10

Compressibility of Soil

A stressincreasecausedby thc constructionof foundationsor other loaclscomprcsses

s o i l l a y e r sT
. h e c o m p r e s s i o ni s c a u s e db y ( a ) d e f o r m a t i o no f s o i l p a r t i c l e s (. b ) r e l o c a -
tions of soil particles,and (c) expulsion of water or air from thc void sperct;s. In gcn-
eral, the soil settlementcausedby loads may be divided into three brcladcatcgorics:
l. Immediutesettlemcnt(or elasticsettlemcnt).which is causcd by thc elasticde-
f o r m a t i o n o f d r y s o i l a n d o f m o i s t a n d s a t u r a t e ds o i l sw i t h o u t a n y c h a n g ei n
t h e m o i s t u r ec o n t e n t .I m m c d i a t c s e t t l e m e n tc a l c u l a t i o n sa r e g c n e r a l l yb a s e d
on equations derived from the thcory of elasticity.
2. Primarv consolidationsettlement,which is the result of a volume changein
s a t u r a t e dc o h e s i v es o i l sb e c a u s eo f e x p u l s i o no l ' t h c w a t e r t h a t o c c u p i e st h e
void spaces.
3. Secondury consoliclatkntsettlemanLwhich is observcd in saturatcd cohesive
s o i l sa n d i s t h e r e s u l to f t h e p l a s t i ca d j u s t m e n to f s o i l f a b r i c s .I t i s a n a d d i t i o n a l
form of compressionthat occurs at constant effectivestrcss.
T h i s c h a p t e rp r e s e n t st h e f u n d a m c n t a lp r i n c i p l c sf o r c s t i m a t i n gt h c i m m c d i a t e
and consolidation settlemenlsof soil laycrs under supcrimposedloaclings.
The total settlementof a foundation can then be given as
57:S,+S.+S,
where Sr : total settlement
S,.: primary consolidationsettlement
,S.: secondaryconsolidationsettlemcnt
S,,: immediate scttlement
When foundations are constructed on very compressibleclays, the consolidation
settlementcan be severaltimes greater than the immediate scttlement.

IMMEDIATE
SETTLEMENT

10.1 Contact Pressureand Settlement Profile

Immediate, or elastic,settlementof foundations (S") occursdirectly after the appli-
cation of a load, without a changein the moisture content of the soil. The masnitude
Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Table 10.1 InfluenceFactorsfor Foundations [Eq. (10.2)]

Iftl

Circle 1.00 0.64 0.79

Rectanglc I 1.12 0.56 0.it8
1.5 1.36 0.68 1.0'7
2 1..53 0.77 1.21
3 1.78 0.u9 1.42
-5 2.10 1.0-5 1.70
l0 1.27 2.10
20 2.99 1.49 2.46
-s0 3.57 l.u 3.0
l(x) 4.01 2.0 -). +-l

Table 10.1 givesthe influcncefactors for rigid and flexible foundations.Repre-

sentativevaluesof the modulus of elasticityand Poisson'sratio for different types of
s o i l sa r c g i v e ni n T a b l e s 1 0 . 2a n d 1 0 . 3 .r e s p e c t i v c l y .
N o t e t h a t E q . ( 1 t ) I. ) i s b a s c do n t h e a s s u m p t i o nt h a t t h e p r c s s u r eA o i s a p p l i e d
at the ground surl'ercc. In practicc, l'oundationsarc placed at a ccrtain depth below
the ground surlarcc.Deepcr foundation embedmcnt tends to reduce the magnitude
o[ tlre foundertionsettlententS,..However, if Eq. (lt). l) is uscd to calculate settle-
m c n t " i t r e s u l t si n a c o n s e r v a t i v e s t i m a t e .

Valuesol the Modulusol'Elasticityof Soil

Table 10.2 Rcprcsentativc
E,
Soil type kN/m2 lb / in.2

Soft clay -3.-5(X)

I ,t3(X) 250-500
Hard clay 6,(XD 14,000 -2,(XX)
t350
Loclse sand r 0.000,28,0(x) - 4,000
1,-s00
Dense sand 35.0(X) -70,000 - 10.(xx)
-5.000

Table 10.3 Reoresentative Values of Poisson'sRatio

Type of soil Poisson'sratio, p,

Loose sand 0.2,0.4

Medium sand 0.25- 0.4
Dense sand 0.3- 0.4-5
Silty sand 0.2-0.4
Soft clay -0.25
0.1-5
Mcdium clay 0.2 0.5
 10.3 lmproved Relationship for lmmediate Settlement

E x amp l e1 0 .1

Estimatethe immediatesettlementof a columnfooting 1.5m in diameterthat is

constructedon an unsaturatedclay layer,giventhat the total load carriedby the
column footing = 150kN, E. : 7000kN/m2,and p, :0.25. Assumethe footing
to be rigid.
Solution
UsingEq. (10.1),we have
1J
s", - AoB E In

(\ -1"s' 0t )
[,s-: :84.9kN/mr

[o sY
From Table10.1,for a circularrigid foundation,l,,: 0.79,so
Ir *nrslI
5)l-
s" : (84,9)(1 : 0.013-s
m : L3.5
mm r
7000-lto.zo)

10.3 Improved Relationship for lmmediate Settlement

M a y n e a n d P o u l o s( 1 9 9 9 )r e c e n t l yp r e s c n t e da n i m p r o v c c lr c l a t i o n s h i pf o r c a l c u l a t -
i n g t h e i m m e d i a t es e t t l e m e n to l I ' o u n d a t i o n s' .l ' h i s r e l a t i o n s h i pt a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t
t h e r i g i d i t y o f t h e l o u n d a t i o n , t h e d c p t h o f c m b e d m e n t o [ t h e l o u n d a t i o n .t h e i n -
c r e a s ci n t h e m o d u l u so f c l a s t i c i t yo f s o i l w i t h d c p t h , a n d t h e l o c a t i o no l ' r i g i d l a y e r s
a t l i m i t e d d e p t h . I n o r c l e rt o u s e t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i po, n c n e e d st o d c t e r m i n et h e c q u i v -
a l e n t d i a m e t e ro f a r e c t a n g u l a rf o u n d a t i o n .w h i c h i s

B ,- , i
tiBL
( I { ) . 3 a)
\l rr
where B - width of foundation
L : length of foundation
For circular foundations,
8,,: B (10.3b)
where B : diameter of foundation.
Figure 10.3showsa foundation having an equivalentdiameter of 8,. located at
a depth Dlbelow the ground surface.Let the thicknessof the foundation be r and the
modulus of elasticity of the foundation material be Er. A rigid layer is located at a
depth ft below the bottom of the foundation. The modulus of elasticity of the com-
pressiblesoil layer can be given as
E,: E,,* kz. ( 10.4)
Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

t l
R +
AO
l l
t
I Y
/ '...
A
I
'
Y Y

"f"' '"'"
Ilt
Y
L
C o m p r e s s i b l seo i l l a y e r
I
F
I
It

I
I
I
v
' . ,: .
R i"'-"
gidlaycr

Figure 70.3 lmprovcd relationship for inrmcdiatescttlcment

hlB,,= 0.2

., Eo
, -
kB,,

Figure 10.4 Yariation of 1.r with B

 70.3 rmproved Retationship for rmmediate
setttement 26s
with the preceding parameters dellned. the immediate
settlement can be given as
LoB*!!t(r -
s,: pi) (ro.s)
where 1,; : influence t'actor fbr the variation
of E, with clepth : f (L:,,,k, 8", anc]h)
1e : foundation rigidity correction factor
./o : foundation embedment correction factor
F i g u r e l 0 . 4 s h o w s t h e v a r i a t i o n o f1 . , w i t h
B: E,,lkB,,ancl,hlB,,.Thcfounilationrigid_
ity correction factor can be expressedas

, - T ,
t r' . - 4 t
4 6 r) ( (10.6)

#t-)w
Similarly, the embedmcnt crtrrection facl.oris

Ir - I -
/u \ (10.7)
- 0 . 4 ) l r*, , 0 , , |
3.5 exp(t.22p",

Figures 10.-5
and 10.6showthc variations
ol /0,and 1r.exprcssedb y E q s .( 1 0 . 6a) n d
(r0.7).

1.0

0.9

+ o.t{5

0.lt
r' = ( - + \ / : : \
\ u , ,+*^) \ t )
= F l e x i b i l i t yf : r c r o r

0.1
0.001 2 4 6 80.01 0.I 10.0 I 00.0
Kt..

Figure 10.5 Variation of rigidity correction

f'actor, 1r, with flcxibility factor, Ko.. [Eq. (rr.r.6)J
Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

0.9

-s 0.1t5

0.tt

0.75

t\.1
0 5 r0 15

!,.,
8,,

Figure 70.6 Vrriation ol'crnbcdmcnt corrcction faclor. /,. IEq. ( l{).7)]

Example10.2
Refer to Figure 10.3.For a shallowfoundationsupportedby a silty clay,the fol-
lowing are given:

Length:L:1.5m
Width: B - 1m
Depth of foundation : D/ : 1 ill
Thicknessof foundation : / : 0.23m
Load per unit area: Ao : 190kN/m2
E r : 1 5 x 1 0 6k N / m 2

The silty claysoil had the followingproperties:

h-2m
&, : 0'3
E = 9000kN/m2
k : 500kN/m2/m

Estimatethe immediatesettlementof the foundation.

