FOUNDATION REVIEW

COMPANION BOOKLET

Verbal Reasoning 2
 Foundation Review

Allow 4 minutes to read and map.

THE QUESTIONS
Map This Passage

Today, there is a fairly standard model of the factors

leading to heart disease. Most heart disease is caused by the
growth of fatty deposits, known as atherosclerotic plaques,
in coronary artery walls. Plaques narrow the width of
arteries and also lead to the formation of clots that can block
the flow of blood, eventually causing a heart attack. Factors
such as high blood pressure, smoking, and diabetes increase
the risk of heart disease. High levels of cholesterol and
saturated fats in the diet also increase the risk because they
contribute to plaque formation.
A sizable minority of coronary patients, however,
experience heart attacks even though they display few or no
standard risk factors. Recent research by Richard M. Lawn
suggests that lipoprotein(a), a blood protein first isolated in
the 1960s, may play a major role in such cases. Excessive
levels of lipoprotein(a) are associated with strokes, heart
attacks, and the narrowing of coronary arteries. In fact,
males with high lipoprotein(a) levels account for about one
quarter of male heart attack victims under the age of 60.
Unit 2

Lipoprotein(a) is closely related to low-density

lipoprotein (LDL), a major contributor to atherosclerosis. As
a group, lipoproteins absorb and transport fatty substances,
including cholesterol, to various sites in the body. High-
density lipoproteins, or HDLs, are protective and carry standard factors
Paragraph 1: _________________________________
cholesterol to the liver for later use in the synthesis of
important hormones; LDLs, however, deposit cholesterol in
the bloodstream, including in coronary arteries, where it doesn’t account for minority
Paragraph 2: _________________________________
contributes to plaque formation. Lipoprotein(a) has almost the
same complex structure as LDL, with an additional surface
protein called apolipoprotein(a). Apolipoprotein(a) resembles HDL vs. LDL
plasminogen, a protein that binds with and dissolves fibrin, Paragraph 3: _________________________________
a key component of blood clots. Unlike plasminogen,
however, apolipoprotein(a) does not dissolve fibrin.
not explained yet—may relate to
Paragraph 4: _________________________________
A theory that would adequately explain how
lipoprotein(a) operates has yet to be developed. But there is fibrin or growth factors
speculation that when too much lipoprotein(a) is present in
the arteries, it may compete with plasminogen for access to
Topic: heart disease
______________________________________
fibrin in arterial blood clots. Since lipoprotein(a) cannot
dissolve fibrin, the dissolution of clots is hampered,
increasing the risk of arterial blockage. Another negative
function has been suggested as well: lipoprotein(a), which Scope: its causes
______________________________________
enters blood vessel walls inside white blood cells known as
macrophages, may prompt the release of growth factors by
macrophages that thicken artery walls. Purpose: lipoprotein(a) may be a factor
______________________________________

