The Problem of Knowledge

 SOPHISTS - One of the oldest positive theories of knowledge, developed by Ancient Greece, A group of
wise Professionals appeared in Athens. - Protagoras and Gorgias (the leading Sophists)
 THE KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE ACCORDING TO SOCRATES ( 2 main types of information)

VISIBLE INFORMATION - It is divided into two images or shadows and opinions. The Lower
level of our visible information is vague, blurred a conglomeration of patterns. The Higher level is
the clear patterns with identifiable objects and coherently organized images.

 INTELLIGIBLE INFORMATION - is what can be comprehended by the human mind in contrast

to sense perception. The intelligible method is thought thinking itself, or the human mind reflecting
on itself. Descartes ground that the only judgment’s we were forced to make are those regarding
clear and distinctive ideas.

BARRIERS IN ATTAINING KNOWLEDGE

 Blind adherence to Authority - The blind acceptance to authority is what is referred to us

authoritarianism (a belief that knowledge is acquired and validated by of complete subjection to
authority) devoid of effort to find out what is true or false. It has a tendency to subordinate truth in the
name of authority.

 PROPAGANDA - deliberate and methodical strategy of spreading unfounded and misleading

information or ideas to control the minds of the followers and adhere to certain belief or ideology of a
particular movement or organization. (television, print and broadcast, motion picture) Adolf Hitler
skillful in propaganda strategies.

 PREJUDICE - Unfavorable opinion or feeling without justifiable grounds or adequate knowledge or

information on the issue or subject. He thinks and reasons resulting from some judgment and action
according to self-interest. (Narrow minded).
  FALLACIES IN RESONING - A fallacy is any sort of mistake in reasoning or inference. It is a
deceptive argument that seems conclusive or valid but actually false.

 Contextual Fallacies - The utterance is misleading to one who hears. Such fallacies we call
"contextual fallacy"

 Linguistic Fallacy - Dealing with a play on words. When one argues since feathers are light and that
light comes from the sun, therefore feathers comes from the sun.

 Material Fallacy – Errors are based on the content of the argument that is apparently faulty with
misleading evidence or an appeal to feeling instead of reason based on logic. Making generalizations
and surveying conclusions that have insufficient evidence is an example of a common fallacy of this
type.

The potential fallacies that can be identified within the syllogism are:

FALACIES OF REASON – Fallacious reasons are such those which do not possess all attributes of true
reasons, but are sufficiently similar to the relationships asserted as to appear adequate.

FALLACIES OF EXAMPLE – Involve an example of inappropriateness in some sense in reference to

reason. Examples are too general too specific or irrelevant would be unacceptable. (Deceptive, misleading and
unsound argument that render reasoning illogical.

THINKING AS A PROCESS
Thinking is an ongoing back and forth between flow and stability, between automatic pilot and
concentration.
1. We think in patterns and sequences.
2. We think on planes of abstraction and levels of attention.

Chapter 4

MAN: ITS NATURE DEVELOPMENT AND

DESTINY

VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES ABOUT MAN

COMPOSITION
1. Monism
 2. Dualism
According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the soul is the first principle of life in things where we
live. For the Christians, using the Bible as their frame of reference, man is made up of body, soul and spirit.
Body is the physical external part of man, soul is the inner part of man and the spirit is the innermost part of
man.
ORIGIN
The origin of man revolves on two theories: the divine theory and the theory of evolution.
ESSENCE
Essence which is the intrinsic nature of man treats the various opinions that have been
expressed and these opinions can be grouped into the rational, religious and scientific perspective.

Other traits that make man higher in form are the endowment such as social, cultural and
intellectual. These traits make man distinctive as follows:
1. Man has the ability to communicate
2. Man’s highly developed brain enables him to invent or create.
3. Man as a social and political being passes laws.
4. Man is conscious of history.
5. Man has aesthetic taste and appreciation.
6. Man values right and wrong.
7. Man is a religious being
MAN AS A
BIOLOGICAL BEING
According to the social scientists, the issue regarding the nature of man, is that an environment can
be structured at home, in the church, in the school, and in the whole community to help in the
development of man’s innate goodness. It has been pointed out that man is a rational animal. By the
use of reason, he may systematically create some improvements in social relationships.
MAN AS A SOCIAL AND
RATIONAL BEING
Man, is a product of the social and psychological factors that assist from the result of the
interplay of the various variables; e.g., heredity, environment-geographical, social, economic and cultural.
NORMS OF
SOCIETY
The role of social institutions, e.g., the family, the school and the media immensely influence
the moral thinking and the development of man.
 MAN: A MODERN
PERSPECTIVE
Man, the Homo Sapiens, the modern single surviving species of the genus Homo and of the private
family Homicide to which it belongs that possess the highest level of development characterized especially
by a highly developed intellect.
MORAL ASSUMPTION
OF MAN’S NATURE
Man is good. If he becomes evil, perhaps it is because he virtually succumbs to the forces of evil
that influence him. Since man has the power of the will; judgment will depend on him. It is “the nature of
man to take and remake himself by his free acts of choice”.
THE PROBLEM OF
EVIL
Man relies on his consciousness to determine the degree of his responsibility for his acts and on
his own conscience to judge good or evil. How far are individual is responsible for his acts, head alone
knows.
THE
HIGHEST GOOD
Perceive by different people in different ways. Still others think of the highest good as being of
service to humanities.
MAN’S
SEARCH FOR HAPINESS
Happiness is not a passing feeling, or emotion such as gladness but is a lasting state of being.