 10.3 lmproved Relationship for lmmediate Settlement 267

Solution
From Eq. (10.3a),the equivalent diameter is

1.38m

Ao : 190kN/m2
_ E,
1 1: _ -_,,- 9000
'- ^^:13.0.1
kB,. (sooxt.38)
h 2
: 1 4 5
B" 1.39

From Figure 10.4,f o r B : 1 3 . 0 4 a n dh / 8 , , : 1 . 4 5 , t h e v a l u eo f 1 r , . : 0 . 7 4 T

. hus,
from Eq. (10.6),

I' r : L4+
^^."(;T1{#)'
- : 0.781
4

- r38 l
[0,,t, (f)rr*r]L
From Eq. (10.7),

Ir: 1*
*
3.5 exp(\.22p., ,.r(* + 1 6 )
- It I
- _ = 0.907
3.5expi(1 - oof(f
.22)(0.3) + 1.6)

From Eq. (10.5),

jr
^ L,oB,Ir;l1ls,_ (re0)(1.38x0.74X0.787)(0.90f)
' E n r\ -I _ n
" ' "r lz )
9000
= 0.014 m * 14 mm
268 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

CONSOLIDATIONSETTLEMENT

10.4 Fundamentals of Consolidation

When a saturatedsoil layer is subjectedto a stressincrease.the pore water pressure
is suddenly increased.In szrndysoils that are highly permeable.the drainagecaused
by the increasein the pore water pressure is completed immcdiately. Pore water
drainageis accompaniedby a reduction in thc volumc of thc soil mass,which results
in settlement.Becauseof rapid drainageof thc porc watcr in sandy sclils,immediate
s e t t l e m e n ta n d c o n s o l i d a t i o no c c u r s i m u l t a n c o u s l y .
When a saturatedcompressibleclay lzryeris subjectedto a strcssincrcasc,elas-
tic settlement occurs immcdiately. Becausethe hydraulic conductivity of clay is sig-
nificzrntlysmaller than that of sand,thc cxcesspore water pressuregeneratedby load-
i n g g r a d u a l l yd i s s i p a t c so v e r a l o n g p e r i o d .T h u s . t h e a s s o c i a t e vdo l u m e c h a n g e( t h a t
i s , t h c c o n s o l i d a t i o n )i n t h e c l a y m a y c o n t i n u el o n g a f t e r t h e i m m e d i a t cs c t t l c m e n t .
Thc settlementcauseclby consolidationin clay marybc scvcraltimcs grcater than the
i m m c d i l r l cs e l l l e m c n t .
T h c t i m c - d e p e n d e n td e l i r r m a t i o no f s a t u r a t e dc l a y e ys o i l c a n b c s t b c u n d e r -
s t o o d b y c o n s i d c r i n ga s i m p l e m o d e l t h a t c i l n s i s t so [ a c y l i n d e r w i t h a s p r i n g a t i t s
'l'he
c e n t e r .L e t t h c i n s i d oa r r :a o f t h e c r o s ss c c t i o no f t h e c y l i n d e rb e e q u a lt o A . cylin-
d e r i s f i l l e d w i t h w a t c r a n d h a sa f r i c t i o n l c s sw a t e r t i g h tp i s t o na n d v a l v ea s s h o w ni n
F i g u r c 1 0 . 7 aA . t t h i s t i m c . i [ ' w e p l a c ea l o a d P o n t h e p i s t o n( F i g u r e 1 0 . 7 b )a n d k e e p
t h c v a l v c c l o s e c lt,h c e n t i r e l o a d w i l l b e t a k e n b y t h e w a t e r i n t h e c y l i n d c r b c c a u s e
watcr is intrtmprassible.The spring will not go through zrnydcf'ornraticln.Thc cxcess
hydrostaticpressureat this tirne can be given as

P
( 10.8)
A

This value can be obscrvcd ir.rthc prcssurcgaugeattachedto the cylinder.

I n g e n c r a lw
. c c l r nw r i t c

P : P,-l P,, (10.9)

where P, : load carricd by the spring and P,,,- lcladcarried by the water.
From the preceding discussion,we celnsee that when the valve is closed after
the placement of the load I
P, : 0 and P,,,: P

Now, if the valve is opened, the water will flow outward (Figure 10.7c).This flow will
be accompaniedby a reduction of the excesshydrostaticpressureand an increasein
the compressionof thc spring. So, at this time" Eq. ( lt).9) will hold. However,

P.>0 a n d P , ,1, P (that is, L,tt < PIA)

After some time, the excesshydrostatic pressurewill become zero and the system
will reach a state of equilibrium, as shown in Figure 10.7d.Now we can write
P,: P and P,": t)
 10.4 Fundamentals of Consolidation

Valve
I closed
:fi{s:s

i:.;

Aa=0
/
. p
ff'
l #, :
Art = a-
(a) A (D)

P
't
....:
Vrlvc
opcn
rit;,i;ir:i;ri:ii:::iri;*:ii:i:lriii:i:
::1: lr:ltlil

ilrlili$i!i Vrlvc
---*-l oPcll
I
::t;it!ii:!:ii:ri:$l:j.itit;.*t*lii:i:ilr:{;
SXIljllti
'
. -.J''

Att---

(e)

Figure 10.7 Spring-cylinclcr

modcl

and

P:P,tP,,,
W i t h t h i s i n m i n d , w e c a n a n a l y z et h e s t r a i no f a s a t u r a t e ccl l a y l a y e r s u b j e c t e d
to a stressincrcase(Figure 10.8a).Consider the casewherc a layer of saturatedclay
o f t h i c k n e s sH t h a t i s c o n f i n e d b e t w e c n t w o l a y e r s o fs a n c il s b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o a n
instantaneousincrease of tolul r'/re.r.r o[ Ao. This incremental total stress will be
transmitted to the pore water and the soil solids.This meansthat the total stress,Ao,
will be divided in some proportion betwcen effectivcstressand pore water pressure.
The behavior of the cffectivestrcsschangewill be similar to that of the spring in Fig-
ure 10'7,and the behavior of the pore water pressurechangewill be similar to that
of the excesshydrostatic pressurc in Figure 10.7.From the principle of effective
stress(Chapter tt). it follows that

Ao: Ao' * Arl (10.10)

where Arr' : increasein thc effective stress
Alz : incrcasein the pore water pressure
 AO

Depth

(r)

Pore water ElI'ectivc

Total stressincreasc plcssure lncrelse- strossincrerse

T
H

i
'fotal
stressincrcasc

I
H

(c)Attime0<r<-

)<tre wttcr Eflective

Total stress increase pressure increase \tressincrease

1
H

I
Depth Depth Depth
(d)At timet = -

Figure 10.8 Variation of total stress.pore water pressure, and effective stress in a clay layer
drained at top and bottom as the result of an added stress,A<r

270
 10.5 One-DimensionalLaboratory Consolidation Test 271

Becauseclay has a very low hydraulic conductivityand water is incompressible

as compared with the soil skeleton,at time r : 0, the entire incremental
stiess.Ao,
will be carried by water (A,r : A,) at all depths (Figure 10.gb).None
will be carried
by the soil skeleton - that is, incremental effectiveitress (A,ri) : (t.
After the application of incremental stress.-\u. to thc clay layer, the
water in
the void spaceswill start to be squeezeclout anciwill drain in botl directions
into the
sand layers.By this process,the cxcesspore water pressureat any depth
in the clay
layer willgradually decrease.and the stresscarried by the soil solids(eiTective
stress)
will increase.Thus, at time 0 < r < m.
Ao:Arr'*Arr (Ao'>0 and Arr<Arr)
However' thc magnitudesof Arr' and Arr at various depthswill change(Figurc
1O.gc),
dependingon the minimum disternce of thc drainagepath to either rhe top 9r bettom
sand layer.
Theoretically' at timc 1 : oo, the entirc excesspore water prcssurewcluld
.. bc
dissipatedby drainage from erllpoints of the clay layer; thus, A4 : 0. Now
the total
stressincreasc,A.', will be carricd by thc soil structurc (Figurc 10.ltcl).
Hcncc,
Arr : Arr'
T h i s g r a d u a lp r o c e s so 1 ' d r a i n a g eu n d e r a n a c l d i t i o n a l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n
and the
associatedtransfcr of excesspore water prcssureto efTectiveslresscilusc
thc time-
d e p e n d e n ts e t t l e m e n ti n t h c c l a y s o i l l a y e r .

10.5 one'Dimensional Laboratory consolidation Test

The one-dimensionalconsolidation lesting procedure was first suggested
by Terza-
ghi. This test is perlbrmed in a consolidometer (sornctimesrefcrred
to as eln oe-
dometer).The schematicdiagrant of a consolidometeris shown in Figure
10.9a.Fig-
ure 10.9b.shows a photograph of a consolidomcter.The soil ,p".i-"n
is placJi
inside a metal ring with two porous stones,onc at the top of the specimen
and an_
o t h e r a t t h e b o t t o m . T h e s p e c i m c n sa r e u s u a l l y6 4 m m ( : 2 . 5 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r
and 2-5
m m . ( : I i n . ) t h i c k . T h e l o a d o n t h e s p c c i m e ni s a p p l i c c lt h r o u g h a l e v e r
arm, and
compressionis mcasured by a micrometer dizrlgauge.Thc spccimcn is
kept unilcr
water during the test. Each load is usually kept for 24 hours. After that,
the load is
usually doublcd, which doubles the pressureon the specimen.and the
compression
measurementis continued.At thc end of the test,the dry weight of the
test spccimen
is determined. Figure 10.9cshowsa consolidationtest in p.o!res, (right-hand
sicle).
The general shapeof the plot of cleformationof the specimenagainst
time for
a given load increment is shown in Figure 10.10.From the piot, we can
observethree
distinct stages,which may be describedas follows:

stage I Initial compression,which is causedmostry by preloacring.

stage II Primary consoliclation,during which exceir po." water pressureis
gradually transferred into effectivestressbecauseof the expulsion
of pore water.
StageIII Secondaryconsolidation,which occursafter completedissipationof
the excesspore water pressure,when some deformation of the speci-
men takes place becauseof the plastic readjustment of soil fabric.
272 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

l'

:1i*'.: Sncclnltn

i$ilr.' ,;ng
4:!.:l
M!*si!;
ittritii

:i!g!:ti:i
.:i!it!:t.;tj

Figure 10.9
(a) Schematiccliagramo[ a consolidonrcter;
( b ) p h o t o g r a p ho l a c o n s o l i d o r n c t c r(,c ) a c o n -
s o l i d a l i o nt c s t i n p r o g r c s s( r i g h t - h a n csl i d c )
 10.6 Void Ratio-Pressure Plots