2

Stop – Think – Predict
Predicting is anticipating the correct answer to a
question, or at least its general outline, before looking
at the answer choices.
Predicting prevents you from being misled by the
answer choices or bias.
You may not always find your prediction among the
answer choices, but in many cases you will. Even if you
don’t, at least predicting gets you thinking in the right
direction.
In this exercise, the question stems appear without
answer choices. Let’s predict answers before
turning the page. Many students find it hard not to
look at the choices right away, but it’s essential to
do so—by covering the choices, if necessary. All
wrong answer choices are designed to look and
sound right in some way; so you should form as
clear an idea as possible of what you’re looking for
before reading choices.
“Predicting” can be as precise as a paraphrase of
the correct answer, or as broad as re-affirming the
author’s principal ideas before looking at the
choices—but there’s always some thinking to be
done about the correct answer before looking for it
among the choices.
Factors contributing to heart disease are identified in
¶s 1 and 4. Anything supporting a connection to those
factors—plaques, clots, high blood pressure, etc. in ¶1,
fibrin or growth factors in ¶4—will support the theory.
Don’t memorize these details, just note where they are
and check the choices. NOTE: this doesn’t identify what
we’ll find in the answer, but it establishes what you’ll use
to test each choice. This is “prediction” in its broadest
sense, but it’s never wise to jump into the choices
without getting clear about what you’re looking for, to
whatever extent possible.
Verbal Reasoning 2
Predicting Exercise 1
Read each question stem, then STOP – THINK – PREDICT.
Write what you think the answer should be in your own
words.
The passage is primarily concerned with: _________
why many have heart attacks without risk factors.
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
Which of the following statements best describes the
author’s view about research on lipoprotein(a)? ___
interest, but research is still needed.
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
According to the passage, which of the following is
a difference between lipoprotein(a) and low-density
lipoprotein? __________________________________
lipo(a) has a surface protein, apolipo(a).
______________________________________________
Unit 2
______________________________________________
The author suggests which of the following about
the “standard model” (line 1) of the causes of heart
disease? caused by fatty deposits; mechanism
____________________________________
given; risk factors; doesn’t account for all
______________________________________________
attacks.
______________________________________________
According to the passage, research has shown that
lipoprotein(a): ________________________________
might play major role in attacks that don’t fit
______________________________________________
standard model.
______________________________________________
The passage implies that 3/4 of heart attacks in
males under age 60 must occur from: ___________
any factors other than high lipo(a) levels.
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
Which of the following, if true, would strengthen
the theory that lipoprotein(a) contributes to heart
disease? ____________________________________
something connecting lipo(a) to disease
______________________________________________
factors
______________________________________________
3
 Foundation Review
1. The passage is primarily concerned with:
A. discussing the possible role of lipoprotein (a) in
some cases of heart disease.
B. refuting the standard model of risk factors that
may lead to heart disease.
C. examining the evidence for two opposing
theories about the function of lipoprotein (a).
D. proposing that the structure of plasminogen is
similar to the structure of apolipoprotein (a).
2. Which of the following statements best describes the
author’s view about research on lipoprotein (a)?
A. Although lipoprotein (a) contributes to heart
disease, research on its specific functions has not
yet begun.
B. Research has provided some insight into
lipoprotein (a)’s role in heart disease.
C. Lipoprotein (a) is believed to cause heart
disease, but further study of its role has been
delayed by technical problems.
D. Recent test results have determined that
Unit 2
lipoprotein (a) does not contribute to heart
disease among males under 60.
3. According to the passage, which of the following is a
difference between lipoprotein (a) and low-density
lipoprotein?
A. Lipoprotein (a) causes damage to the liver,
while low-density lipoprotein causes damage
to arteries.
B. Lipoprotein (a) has only positive functions,
while low-density lipoprotein has only negative
functions.
C. Lipoprotein (a)’s functions are taken into
account by the standard model of heart disease,
while the functions of low-density lipoprotein
are not.
D. Lipoprotein (a) probably contributes to plaque
formation by releasing growth factors, while
low-density lipoprotein contributes to plaque
formation by putting cholesterol into the
bloodstream.
4
A captures the topic, scope, and purpose.
(B) has the verb wrong. The text is
descriptive, not argumentative; and the
standard model is only mentioned in ¶1. (C)
is out of scope; the passage doesn’t discuss
“opposing theories”; in fact, the 1st sentence
of ¶4 says researchers haven’t come up with
any. (D) focuses on a detail at the end of
¶3.
B is a paraphrase of ¶4. Researchers don’t
have a theory about the function of lipo(a),
but they have ideas about its role. (A)
distorts the passage. ¶4 says research has
started. (C), problems holding up further
research, isn’t suggested. (D) is
contradicted in the passage; ¶2 says lipo(a)
plays
a role in ᎏ1ᎏ of certain cases.
4
D The end of ¶4 says lipo(a) probably
contributes to plaque by releasing growth
factors; the middle of ¶3 says LDL
contributes to plaque by depositing
cholesterol. (A) Both lipo(a) and LDL cause
arterial damage. (B) ¶4 says that lipo(a)’s
function is negative, while ¶3 says LDL’s
function is also negative. (C) The standard
model doesn’t account at all for the role of
lipo(a).
 Verbal Reasoning 2

4. The author suggests which of the following about the C The 1st sentence of ¶2 paraphrases this.
“standard model” of the causes of heart disease? “Significant number” means “sizeable minority.”
A. It misidentifies the most frequent causes of heart (A) To say that the model can’t explain a minority
disease. of cases is not to say that it “misidentifies the
B. It has been undermined by research on
most frequent causes”. (B) & (D): Research on
lipo(a) supplements (not undermines) the
lipoprotein (a). standard model. We know only that one
C. It does not account for a significant number of researcher tried to fill in a gap in the standard
heart disease cases. model’s ability to explain heart disease.
D. It is no longer credible to most heart disease
researchers.

