was  the  
first   genuine   leader   the   nation   had   had   since   Churchill,   the   politician   on   whom   she  
consciously   modelled   herself.   In   spite   of   the   fact   that   over   half   the   nation   disagreed   with  
her  policies,  they  were  unable  to  vote  her  out  of  office.  
 
Modern  times     The   monarchy   has   represented   an   ever-­‐present   symbol   of   the   British   state,   except   from   the  
  period   between   1649   to   1660,   when   the   English   Civil   War   brought   Oliver   Cromwell’s  
Protectorate.   Since   the   signing   of   the   Magna   Carta   (1215),   the   monarch’s   power   has   been  
(the  21st  
limited  and  this  has  constituted  a  centrepiece  of  British  politics.  The  very  personification  of  the  
century)   British   state,   the   Queen   nowadays   has   ceremonial   functions:   she   opens   Parliament   but   does   not  
take   part   in   its   deliberations   and   she   is   forbidden   to   enter   the   chamber   of   the   House   of  
Commons.  However,  the  monarch  has  the  responsibility  to  choose  the  Prime  Minister,  but  the  
person   she   chooses   is   the   leader   of   the   strongest   party   in   the   House   of   Commons,   therefore   her  
freedom   of   choice   is   limited,   since   the   PM   is   selected   by   the   members   of   the   party,   who   are  
chosen  in  their  turn  by  the  electorate.  The  Queen  is  also  expected  to  be  completely  neutral  as  far  
as  parties  are  concerned,  her  views  must  be  private  and  her  public  statements  are  a  result  of  her  
being   advised   by   her   ministers.   She   is   also   expected   to   undertake   tours   and   visits   in   Britain,   the  
Commonwealth  and  foreign  states  and  she  is  also  responsible  with  awarding  honours,  such  as  
knighthoods,  though  these  are  given  on  political  advice.  
 
 

  20