.2
c

S e c o n d a r cy o n s o l i d a t i o n Figure 10.10
Time-deformation plot during
consolidationfor a given load
Time (log scale) increment

10.6 Void Ratio-Pressure Plots

After the time-dcformation plots for various loadings are obtained in the labora-
tory, it is necessaryto study the change in the void ratio of the specimenwith pres-
sure. Following is a step-by-stepprocedure for doing so:

1. Calculatc the height of solids,H., in the soil specimen(Figure 10.11)using the

equation
w' Jt4,
H .' - - (10.11)
AG,7,,, AG.,P*
where lV. : dry weight of the specimen
M, : dry massof the specimen
A : area of the specimen
G, : specificgravity of soil solids
7,,,: unit weight of water
p,,,- density of water
2. Calculate the initial height of voids as

H,,: H - H, (10.12)
whereH : initial heightof the specimen.
3. Calculatethe initial void ratio,e,r,of the specimen,
usingthe equation
V, H,A H,
,.
r r t : (10.13)
V, H,A H,
274 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

T
I tI
I H,=H H,
Initial
h e i g h to f
speclmen I
I
=H
II
I
. --Lu,
"'
-
,lC,y,,

+ t
Figure 10.11 C.hangeof height of spccimcn in onc-dimensionalconsolidationtest

4. For the first incremenlal loading,o1 (total load/unit area o[ specimen),which

c a u s e sa d e f o r m a t i o nA H , . c a l c u l a t et h e c h e r n g ien t h e v o i d r a t i o a s
LII,
L C I: (r 0 . 1 4 )
H*
( A H , i s o b t a i n e df r o m t h c i n i t i a l a n d t h e l l n a l d i a l r e a d i n g sl o r t h e l o a d i n g ) .

It is important to note that. at the end of consolidation,total stressrrl is equal to ef-

fective strcssrri.

5. Clalculatethe new void ratio aftcr consoliclationcausedby the pressureincre-

ment as
cr - ae Ar, (10.15)
Fcrrthe next loading, o1 (note: o2 cquals thc cumulative load per unit area of
s p e c i m e n ) ,w h i c h c a u s e sa d d i t i o n a ld e f o r m a t i o n A H r , t h e v o i d r a t i o a t t h e e n d o f
consolidation can be calculateclas
LI12
(t: cr - (10'16)
H,
At this time. o2 : cffcctive stress,rr!. Proceedingin a similar manner, one can ob-
tain the void ratios at the end of the consolidationfor all load increments.
The efTectivcstrcsso' and the correspondingvoid ratios (c) at the end of con-
solidation are plotted on semilogarithmicgraph paper. The typical shape of sucha
p l o t i s s h o w ni n F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 2 .

10.7 Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

Figure 10.12showsthat the upper part of the e-log a' plot is somewhatcurved with
a flat slope, followed by a linear relationship for the void ratio with log o' having a
steeper slope. This phenomenon can be explained in the following manner:
A soil in the fleld at some depth has been subjected to a certain maximum ef-
fective past pressure in its geologic history. This maximum effective past pressure
may be equal to or less than the existing effective overburden pressure at the time of
sampling. The reduction of effective pressure in the field may be caused by natural
 10.7 Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clavs 275

01 o'r
Figure 10.12
E l l e c t i v c p r c s s u r c .o ' ( l o g s c a l c )
Typicalplot of c againstlog o'
geologic processesor humernprocesses.During the soil sampling,the existingeffec-
tive overburdcn pressureis also released,which resultsin some expansion.When this
specimenis subjectedto etconsolidationtest,a small amount of compression(that is,
a small changein v<tidratio) will occur when thc effectivepressureapplied is lessthan
the maximum cffective overburden prcssure in the field to which lhe soil has been
subjectedin the past. When the effectivepressureon the specimenbecomesgreater
than the merximumefTectivepast pressure,the changein the void ratio is much larger,
and the e-log o' relationship is practically linear with a steeperslope.
This relationship can be verillcd in the laboratory by loading the specimento
exceedthe maximum effectiveoverburdenpressure,and then unloading and reload-
ing again.The e-log '' plot for such casesis shown in Figure 10.13,in which cd rep-
resentsunloading and dfg representsthe reloading process.

d
.E

!
o

Figure 10.13
Plot of e againstlog a' showingloading,
Elfectivepressurero'(log scale) unloading,and reloadingbranches
Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

o
'E

!
o

o' (logscalc)
Prcssurc.

Figure 10.14 Graphicprocedurcl'ordetelminingpreconsolidation

pressure

This leads us to thc two basicdcfinitions of clay basedon stresshistory:

l. Normally utrtsolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is the

maximum pressurethat the soil was subjectedto in the past.
2. Overconsolidaterl, whose present effectiveoverburden pressureis lessthan
that which the soil experiencedin the past.The maximum effcctivc past pres-
sure is called the preutnsolklatk.tn pressure.

Casagrande(1936) suggesteda simple graphic construction to determine the

preconsolidationpressurerri.from the labclratorye-log o' plot. The procedure is as
f o l l o w s ( s e eF i g u r e 1 0 . 1 4 ) :

By visual observation,establishpoint a, at which the e-log rr' plot has a mini-

mum radius of curvature.
) Draw a horizontal line ob.
3. Draw the line ac tangent at d.
4. Draw thc line ad, which is the bisector of the angle bnc.
5 . Project the straight-lineportion gh of the e-logo' plot back to intersectline ad
at I The abscissaof point./is the preconsolidationpressure,aj..

The overconsolidationratio (OCR) for a soil can now be defined as

OCR: n L (10.17)
(r'

where oi : preconsolidation pressure of a speclmen

o' : Dresent effective vertical Dressure
 10.8 Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio-Pressure Relationship 277

10.8 Effect of Disturbance on Void

Rati o - Pressure ReIati on sh ip
A soil specimenwill be remolded when it is subjectedto some degreeof disturbance.
This remolding will result in some deviation of the e_log o' plot as observedin the
laboratory from the actual behavior in the field. The field e-log a' plot can be re-
constructed from the laboratory test results in the manner describedin this section
(Terzaghi and Peck, 1967).

Normally Consolidated Clay of Low to Medium Plasticity (Figure tO.IS)

1. ln Figure 10.l-5,curve 2 is the laboratory e-log o' plot. From this plot, deter-
mine the prcconsolidationpressure(rrj) : o',, (that is, the present effective
ovcrburden pressure).Knowing where c', : ol1, draw verticalline ab.
2 . C a l c u l a t et h e v o i d r a t i o i n t h e f i c l d . e , , [ S c c t i o n1 0 . 6 ,E q . ( 1 0 . 1 3 ) ] D
. raw hori-
zontal line c'r1.
3. Calculat.e0.4c, and draw line e.f.(Note:.l'is the point of intersectionof the line
w i t h c u r v e2 . )
4. Join points.f and g. Notc that g is the point of intcrsectionof lines ab and cd.
This is thc virgin cornpressioncurvc.

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p o i n t o u t t h t t t i f a s o i l i s c o m p l e t e l yr c m o l d e d ,t h e g e n e r a lp o -
s i t i o n o f t h e c - l o g r . r 'p l o t w i l l b c a s r e p r c s s n t e db y c u r v e 3 .

I
I
I I Vtrgtn

I -- consolidation
curve; slope= C,

Consolidation Latloratory
curve for consolidation
o rernoldedspecimen curve
-
F

o'o = o','
Pressure,
o' (logscale)

Figure 10. 15 Consolidation characteristics of normally consolidated clay of low to

medium sensitivity
278 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Laboratory
-5
rebound curve;
slope = C" =
swell index

O.4eq1

6'o o'.
P r e s s u r eo.' ( l o g s c a l e )

Figure 70. 16 Consolidation characteristics of overconsoliclated clay of low tcr

nredium scnsitivity

Overconsolidated CIay of Low to Medium Plasticity (Figure 10.16)

1 . I n F i g u r e 1 0 .1 6 ,c u r v c 2 i s t h c l a b o r a t o r ye - l o g o ' p l o t ( l o a d i n g ) ,a n d c u r v e3 i s
thc laboratory unloading,or rebound, curve. From curve 2, determine the pre-
consolidationpressurerrj..Draw the vertical line ab.
2. Determine the field effectiveoverburden pressureoi;. Draw vertical line cd.
3. Determine the void ratio in the field. er. Draw the horizontal line fg. The point
of intersectionof lines /! and cd is h.
4. Draw a line hi, which is parallel to curve 3 (which is practically a straight line).
The point of intersectionof lines hi and ab is j.
5. Join points 7 and k. Point k is on curve 2, and its ordinate is 0.4e6.

The field consolidationplot will take a path hjk. The recompressionpath in the
fiefd is hj and is parallel to the laboratory rebound curve (Schmertmann,1953).