5. According to the passage, research has shown that D Mid-¶3 says lipo(a) has “almost the same
lipoprotein (a): complex structure as” LDL. (A) The end of ¶3
says apolipo(a) resembles plasminogen. (B) These
A. is more closely related to plasminogen than to substances resemble each other; they don’t
low-density lipoprotein. function the same way. ¶s 3 and 4 show they
B. functions in the same way as low-density contribute to disease in different ways. (C)
lipoprotein . contradicts ¶2: lipo(a) increases disease risk for
C. may decrease the risk of heart disease for some.
some people.
D. resembles low-density lipoprotein in structure.

Unit 2
6. The passage implies that 3/4 of heart attacks in males D Refer back to end of ¶2. (A) is the opposite of
under age 60 must occur from: the correct answer. (B) & (C): The passage says
A. high lipoprotein (a) levels. 1
B. high levels of low-density lipoprotein.
ᎏᎏ of male heart attack victims under age 60 have
4
C. high levels of hi-density lipoproteins. high lipo(a) levels. It doesn’t say what causes the
D. factors other than high lipoprotein (a) levels. other ᎏ3ᎏ, so we can only say “something other than
4
lipo(a) levels“.
7. Which of the following, if true, would strengthen the
theory that lipoprotein(a) contributes to heart disease? D As noted above (Q.3), the last sentence says
growth factors contribute to disease. So if lipo(a)
A. It interferes with clot formation in coronary causes release of growth factors, the theory that
arteries. lipo(a) contributes to disease is strengthened.
B. It is more closely related to high-density (A) If lipo(a) interferes with blood clots (which
lipoprotein than to low-density lipoprotein. contribute to disease) the theory is weakened.
C. It assists in transporting cholesterol to the liver. (B) If lipo(a) is more closely related to HDL than
D. It causes the release of growth factors in blood LDL, this would weaken the theory; HDL plays a
vessels. positive role in the bloodstream (¶3). (C) Taking
cholesterol to the liver is a positive function, not a
cause of disease (also ¶3).

Note that often handling one question prepared us in part for later
questions—that will always be true in VR, so take advantage of it. If a 5
question stumps you, complete the others for the passage and come
back. Let’s look now at the questions types you can expect.
 Foundation Review

Allow 1 minute for each paragraph.

Practice Passage 1
Some one and a half or two billion years ago, when the when Boris Ephrussi found that the ability of baker’s yeast
earth was still poor in oxygen, a primitive bacterium that to carry out oxidative phosphorylation seemed to be
made a precarious living from the anaerobic fermentation of controlled by some factor in the cytoplasm rather than in the
organic molecules engulfed a smaller cell that had somehow nucleus. It was only in 1966, however, that the first
evolved the ability to respire. The event was a turning point vertebrate mitochondrial DNA (that of the chick) was
in organic evolution. Respiration liberates far more energy isolated and characterized. Since then the mitochondrial
than fermentation, and the growing abundance of oxygen in DNAs of many organisms have been under intensive study.
the atmosphere must have been the driving force behind a
symbiotic relation that developed between the two cells,
with the aerobic cell generating energy in return for shelter
and nutrients from its larger host.

In time the engulfed cell and others like it were to

become subcellular organelles, passed on by host cells to
their progeny. Eventually the host cells themselves changed,
developing other subcellular structures and internal
membranes and segregating their genetic material in
chromosomes within a nucleus. These cells were the
ancestors of all modern eukaryotic (nucleated) cells:
protozoans and algae and the individual cells of fungi,
plants, and animals. The present-day descendants of those
Unit 2

ancient symbiotic respiring bacteria are the mitochondria,

the power plants of the eukaryotic cell.