Example10.3
Following are the resultsof a laboratory consolidationtest on a soil specimen
obtainedfrom the field: Dry massof specimen= L28g, height of specimenat
the beginningof the test : 2.54 cm, G,:2.75, and areaof the specimen=
30,68cm2.
 10.8 Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio-Pressure Relationshio

Final height of
Effeetive specimen at the
pressure,o' end of consolidation
(ton /ft2) (cm)
(.) 2.540
0.5 2.488
I 2.465
2 2.431
4 2.389
8 z,-12+
16 2.225
-)L 2.115

Make necessary
calculations
and drawan e vs.log o, curve.
Solution
F r o mE q . ( 1 0 . 1 1 )
w, M, 128g
H ''. : - 1 . 5 2c m
AG,T,, AC.,p,,
(30.68cmr)(2.75)(1g/cm3)
Now the followingtablecanbe prepared:
Effective Height at rhe end
pressure, rr' of consolidation, H Hn = H - H"
(ton /ft2l (cm) (cml e = HulH"

o 2.540 1.02 0.671

0..5 2.488 0.968 0.637
1 2.465 0.94-s 0.622
2 2.431 0.911 0.599
4 2.389 0.ti69 0.572
8 z--)/+ 0.804 0.529
l6 2.225 0.705 0.464
JL 2.175 0.595 0.390

The e vs.log o' plot is shownin Figure10.17.

r t,..\
!
a

Figure 10,17
0.3 I 3 l0 30 Variationof void ratio with
Ellectivepressure.
o'(ton/ft2)log scale effective Dressure
280 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Cross-sectionalarea= A { Votume
A y l A y l
Heighl

l l I 1 l
v'r, ulr,
l A)
v.t t l
i, I 1 t l
l l L
Y Y
T
H v.
i t l i

I
+
Figure 10.18 Settlementcausedby onc-dimcnsionalconsolidation

10.9 Calculation of Settlement from

One-Dimensional Primary Consolidation
With the knowledgc gaincd from thc analysisof consolidation test results,we can
now proceed to calculatethc probablc scttlement causedby primary consolidation
i n t h e { i e l d ,a s s u m i n go n e - d i m e n s i o n acl o n s o l i d a t i o n .
Let us considera saturatcdclay layer of thicknessH and cross-sectionalarea.4
under an existing averagccfTcctivcoverburden pressureoir. Becauseof ernincrease
of effectivepressurc,Arr', lct the primary settlementbe S,..Thus, the changein vol-
ume (Figure 10.1t3)can bc given by

L . V : V 1 1 -V t : H A - ( H - S . ) A : S , A (10.18)
whcre l/,, and I/1 are the initial and final volumes,rcspectivcly.However, the change
in the total volume is equal to the changein thc volumc of voids, Atr/,,.Hence,

LV : S,A : V,s - V,,,: LV,, (10.19)

where /,,1;and V,,, are the initial and linal vclid volumes, rcspectively.From the
definition of void ratio. it follows that
LV,,- L,eV, ( 10.20)
whereAe - changeof void ratio.But
Vu
:' AH
v' .' : 7te,, l*er1
( 10.21)

where eo : initial void ratio at volume V,,.Thus, from Eqs (10.18)through (10.21),

L V - S,A= LeV,:
,Tr ,,O,

A.e
S' , . : H (r0.22)
Ile,l
 10.10 Compression lndex (C")and Swell lndex (C") 281

For normally consolidatedclaysthat exhibit a linear e-logo' relationship(see

Figure 10.15).
Ae - C,.[log(o'o+ L,o') - log oi,] (10.23)
where c. : slope of the e-log o' plot and is defined as the compressionindex. Sub-
stitution of Eq. (10.23)into Eq. (10.22)gives

',*#*'"-(4#) (t0.24)

In overconsolidatcdclays (sce Figure 10.16), for o|, + Ao' < oj , field e-logo,
variation will be along the line hj, the slope of which will be approximately equal to
that for the laboratory rebound curve. The slclpcof the rebound curve C" is referred
to as the swell index; so
Ac : C,!og(ol1+ L,c') logoi,,) ( lo.2s)
F r o m E q s . ( l t . l 5 ) a n d ( l J . l 8 ) ,w e o b r a i n

s.:#'.r(n#) (10.26)

l[ tr',, + Ltr' - rrj . thcn

'.:ffi^r#.#r'"-(tn;*) (10.27)

Howevcr, if the e-log rr' curve is givcn, one can simply pick Ae off the plot for the
appropriate range of pressurcs.This number may be substitutedinto Eq. (I0.22) for
t h e c a l c u l a t i o no f s e t t l e m e n t S
. ..

10.10 Compressron lndex (C") and Swell lndex (C,)

The compressionindex for the calculation of field settlement causedby consolida-
tion can be determined by graphic construction (as shown in Figure 10.15)after one
obtains the laboratory test resultsfor void ratio and pressure.
Skempton (1944) suggestedthe following empirical expressionfor the com-
pressionindex for undisturbed clays:

C":0.009(Ll*10) (10.28)

where LL : liquid limit.

Several other correlations for the compression index are also available. They
have been developed by tests on various clays. Some of these correlations are given
in Table 10.4.
Chapter l0 Compressibility of Soil

Index.C.*
for Compression
Table 10.4 Correlations

Equation Reference Regionof applicability

c, - 0.0()'7(LL 7) S k e m p t o n( 1 9 4 4 ) Remolded clays

C, : 0.01u,,y Chicago clays
C , . : l . 1 5 ( e ,-, 0 . 2 7 ) N i s h i d a( 1 9 5 6 ) All clays
C , : 0 . 3 0 ( e o- 0 . 2 7 ) Hough (1957) Inorganic cohesivcsoil: silt, silty clay,clay
C, - 0.01l5r.r.'' Organic soils,peats,organic silt, and clay
c,:0.0046(LL-9) Brazilian clays
C,:0.75(co-0.-5) Soils with low plasticity
C..:0.208cr2+0.0083 Chicago clays
C, = 0.156c,,+ (.).0107 All clays
'kAlter Renclon-Hcrrero ( 1980)
Note:a71-- in siluvoid ratio:toa: in.rilttwatercontcnt.

l a t u r a l c l a y s ,R e n d o n - H e r r e r o( 1 9 8 3 )
O n t h c b a s i so f o b s e r v e l t i o nosn s e v e r a n
gave the rclationship for thc compressionindex in tlre form

. -/ | + c,,\23r1
c. : 0.r4lci'[ q, ( r0.29)
)

l e c o m p r e s s i o ni n d e x a s
N a g a r a ja n d M u r t y ( 1 9 u 5 )c x p r e s s e ct h

.1", ILL(%\l
c, : 0.23431
,ou
( l0.30)

'Ihc
swell index is apprcciablysmurllerin rnagnitudethan thc compressionindex and
c a n g e n e r a l l vb e d c t c r m i n e d l r o m l a b t t r a t o r vt c s t s .I n m o s t c a s e s ,
C,:lro*c, ( 1 0 .r3)
Thc swell index was cxpressedby Nagaraj and Murty (l9lt5) as
ILL(v"\l
c, _ {).04631 (10.32)
l()() ]c,

E xa mp l e1 0 .4

A soil profile is shownin Figure 10^19.If a uniformly diSributed load, Ao, is ap-
plied at the groundsurface,what is the settlementof theplay layercausedby pri-
maryconsolidation if
a. The clayis normally consolidated
b. The preconsolidation pressure(oL) :190 kN/m2
c' o',: 170kN/m2
UseC.:IC,.
 10.10 Compression lndex (C")and Swell lndex (C,)

a o = 1 0 0k N / m j

{, } t
Y,iry= l4 kN/ml
1' Cround water table
..-
Sand
%*r = 18 kN/m3

''','::r".
.'' : l:.: :'.'.iClay"".'.i ; " ".''

Figure 10.19

Solution
a. Theaverage
effective
stressat themiddleof theclaylayeris
ab:2Tarv * y,o] *
+ 4lTruqsonay -*
z4
l7sar1"roy;TrrJ
OT

os : (z)Qa)+ 4(18* e.81)+ 2(19- 9.81): 79.1,4

kN/mz
FromEq. (10.24),
* A'')
s', : - c : H r o n ( o b
l*e,, "\ o6 )
From Eq. (10.28),
C" : 0.009(Lr * 10) = 0.009(40* I0) :0.27
So
^ (0.27)(4). / 79.14+ 100\
r.: log\ : rrl3m :2l3mm
I + os 7e.14 )

b. os + Lo' :79.74 + L00= 179.14kN/mz

o',: 190kNlmz
Becausea'6 * A,cr') ol, useEq. (10.26)to get
i
^ C"H /ol,*Ao'1 ;
s.:l+eo,"t(?)

^ c" 0.27
c,:;:;:0.04s

^ (0.04sX4) ( tg.t++ 100

.ros( \ =
s : m : 36mm
0.036
il 0*: ,q11 )
Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

c. ob:79.14 kN/m2
o'si Ao':I79.14kN/m2
o ' , : 1 7 0k N / m 2
vb < oL< (rb + Ao', useEq.(10.27),
Because
C"H o'- C ,H / 6',, + L,o'\
s':
1*",l"c .b* r +"rloe( 4 /
(0.045X4)
. ( t70 \ (0.27)(4) (
.'"t[ t7e.14\
: tos[ffi/ + : 0.0468m
* rs '^ /
: 46.8mm

E xa mp l e1 0 .5
The laboratory consolidation data for an undisturbed clay specimen are as follows:
et : l.l o't : 95kN/m2
ez: 0.9 oz : 4 7 5k N / m z
W h a t w i l l b e t h e v o i d r a t i o f o r a p r e s s u r eo f 6 0 0 k N / m 2 I ( N o t e :o i < 9 . 5k N / m 2 . )

-' E

95 ,175600
,+75
P r e s s u r eo,' ( l o g s c a l e () k N / m l ) Figure 10.20

$olution
From Figure L0.20,
(t-ez 1.1- 0.9 ; :
C, = * - 0.286
logd? logdl: log . -475 log$
-:
€t- € z : C.(log600 - log 95)
600
€3 : €t C l o e" =9 5

= 1.1- 0.286
log : o.rt
S
 10.11 Secondary Consolidation Settlement 285

loJ I Secon dary Con soIi dati o n Settlem ent

Section 10.5showedthat at the end of primary consolidation(that is, after complete
dissipation of excesspore water pressure)some settlement is observedbecauseof
the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. This stage of consolidation is called secondary
consolidation. During secondary consolidation the plot of deformation against the
log of time is practically linear (seeFigure 10.10).The variation of the void ratio, e,
with time t for a given load increment will be similar to that shown in Figure 10.10.
This variation is shown in Figure 10.21.From Figure 10.21,the secondarycompres-
sion index can be defined as

A,e Ae
co ( 10.3-1)
log 12- log r, l"g(t/,)

where C,, : secondarycompressionindex

Ae : changeof void ratio
/ p ,/ 2 - t i m e

The magnitude of the secondaryconsolidationcan be calculatedas

/t,\
s" : clH '"r(.
i/ (r0.34)

Time,r (logscale)

Figure 10.21 Yariatton of e with log / under a given load increment and definition of sec-
ondary consolidation index
286 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

where

C
c'-: Th: (10'3s)

e,, : void ratio at the end of primary consolidation(seeFigure 10.21)

H : thicknessof clay layer

The generalmagnitudesof Ci as observedin various natural depositsare as follows:

. Overconsolidatedclays : 0.001or less
. Normally consolidatedclays : 0.005to 0.03
. Organic soil : 0.04or more

Secondaryconsolidationsettlementis more important than primary consolida-

tion in organicand highly compressibleinorganicsoils.In overconsolidatedinorganic
clays,the secondarycompressionindex is very small and of lesspracticalsignificance.

Example10.6
For a normally consolidatedclaylayerin the field, the followingvaluesare given:
r thicknessof claylayer : 8.5ft
. Void ratio (es) : 0.8
r Compressionindex (C.) : 0.2S
o Averageeffectivepressureon the claylayer (ob) :2650lblf9
r Atr' :970lblft2
r Secondarycompressionindex (C") : 0,42
What is the total consolidation settlement of the clay layer five years after the
completion of primary consolidationsettlement?(Note: Time for completion of
= 1.5years.)
primarysettlement
Solution ;
FromEq.(10.35),
co
C'* =
1* e,
The valueof eocanbe calculatedas
. ep : €o Aepri_ury
 10.12 TimeRateof Consolidation 287

CombiningEqs.( 10.22)
and (10.23).
we findrhat"
ob * 26s9,1,e70
L e: C
- , ,-rcn(
"o\ ,oo' ) : o.r
" . - ' . ,"r" on(
\ )
os / 2650 )
: 0.038

- (0'03qx8'lJ( 12)
Primary s"' : ++
consolidatior, : 2.15in.
7*eo l+0.8
It is givenlhat es - 0.8,and thus,
eo*0.8*0.038:0.762
Hence,
o9-2,,:o.o1r
c-a- :
| + 0.162
From Eq. (10.34),

s, : c"H'"r(f) = (0.011)(8.s
x 12)ros(*) = o.rn,n
Total consolidationsettlement: primary consolidation(S.) + secondarysettle-
ment (S").So
settlement:2.15 + 0.59: 2.74in.
total consolidation r

10.12 Time Rate of Consolidation

The total settlement causedby primary consolidationresulting from an increasein
the stresson a soil laycr can be calculatedby the use of one of the three equations-
(10.24),(10.26),or (10.27) givcn in Section 10.9.However,they do nor provide any
information regarding the ratc of primary consolidation.Terzaghi (1925) proposed
the first theory to consider the rate of one-dimensionalconsolidation for saturated
clay soils.The mathematicalderivationsare basedon the following six assumptions
(also see Taylor, 1948):

1. The clay-water systemis homogeneous.

2. Saturation is complete.
3. Compressibilityof water is negligible.
4. Compressibilityof soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange).
5. The flow of water is in one direction only (that is,in the direction of compression).
6. Darcy's law is valid.

Figure 10.22ashows a layer of clay of thickness 2H,,,thatis located between two

highly permeable sand layers.If the clay layer is subjectedto an increasedpressure
of Aa, the pore water pressure at any point,4 in the clay layer will increase.For one-
dimensionalconsolidation,water will be squeezedout in the vertical direction toward
the sand laver.
288 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

r 1:"i dz.) d,r d)'

rj.

t)
, l
... u| Figure 10.22
(a) Claylayerundergoing
dr
consolidation;(b) flow
of water at -4 during
(b) consolidation

Figure I022b showsthe flow of water through a prismatic element at,4. For
the soil elementshown,
Rate of outflow Rate of inflow Rate of
of water o[ water volume change

Thus,
/ 6u. \ av
lu.+:dz. l dxdy-D.dxdy:-
\ 3 2 / dt
r
10.12 Time Rate of Consolidation 289

where V : volume of the soil element

velocitv of flow in z direction
or
oa, av
dx dl 'lz - (10.36)
;t7 7
Using Darcy's law, wc have

, dh k itrr
l'; -- Kt - -* (10.37)
;,r.-- y,,.i
where u : excesspore water pressurecausedby the increascof stress.
F r o m E q s . ( 1 0 . 3 6 )a n d ( 1 0 . 3 7 ) ,

- K d-u.
: l a v
y,,.or.t ax ly az at ( 10.38)

Duringconsolidation, the raLeof changein the volumeof the soilelementis equal

to the rateof changcin the volurneof voids.Thus.
dv : ilv, : !Uti:y) !lv' + V' .aYt + , d V
at al
(r0.3e)
i)t At at
w h e r c / , : v o l u m e o f ' s < l isl o l i d s
7,, - volume ctl'voicls
B u t ( a s s u m i n gt h a t s o i l s o l i d sa r c i n c o m p r e s s i b l e )

!!r: u
dt
and
V dx dv dz.
V,
lla,, l+e,,,
Substitutionfor itV.littand V, in Eq. ( 10.39)
yiclds
aV _ dx dy dz ;te
( 10.40)
at lle6 at
whcre co : initialvoid ratio.
C o m b i n i n g E q s . ( 1 0 . 3 8 )a n d ( 1 0 . 4 0 )g i v e s

K (t-Ll | (le

y,, oz2 (10.41)

| + eo at
The change in the void ratio is causedby the increaseof effectivestress(i.e.,
a decreaseof excesspore water pressure).Assuming that they are linearly related,
we have
i)e - tr,.O(L,o, -o,1u
) : (r0.42)
whered(Aa') change in effective pressure
o,, coefficient of compressibility(a,.can be considered
constantfor a narrow range of pressureincrease)
290 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

givcs
CombiningEqs.(10.a1)and(10.42)
k i)2Lt 0,, ilu i)tt
y,,d*: l+q,i:-n'' dt

where
- ( 10.43)
r.t,,: coefficient of volumc compressibility a,,l(l + e7)

or.
,):l : (l- ll
( 10.44)
dt o1.

wht:re
c , , : c c r e l l i c i c not l ' c o n s o l i d a t i o n: k l ( y , , , m , . ) (ro.4s)
Thus.

( 10.46)
f,,tn, ( u, \
Y"\r+c;/

E q . ( l { ) . a a )i s t h c b a s i cd i l l ' er c n t i a l c q u a t i o no f ' T c r z a g h i ' cs o n s o l i d a t i o nt h e o r y

a n d c a n b c s o l v e dw i t l - rt h e f o l l o w i n gb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s :
z-0. rr-0
7 , : 2 1 t , 1 ,u, : 0
/ : 0 , L t : u 1 1

1'hc solution yiclcls

,-'TlT""(#,)1' -M?t,
( 10.47)

wherem:anintegcr
M:Qrl2)(2m+t)
Ilo : initial excess
pore watel prcssure

r .' : : + : t i m ef a c l o r (r0.48)
Hit,

The time factor is a nondimensionalnumber.

Becauseconsolidationprogressesby thc dissipationof excesspore water pres-
sure. the desree of consolidationat a distancez at anv time r is
-
Llrt Ll- ' - l - Ll-
- (10.4e)
u- " - uo
Llo

where u: : excesspore water pressureat time 1.

 10.12 Time Rate of Consolidation 291

0 ().I O.2 0.3 0.'t 0.5 0.(r O.1

I)egrec of consolidalion.
t/-

Figure 10.23 Yariation of U- with 7',.and z./l!,1,

E q u a t i o n s( l 1 . 4 l ) a n d ( 1 0 . 4 9 )c a n b e c o m b i n e d t o o b t a i n t h e d c g r e eo f c o n -
s o l i d a t i o na t a n y d e p t h z . T h i s i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 0 . 2 3 .
The averagedcgree of consolidation for the entire depth of thc clay laycr at
a n y t i m e / c a n b e w r i t t e n f r o n t E q . ( 1 0 . 4 9 )a s

/ r \ ftn,,,
l.- ll u,dz
U : ?_ 1 \zHd,/ Jo
ur)
( r0.s0)

where IJ : averagedegree of consolidation

S,1,y: settlementof the layer at timc t
S,.: ultimate settlementof the layer from primary consolidation

Substitution of the expression for excess pore water pressure a_ given in

Eq. (10.47)into Eq. (10.50)gives
'f 2-",,,
,-| (10.-5
r)
,7:r,M'
The variation in the averagedegree of consolidationwith the nondimensionaltime
factor, I,,, is given in Figure 10.24,which represents the casewhere r.r.,is the same for
the entire depth of the consolidatinglayer.
292 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

b\

;20
'E

A
=
>
i:
o l
bol I e40
r E l H ,
;,.= |
A ; l
Y
I o Ot,
1'., :
!
:' 8180
l o
6 ill I
F F I H,r,
I 0..1 0.6 0.8
O ! Y I Tinrelactor,7',.
V

Di f}'erenttypcs of' drainage

with &., constilnt

Figure 10.24 Yariation of avcrage degrcc of consolidation with time factor, 7',, (r2,, constant
with depth)

The valuesof thc time ferctorand their corrcspondingaveragedegreesof con-

solidation for the casepresented in Figure 10.24may also be approximated by the
following simple rclationship:

* / ttot^\2
F o r U : 0 t o 6 0 % ,' 7 , . : + ( = ) (10.s2)
4\100/
ForIJ 7 60o/o,T, * 1.78I* 0.933log(100* U"/.) (10.s3)

Table 10.5givesthe variation of ?',,with U on the basisof Eqs. (10.52) and (10.53).