Mitochondria are oval or worm-shaped organelles,

about half a micrometer in diameter and from two to five
micrometers long; this is roughly the size of many modern
bacteria. The mitochondria has an outer membrane and an Paragraph 1: The evolutionary history of the
_________________________________
extensively folded inner membrane that encloses a fluid modern cell.
matrix. The organelle is the site of oxidative phos-
phorylation, the primary source of cellular energy. In the Same as above.
Paragraph 2: _________________________________
fluid matrix, organic molecules derived from the breakdown
of foodstuffs are oxidized in a series of chemical reactions
known as the citric acid cycle. Electrons removed in the The appearance and function
Paragraph 3: _________________________________
course of oxidation are passed along a chain of respiratory- of mitochondria.
enzyme complexes arrayed in the inner membrane, driving
the phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate to form
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy carrier Paragraph 4: Genetic material in the mitochondria.
_________________________________
of cells. The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (the region
outside the nucleus) contains a few mitochondria to many
hundreds; the greater the energy demands placed on the cell,
Topic: Mitochondria
______________________________________
the more mitochondria it has.

Perhaps because they are descendants of a free-living

bacteria, mitochondria have their own genetic material and
the machinery to express it. The possibility that the
organelles might have their own genes, distinct from the
genome in the cell nucleus, was raised as early as 1949,
Scope: How mitochondria developed and what they do.
______________________________________
to describe the development and role
Purpose: ______________________________________
of mitochondria.

6

Question Type Exercise 1
Global
1. Which one of the following titles best reflects the
content of the passage?
A. The Structural Complexity of Eukaryotic Cells
B. The Evolution and Significance of Mitochondria
C. The Origin and Role of Mitochondrial DNA
D. Fermentation vs. Respiration: Which is More
Efficient?
Deduction
2. The author of the passage would most likely agree
with which one of the following statements about the
“symbiotic relation?”
A. The new cell that developed out of the symbiotic
relation between anaerobic and aerobic cells has
not changed over the last one-and-a-half billion
years.
B. The chromosomes of eukaryotic cells were
originally located in aerobic cells before aerobic
cells combined with anaerobic cells to form a
new cell.
C. Anaerobic and aerobic cells combined to create
a new cell because neither type of cell was
capable of surviving for long on its own.
D. Anaerobic and aerobic cells could not have
joined to form a new cell in the absence of the
proper atmospheric conditions.
3. The passage suggests which one of the following
about “anaerobic fermentation?”
A. It occurs in the mitochondria located in cells’
cytoplasm.
B. It causes the breakdown of organic molecules
during the citric acid cycle.
C. It can only be carried on by primitive bacterium
in an oxygen-poor environment.
D. It is not the most efficient way for cells to
produce energy.
Verbal Reasoning 2
B Weigh the pros and cons of each choice. (A)
focuses on a detail from ¶2. (B) should strike the
class as broad enough to cover the passage’s
topic, scope, and purpose; but it would be wise to
look at all the other choices. (D) focuses on a topic
raised only in ¶1. NOTE: Wrong answers in main
idea questions will often come out of the very
beginning or the very end of the passage. (C) may
be tempting, since ‘origin and role’ sound like the
scope of the passage. But it’s only half right;
mitochondrial DNA is only in ¶4, and (in
vertebrates, anyway) was only isolated in 1966; the
events of the passage go back billions of years.
D Questions with line references lead to relevant
text, but don’t look for the answer only in the
specified lines. Pay attention to context and to
Keywords. ASK the purpose of ¶1. Elicit: describes
modern cell’s evolution and an important ‘turning
point’. Consider each choice (in any order that
makes sense), and look for relevant passage text.
Unit 2
(D) is the winner: that oxygen is the ‘driving force’
means, absent all that oxygen, the symbiosis that
led to the new cell would be unlikely. (A) is
contradicted by ¶2. (B) distorts information in ¶2,
which is too far from the cited lines; the answer
won’t be very far from that line reference. (C)
distorts information in ¶1; the anaerobic cell “made
a precarious living”, but we aren’t told whether the
aerobic cell could survive alone.
D Here again, work out each choice. (A) and (B) are
far removed from the detail in question and
misrepresent matters anyway. (C) might be
tempting—we see in the beginning of ¶1 that a
primitive bacterium in an oxygen-poor environment
used anaerobic fermentation. But it’s not valid to
deduce from this that only primitive bacterium in
an oxygen-poor environment can carry on anaerobic
fermentation. Some may want to put (C) on hold.
(D) is right; ¶ 1 says respiration liberates more
energy than fermentation, so anaerobic
fermentation isn’t the most efficient way to
produce energy.
7
 Foundation Review
Detail
4. According to the passage, the energy released by a
eukaryotic cell is:
A. generated by the mitochondria contained in its
cytoplasm.
B. dependent on the transformation of adenosine
triphosphate into adenosine diphosphate.
C. caused by chemical reactions that take place
outside of the mitochondrion’s inner membrane.
D. related to the number of chromosomes in the
cell nucleus.
5. According to the passage, which one of the following
occurs during the citric acid cycle?
A. Organic molecules that are derived from food
penetrate the mitochondrion’s outer membrane.
B. Electrons help to transform adenosine
diphosphate into adenosine triphosphate.
Unit 2
C. Mitochondria from a eukaryotic cell’s cytoplasm
are transported to the cell’s nucleus.
D. Eukaryotic cells develop subcellular structures,
internal membranes and nuclei.
Evaluation
6. The author of the passage mentions Boris Ephrussi in
the fourth paragraph most probably in order to:
A. demonstrate that eukaryotic cells have genetic
material in both the nuclei and mitochondria.
B. suggest that genetic research has only just begun
to understand how cells reproduce.
C. point out the historical roots of more recent
research on the genetic composition of
mitochondrial DNA.
D. prove that subcellular structures like
mitochondria contain genetic material.
A methodical approach to the passage and its questions
will keep you focused on Test Day. As we’ve gone through
questions and discussed the “wrong answers”, you may
have started to sense that they fall into a few, regular
categories. Let’s look at those in some detail.
8
A Take 1 minute to do the question. ASK what ¶
the question deals with; where is the answer likely
to come from? When a question cites something
specific—like the term “eukaryotic” here—skim for
it. Answer: “the end of ¶2 and again in ¶3. The
question is about eukaryotic cells and energy—
that’s the middle of ¶3: Mitochondria are in the
cytoplasm cells and power eukaryotic cells (A). (B)
& (C) contradict ¶3, which says ADP becomes ATP
and these chemical reactions take place in the fluid
matrix enclosed by the mitochondrion’s inner
membrane. (D) distorts details from ¶2. See how
little one needs to understand the passage—just
the difference between “inside” and “outside” in the
text, e.g..
B The ‘citric acid cycle’ is in mid-¶3; it’s a set of
reactions that oxidize molecules derived from food.
But that doesn’t make (A) correct; it’s an
“opposite” answer choice. The citric acid cycle takes
place in the fluid matrix, which (as we saw in Q.4) is
part of the inner membrane. Keep reading: the
oxidation moves the electrons along to turn ADP
into ATP, just as (B) says. The challenge lies in
figuring out where the answer is coming from, and
putting it into simple words. (C) is a distortion: the
citric acid cycle mitochondrion movement from one
part of the cell to another. (D) uses an irrelevant
detail from ¶2. There’s no reason to look at ¶2 for a
question about the citric acid cycle.
C The purpose of ¶4 is to discuss the history of
scientific research on mitochondrial DNA; Ephrussi
is its founder; so (C)’s on target. (A) relates to the
substance of the detail rather than why the author
included it. (B) and (D) use the wrong verbs, and
are too broad. The author is describing, not
arguing; and the passage only discusses
mitochondria.
 Verbal Reasoning 2

Common Wrong Answer Types

Contradict or distort information in the passage

Are true (according to the passage), but irrelevant to

the question at hand.

Are too broad or too narrow in scope, or bring in

information that never appears in the passage

Are inconsistent with the author’s tone

Are too extreme (always/never) to be correct.

Unit 2
As we’ve been seeing in reviewing these questions, the wrong
answer choices follow some simple patterns. This will be covered in
more detail in the lessons. For now, we just want you to focus on
where wrong answer types come from and why they are wrong.

9
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