10.13 Coefficient of Consolidatio n

The coef{icientof consolidation cu generally decreasesas the liquid limit of soil in-
creases.The range of variation of cufor a given liquid limit of soil is wide.
For a given load increment on a specimen,two graphical methods are commonly
used for determining cu from laboratory one-dimensionalconsolidation tests.The
first is the logarithm-of-time methodproposed by Casagrandeand Fadum (1940), and
the other is the square-root-of-time method given by Taylor (1942). More recently, at
least two other methods were proposed. They are the hyperbola method (Sridharan
and Prakash, 1985) and the early stagelog-t method (Robinson and Allam, 1996).The
general procedures for obtaininB cu by these methods are described in this section.
 10.13 Coefficient of Consolidation 293

Table 10.5 Variation of f,, with U

u (%l r" U lo/"1 Tu u(%l T,

0 0 -)+ 0.0907 68 0.377
I 0.00008 3-5 0.0962 69 0.390
2 0.0003 --to 0 . 10 2 70 0.403
3 0.00071 37 0 . 10 7 7l 0.411
1 0.(n126 3tt 0.1l3 72 0.431
5 0 . 0 09I 6 39 0 . 1l 9 0.446
6 0.00283 40 0.126 74 0.461
7 0.003u.5 4l 0.132 75 0.477
6 0.00-502 A')
0 . 13 8 76 0.493
9 0.00636 43 0.145 71 0.-51
I
l0 0.007ft.5 41 0.1.52 7t3 0.529
lt 0.(x)9-5 4.5 0.t -59 l() 0.547
t2 0 . 0 1l 3 46 0 . 16 6 u0 0..s67
l3 0 . 0 I3 3 41 0.173 ul 0.5t3u
l4 0.01-54 4u 0 .t t 3 l 82 0.6I0
l-5 0.0t77 49 0.I8[t lJ3 0.633
l6 0.0201 -s0 0.t97 n4 0.65u
l7 0.0227 5t 0.204 |.i.5 0.61J4
Iti 0.02.54 )t 0.212 u6 0.712
I9 0.02rJ3 53 0.221 ti7 0.742
20 0.03I4 -54 0.230 utt 0.174
2l 0.0346 -s5 0.239 llc) 0.u09
22 0.03t30 56 0.24tt 90 0.t348
L-) 0.041.5 57 0.257 9l 0.139I
24 0.0452 5f,i 0.261 92 0.93u
25 0.0491 .59 0.276 93 0.993
26 0.053I 60 0.2u6 94 1.055
27 0.0572 6l 0.291 9-s |.129
2u 0.06l-s 62 0.307 96 t.219
29 0.0660 63 0.3r8 o? 1.336
30 0.07('t7 64 0.329 9u 1.500
3t 0.0754 6.5 0.304 99 I.7ul
-)z 0.01103 66 0.3-52 r(x)
33 0.08-5-5 67 0.364

Lo ga rith m -of-Ti me M eth od

For a given incremental loading of the laboratory test, the specimen deformation
against log-of-time plot is shown in Figure 10.2-5.
The following consrrucrlonsare
needed to determine c,,:

1. Extend the straight-lineportions of primary and secondaryconsolidationsto

intersectat ,4. The ordinate of ,4 is representedby d,uu- that is, the deforma-
tion at the end of 100% primary consoliclation.
2. The initial curved portion of the plot of deformation versus log r is approxi-
mated to be a parabola on the natural scale.Selecttimes /, and /, on the curved
portion such that t2: 4t1.Let the differenceof specimendeformation durins
time (1, - r1)be equal to x.
Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

a
a

E
,a

tI t) I5t)
-l'irne
(logscalc)

Figure 10.25 Logztrilhrn-of-tirncmethod lirr dctcrmining coeflicicntol'consolidation

Draw a horizontal line DE such thal the verticirl distancc BD is equal tor. The
d e f o r m a t i o nc o r r c s p o n d i n gt o t h e l i n c D E i s r / , ,( t h a t i s , d c f o r m a t i o na t 0 %
consolidation ).
The clrdinatcof point f on thc consoliclationcurvc rcpresentsthe deformation
at 50% primary consolidation,and its abscissarcprcsentsthe corresponding
time (rr,,).
For -50'/oaverageclegreeof consolidation,I,, : 0.191(seeTable 10.5),so,

,,,,:E
()r
o.telH:t,
4.,, : ( 10.54)
,,

: avcragclongestdrainagepath during consolidation.

where 11,1,.
For specimensdraincd at both top and bottom, H,1,equals one-half the aver-
age height of the specimenduring consolidation.For specimensdrained on only one
side, H,,, equirlsthe avcrageheight of the specimenduring consolidation.

Squ a re-Ro ot-of -Ti m e M eth od

In the square-root-of-timemethod, a plot of deformation againstthe squareroot of
time is made for the incremental loading (Figure 10.26).Other graphic constructions
required are as follows:
1. Draw aline AB through the early po419n of the curve.
2. Draw aline AC such that OC : 1.1508. The abscissaof point D, which is the
intersectionof AC and the consolidationcurve, givesthe squareroot of time
f o r 9 0 o / oc o n s o l i d a t i o n1 f , 4 , ) .
 10.13 Coefficient of Consolidation 295

B C Figure 10.26
'tr--
\ I iltt(t /
Scluare-root-ol-time
fittingmethod

3. For 907o consolidation, f,rn: 0.1't4U

(sce Table 10.-5),
so

!+
7i,,: {).t{4tt:
fI ,,,

0.848H?t,
tgl
( 10.ss)
H,1,in Eq. ( I0.-5-5)
is detcrmincd in a manncr sintilar to that i n t h e l o g a r i t h m -
of-time method.

Hyperbola Method
ln the hyperbola method, thc following procedure is recommencledfor the determi-
nationof c,,:
l. obtain the time l and the specimendeformation (AH) from the laboratory
c o n s o l i d a t i o tne s t .
2. Plot the graph of tlL,H against/ as shown in Figure 10.27.

{
D
t Figure 10.27
Hyperbolamethodfor determinationof c.,
Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

3. Identify the straight-lineportion hc and project it back to point d. Determine

the intercept D.
4. Determine the slope m of the line bc.
5. Calculatec,,as
. ^/ mII),\
c,,:03(;J (10s6)

Note that becausethe unit of D is time/length and the unit of m is (time/length)/

time - 1i length. thc unit of c,,is

(# *)""ngth) 2 (length)2
/ time \ time
\ l e n g t h/
The hyperbola method is fairly simple to use.and it givesgood resultsfor U =
60"/" to 90"/".

Early Stage log-t Method

The early stagelog-r method, an extcnsionof the logarithm-of-timemethod, is based
on specimcndeformation againstlog-of-time plot as shown in Figure 10.2U.Accord-
ing to this methocl,follow steps2 and 3 describcdfor the logarithm-of-time method
to determinc r1,,.Draw a horizontal line DE through d,,.Thcn draw a tangent through
thc point of inflection, f, The tangent intersectsline DE at point Ci. Determine the
time 1correspondingto G, which is the time at U - 22.14"/". Sct
o.038sH:1,
c,, : ( Io.-s7)
t22Jq

ln most cases,for a given soil and pressurerange, the magnitude of c,.determined

by using the logarithm-o,f-timemethod provides ktwest value.The highest value is ob'
tained frcrm the early stogelctg-tntethod. The primary reason is becausethe early stage
log-/ method usesthe earlier part of the consolidationcurve,whereasthe logarithm-
of-time method uscs the lower portion of the consolidation curve. When the lower

EI
; l
E I
E I
€
o
l

Figure 10.28
Time, t (log scale) Early stagelog-rmethod
 10.13 Coefficient of Consolidation 297

portion of the consolidation curve is taken into account, the effect of secondary con-
solidation plays a role in the magnitude of c,,.This fact is demonstrated for several
soils in Table 10.6.
Several investigators have also reported that the c,, value obtained from the
field is substantiallyhigher than that obtained from laboratory tests conducted by
using conventional testing methods (that is, logarithm-of-time and square-root-of-
time methods). Hence, the early stage log-/ method may provide a more realistic
value of fieldwork.

Tahle 10.6 Comparisonof c,.Obtaincdfrom VariousMethods*

cu x 104 cm2/sec

Rangeof Logarithm- Square-root-

pressureo' of-time of-time Early stage
(kN/m'zl method method log t method

Red earth 25-50 4.63 .5.4-5 6.12

-50 t(x) 6.43 1.98 9.00
t(x)-200 9.99 I 1.43
200- 400 t 3 .41 10.90 t2.56
400-800 u .I 0 I 1.99 t 2.ttO
Brown soil 25-50 3.13 t 4.45 ).41
50-100 3.02 3.77 3.n0
100-20t) 2.86 3.4t) 3.52
200- 400 2.09 2.21 2.74
4(X)-U00 1.30 1.4-s t.36
Black cotton soil 2-5--50 5.07 6.-5-5 9;73
50-100 3.06 3.69 4.78
100-2(x) 2.00 2.50 -i.4)
200- 4(x) l.l5 1.57 2.03
400- 800 0.-56 0.64 0;79
lllite 25-50 1.66 2.25 2.50
.50 I(X) 1.34 3 .l 3 -).) L

l(n-200 2.20 3 .l 8 3.6-5

200-'100 3 .l 5 ,1.59 5.14
400- 80t) 4.l-5 5.82 6.45
Bentonite 2-s-.50 0.063 0.130 0.t62
50-100 0.046 0.100 0.130
100-200 0.044 0.052 0.081
200- 400 0.021 0.022 0.040
4(X) 800 0.01-5 0.017 0.()22
Chicago clay r2.5-25 25.10 45.50 46.00
(Taylor, 1948) 25-50 20.70 23.90 31.-50
50-100 t3;70 17.40 20.20
100-20t) 3.18 4.71 4.97
200-400 4.56 4.40 4.91
400- 800 6.0.s 6.44 7.41
'7.09
800-1 600 8.62 9.09
* After a table from "Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation from Early Stage of
Log r Plot," by R. G. Robinson and M. M. Allam, L996,Geotechnical TestingJournal, 19(3)
pp. 3 16-320. Copyright O 1996 American Society for Testing and Materials. Reprinted with
permission.
Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Example10.7
The time requiredfor 50% consolidationof a 25-mm-thickclaylayer (drainedat
both top and bottom) in the laboratoryis 2 min. 20 sec.How long (in days)will it
take for a 3-m-thickclay layer of the sameclay in the field under the samepres-
sure incrementto reach50% consolidation?In the field, there is a rock layer at
the bottomof the clay.
Solution
L',./loh ('rlti.l,l
')rr
LJz u2
r r dr(lal') r, ,/rltield)

flrb 'ficld
_
HtarQort) I"l?n(,,,tu\
140sec /fi"r,r
7on2s;T:
t _ l
(3 rn)t
\ z /
t
'field
*-
sec : 93.33days
8,064,000

Exa mp l e1 0 .8

Refer to Example10.7.How long (in days)will it take in the field for 30% primary
consolidationto occur?Use Eq. (10.52).
Solution
From Eq. (10.52),
crJii.t,t
:T",xlJ2
H'artlah)

So
t x(Jz

\: Ui
t2 Ui

93.33days 502
T^ 302
/e * 33.6days
 10.13 Coefficient of Consolidation 2gg

Example10.9
A 3-in.-thicklayer (doubledrainage)of saturatedclayunder a surcharge
loading
underwent90% primary consolidationin 75 days.Find the coefficient
of consoli_
dation of clay for the pressurerange.
$olution
c
Tun
.,
: "t!'
rd,
H

P:"1u1"the claylayerhastwo-waydrainage, Ha,: 3 m/2 = 1.5m. Also. Z*, =

0.848(seeTable10.5).
So
c"(75x 24 x 6o x 6o)
0.848-
(1.sx 100)2

:
",, s1lli?lrioo
75 x 24 x 60 x OO
= 0.00294cm2/sec r

Example10.10
For a normally consolidatecl
laboratoryclayspecimendrainedon both sides,the
fbllowing are given:
ni2:30001b/ft2 € = e 7 1 -l . l .
o'r,* Ao' : 60001b/ft2 e : 0.g
Thicknessof clay specimen: 1 in.
Time for 50% consolidation: 2 min
a. Determinethe hydraulicconductivity(frlmin) of the clayfor the loading
range.
b. How long (in days)will it take for a 6-ft claylayerin the field (drained
on
one side)to reach60% consolidation?
Solution
Part A
The coefficientof compressibilityis

/ A u \
Q,, \ G'/
tn..: - :
" 7*eo.,, 1,+er,
)
A e = L . 1- 0 . 9 : 0 . 2

Ac' = 6000- 3000: 30001b/ft,

1 . 1+ 0 . 9
err:*_;-x1.0
300 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

So
0.2
3000
m,: 3 . 3 3x 1 0 5 f t 2 / l b
ffi:
FromTable10.5,for U : 504/",
Z, : 0.197;thus,

(0.1e?)
(r*)'
cu: : 1.71x l0 4fr2lmin

k: c.m,y,,,-(l.i\ x 10-1ft2/min)(3.33
x 10-sft?lb)(6z.4lbltf)
: 3.55x l0 7ftlmin
PartB
'f L- t '^rl na ,
lAtr --

H!,,

, -* TnuHl,,
t60
c.,.

From Table 10.5,for U : 60o/oand 76u= 0.2t16,

{0.286)(6)l
teo: :60.211min :41.8days
,r, *ffi

10.14 Calculation of Consolidation

Settlement under a Foundation
Chapter 9 showed that the increasein the vertical stressin soil causedby a load ap-
plied ovcr a limited area decreaseswith depth z measuredfrom the ground surface
downward. Hence to estimate the one-dimensionalsettlement of a foundation. we
can use Eq. ( lU.2a),( 10.26),or ( 10.27).However,the increaseof effectivestress,Aa',
in theseequationsshould be the averageincreasein the pressurebelow the centerof
the foundation. The valuescan be determined by using the procedure describedin
Chapter 9.
Assuming that the pressureincreasevariesparabolically,using Simpson'srule,
we can estimate the value of Aoj,,.as

A,rr',+4Acr'^* Ltr'6
LrvLu ( 10.s8)

where L,o',, Lrr',,,and Aoi, represent the increase in the effective pressure at the top,
middle, and bottom of the layer, respectively.
 10.14 Calculation of Consolidation Settlement under a Foundation

Ex amp l e1 0 .1 1
Calculatethe settlementof the 10-ft-thickclay layer (Figure 1A.29)that will result
from the load carried by a S-ft-squarefooting. Tire ciay-isnormaliy consolidated.
use the weightedaveragemethod [Eq. (10.5s)]to ca]culaterhe averageincrease
of effectivepressurein the clay layer.

ilr
, I+

+ '+
r l
_ l l
DrY sand 5 {t eootins size
|
ydry=loopct I srrxiti
,on
I

t
-*-1---- -------v-g':T1itiyy1-
€

I Sand
%at= 120 Pcf

Figure 1A.29

$olution
For normally consolidatedclay,from Eq. (70.24),
C,,H o'0 + L,o'ou
tn" :
l+eorrg ob
where
C. = 0.009(Lr - 10) = 0.009(40- 1.0)= g.y1
11:10X12:120in. i
it
rf
eo: 1.0 $

ob: loft x ydry(sand) - 62.4]+

+ l0ftl7,o,1,u"d)
)- 62.4]
fgly,u,i.ruy
: l 0 x 1 0 0+ 1 0 ( t 2 0- 6 2 . 4 )+ 5 ( l t 0 - 6 2 . 4 )
: 1814lblft2
302 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

From Eq. (f0.58),

Lo',*4Lo'^* Lo'6
Lr'L,

A{r',,L.o'^,andAaibelow the centerofthefootingcanbe obtainedfromEq. (9.33).

Now we canpreparethe followingtable (note:LIB = 5/5 = 1):
z b= Bl2 cl L,c' = qlt
fttl (ft) (ft) ht = zlb {kip/ft'?} t1 {kip/lt'?l

200
r l s 2 . 5 6 0.051 0.408- Aol
5 x 5
t 2 0 2 . 5 8 8 0.o29 0.232= Lo'^
1 25 2.5 10 8 0.019 0.152= LoL

So
+ 0.152
0.408+ (4)(0.232)
LoL,: : 0.248kip/ft2:24Blblft2

Hence,

t.- q1+P,o*s1r*1#€:
o.ein

10.15 Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlement

In many instances,santl drains and prefubricated verticul drains are used in the field
to acceleratcconsolidationsettlementin soft, normally consolidatedclay layersand
to achievc precompressionbefore the construction of a desired foundation. Sand
drains are constructedby drilling holes through the clay layer(s)in the field at regu-
lar intervals.The holes are then backfilledwith sand.This can be achievedby several
means,such as (a) rotary drilling and then backfilling with sand; (b) drilling by con-
tinuous flight auger with hollow stem and backfilling with sand (through the hollow
stem); and (c) driving hollow steelpiles.The soil inside the pile is then jetted out, and
the hole is backfilled with sand. Figure 10.30shows a schematic diagram of sand
drains.After back{illingthe drill holeswith sand,a surchargeis applied at the ground
surface.This surchargewill increasethe pore water pressurein the clay.The excess
pore water pressurein the clay will be dissipatedby drainage-both vertically and
radially to the sand drains - which acceleratessettlementof the clay layer.In Figure
10.30a,note that the radius of the sand drains is r,,,.Figure 10.30bshowsthe plan of
the layout of the sand drains. The effective zone from which the radial drainage will
be directed toward a given sand drain is approximately cylindrical, with a diameter
of d". The surcharge that needs to be applied at the ground surface and the length of
time it has to be maintained to achieve the desired degree of consolidation will be a
function of r,,,,d", and other soil parameters.Figure 10.31showsa sand drain instal-
lation in progress.
 10.15 Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlement

Surcharge
tt t t l
I I r t
t

brouno
t
t
t
l
Y
t
t
Y
l
l

-g-I|aleltlble**

'j..:".t.':.". .t:'nu
verilcxr dralnage . . ' - , - ., '. . . :
"'

|*t'
i Sand drain;
llqa AI I radius = r,n.
I
l * I
Radial : Radial
Hc . ,
drainage : (rrarnage
I
I Clav
II
I
I tuv.t
.1..
t
- : ,i : V , :. . - . , ,Ver1!9q!.dra!ng9
Santl

(a) Scction (b) l'lan

Figure 70.30 Sanddrains

Figure 10.31
Sanddraininstallationirr
progress(courtesyof E. C. Shin,
Universityof Inchon,
SouthKorea)
304 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Polypropylenc
core
<jru
S;;;1J1:;J
g;j:j;;;1:g:;r
:-jj:tt;Sr:,:i
j::.:r:s:t
Ceotextile
litbric

Figure 10.32 Prctabricatedvertical drain (PVD)

Figure 10.33
I n t a l l a t i o no 1 ' P V D si n
progrcss(courtesyof E. C.
S h i n . l . l n i v e r s i t yo [ I n c h o n ,
SouthKorea)

prelabricatcd vertical drains (PVDs). which are also referred to as wlck or strip
tlruins, were originally developedas etsubstitutefor thc commonly used sand drain'
With the advent of msterials scicnce,these drains are manufacturedfrom synthetic
polymcrs such as polypropylene anclhigh-densitypolyethylene.PVDs are normally
manufactured with a corrugated or chernneledsyntheticcore enclosedby a geotex-
tile filter, as shown schematicallyin Figure 10.32.lnstallation rates reported in the
literature are on the order of 0.1 to 0.3 m/s, excluding equipment mobilization and
setup time. PVDs have been used extensivelyin the past for expedientconsolidation
of low permeability soilsunder surfacesurcharge.The main advantageof PVDs over
sand diains is that they do not require drilling and, thus, installation is much faster.
Figure 10.33showsthe installation of PVDs in the field.

10.16 Summary and General Comments

In this chapter we discussedthe fundamental concepts and theories for estimating
elasticand consolidation (primary and secondary)settlement.Elastic settlementof
a foundation is primarily a function of the size and rigidity of the foundation, the
modulus of elasiicity, the Poisson'sratio of the soil, and the intensity of load on the
foundation.
Consolidation is a time-dependent process of settlement of saturated clay lay-
ers located below the ground water table by extrusion of excesswater pressure gen-
erated by application of load on the foundation. Total consolidationsettlemerr.
clay fbundation is a function of compressionindex (C.), swell index (C"), initial vo-
ratio, (e,,) and the average stressincrease in the clay layer. The degree of consolida-
tion for a given soil layer at a certain time after the load application depends on its
coefficient of consolidation (c,,) and also on the length of the minimum drainage
path. Installation of sand drains and wick drains helps reduce the time for accom-
plishing the desired degree of consolidationfor a given constructionproject.
There are severalcasehistoriesin the literature for which the fundamentalprin-
ciples of soil compressibilityhave been used to predict and compare the actual total
settlement and the time ratc of settlementof soil profiles under superimposedload-
ing. In some cases.the actual and predictedmaximum settlementsagreeremarkably;
in many others, the predicted settlementsdeviate to a large extent from the actual
settlementsobserved.The disagreementin the latter casesmay have severalcauses:
1. Improper evaluation of soil properties
2. Nonhomogeneity and irrcgularity of soil profiles
3 . E r r o r i n t h c e v a l u a t i o no f t h c n c t s t r e s si n c r e a s ew i t h d e n t h .w h i c h i n d u c e s
settlement
The variation betwcen the predictcd and clbservedtimc rate o1 settlementmav
also be due tcr
a . I m p r o p e r e v a l u a t i o no f c , .( s e eS e c t i o n1 0 .l 3 )
b. Presenceof irrcgular sandy seamswithin the clay laycr, which reducesthe
length of the maximum drerinagepath, H,1,.

Problems
l0.l Estimate the immcdiate settlemcnt of a column footing 4.-5it in diameter
that is constructedon an unsaturatedclay layer.The column carries a load of
2 0 t o n s ,a n d i t i s g i v e nt h a t E , : 1 5 0 0l b / i n . 2a n d g . , : 0 . 2 5 .A s s u m et h e f o o t -
ing to be rigid. [Use Eq. ( 10.1).]
ll).2 Refer to Figure 10.3.For a square foundation measuring3 m X 3 m in plan
supported by a layer of sand and givcn thal D, - 1.5m, t : 0.25 tn, E,, :
1 6 , 0 0 0k N / m 2 ,k : 4 0 0k N / m 2 / m ,/ r , : 0 . . 1n, - Z 0 m . E r : 1 5 x 1 0 6k N / m 2 ,
a n d A o : 1 0 0k N / m 2 .c i t l c u l a t et h e i m m e d i a t es e t t l e m e n t .
10.3 Following
arethe-'J,;jdjonsolidation test:

1.1 0.2-5
1.085 0..5
1.055 l.t)
1.01 2.0
0.94 4.0
0.'79 8.0
0.63 16.0

a. Plot the e-log o' curve.

b. Using Casagrande'smethod, determine the preconsolidationpressure.
c. Calculate the compression index C. from the laboratory e-log a' curve.
306 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

10.4 Repeat Problem 10.3.using the following values:

Pressure,a'
e (kN/m2)

r.2l 25
1.195 50
1.1-5 100
1.06 200
0.98 400
0.925 500

10.5 A soil profile is shown in Figure 10.34.Thc uniformly distributed load on the
ground surfaceis Arr. Estimate the primary settlementof the normally con-
solidatedclay layer, given that
Hr:4tt,H,:6ft,H.-411
For sand,c - 0.-58,G, - 2.67
F o r c l a y ,c : l . l , G , : 2 . 1 2 .L L : 4 5
Aa - lft(X)lh/ltr
10.6 Repeat Problem 10.-5, using thc following data:
I 11 : 2 ' 5 m ' H z : 2 ' 5 m ' H 1 : 3 r n
F o r s a n d ,a : 0 . 6 4 .G , - 2 . 6 5
F o r c l a y ,c - 0 . 9 ,G , - 2 . 7 5 ,L L : 5 5
A t r - 1 0 0k N i m r
10.7 Repeat Problem 10.-5, using the l'ollowingdata:
A r r - 9 ( )k N / n r r
I I ' : 2 m ' I 1 2: 2 m ' I I l : l " 5 m
F o r s a n d . 7 , 1 ,-u 1 4 . 6k N / m r , y , , , r : 1 7 . 3k N / m l
F o r c l a y , 7 , u ,: 1 9 . - k1N / m r . L L : 3 8 , e - 0 ' 1 5

A o r
t l I
I
II
t l I
+
:!:]:;:;ill:.]:il;ni::i..-
+ J I
v

Sand

Figure 10.34
 Problems

1 1 1
: : : 1 : : : :: [ : '

Dry sand
l0 fr e=0.6
I
C,=2.65
""- -f "t y Croundwater tabfe

I Sand
l0 ft e=0.6

Figure 10.35

10.8 A soil profile is shown in Figure 10.35.The preconsolidationpressureof the

clay is 3400 lb/ft2. Estimate the primary consolidationsettlementthat will
take place as the result of a surchargeequal to2200 lb/ft2. Assume C. : JC,.
10.9 Refer to Problem 10.6.Given that c,, : 2.8 X 10 6 m2/min,how long will it
take for 60% primary consolidationto take place'?
10.10 The coordinatesof two points on a virgin compressioncurve are as follows:
er : l.lt2 u ' t - 2 0 0k N / m 2
c; - 1.54 o'2 = 400 kN/m2
a. Determine the coefficientof volume compressibilityfor the pressure
range stated above.
b. Given that c,, : ().003cmr/sec,determine k in cm/seccorrespondingto the
averagevoid ratio.
10.11 For the virgin curve stated in Problem 10.10,what would be the effective
pressureo' correspondingto e : 7.7?
10.12 For the virgin curve stated in Problem 10.10,what would be the void ratio
corresponding to an effective pressure o' that is equal to 500 kN/m2?
10.13 Following are the relationships of e and o' for a clay soil:
e r' (ton/ft2l
1.0 0.2
0.9'7 0.5
0.8-5 1.8
o.'75 3.2

For this clay soil in the field, the following values are given: H : 4.5 ft, o'u :
0.1 tonlft2,ando6 * Ao' :2tonlft2. Calculatethe expectedsettlement
caused by primary consolidation.
10.14 During a laboratory consolidation test, the time and dial gauge readings ob-
tained from an increase in pressure on the specimen from 50 to 100 kN/m2
are given in the following table:
308 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Dial gauge Dial gauge

Time reading Time reading
(min) (mm) (min) (mm)

0 3.98 16.t) 4.57

0.10 4.08 30.0 4.74
0.25 4.10 60.0 4.92
0.60 4.13 120.0 5.08
1.0 4.r7 240.0 -s.2I
2.0 / 1 1
480.0 5.28
4.0 4.30 960.0 5.33
8.0 4.42 t440.0 5.39

a. Find the time for 50% primary consolidation (rr,,)using the logarithm-of-
time method.
b. Find the time for 90% primary consolidation (rr,,)using the square-root-
of-time method.
c. If the averageheight of the specimenduring consolidationcausedby this
incremental loading was22 mm and it was drained at both the top and the
bottom, calculatethe coefficientof consolidation using /r,,and /r,,obtained
from parts (a) and (b).
10.15 Refer to the laboratory tcst rcsults givcn in Problem 10.14. Using the hyper-
bola method, determine r:,..The averageheight of the spccimenduring con-
solidation was22 mm, and it was drained at the top and bottom.
10.16 The time for 50% consolidationof a 2-5-mm-thickclay layer (drained at top
and bottom) in the laboratory is l-50sec.How long (in days) will it take for a
3-m-thick laycr of thc samc clay in the field under the same pressureincre-
ment to reach 50% consolidation'lThere is a rock layer at the bottom of the
clay in the field.
10.17 For a normally consolidatedclay,the following valuesare given:
o',t:2 ttln/ftr ( - (.- l.2l
6',,1 L.rr' 4 trln/l't2 r, - 0.96
-
The hydraulic conductivity k of the clay for the precedingloading range is
1 . 8 x 1 0 - 4f t l d a y .
a. How long (in days) will it take for a 9-ft-thick clay layer (drained on one
side) in the held to reach 60% consolidation'?
b. What is the settlementat that time (i.e.,at 60"/"consolidation)?
10.18 A 1O-ft-thicklayer (two-way drainage) of saturatedclay under a surcharge
loading underwent 90% primary consolidationin 100 days.
a. Find the coefficient of consolidation of clay for the pressure range.
b. For a 1-in-thick undisturbedclay specimen,how long will it take to
undergo 90% consolidationin the laboratory for a similar consolidation
pressure range? The laboratory tests'sspecimen will have two-way
drainage.
L0.19 Laboratory tests on a 25-mm-thick clay specimen drained at the top only
show 50% consolidationtakes place in 11 min.
a. How long will it take for a similar clay layer in the field, 4 m thick and
drained at the top and bottom, to undergo 50% consolidation?
b. Find the time required for the clay layer in the field, as described in part
(a), to reach 10"/" consolidation.
 References 309

Load = 0

I
I
V

!r.
:.'

Sand
%at' l8 kf{/lu3

Sand

10.20 For a laboratory consolidationtest on a clay specimen(drained on both

sides),the following resultswere obtained:
Thicknessof the clay soil - 2-5mm
r r i : ' 5 1k1N / m ) t ' 1- 0 ' 9 2
-
tr'2 l20 kN/m: c2- {).713
Time for -507oconsolidation : 2.5 min
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the clay fbr the loading range.
10.21 Refer to Figure 10.36.Given that B : 1.5 m, L - 2.5 m, and O : 120 kN,
calculatethc primary consolidationsettlementof the foundation.
1 0 . 2 2 R e d o P r o b l e m 1 0 . 2 1w i t h B : I m , L : 3 m , a n d Q : 1 1 0k N .

References
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Significance." Proceedings,1st International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foun-
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casac;naNoE, A. and Faouv, R. E. (1940). "Notes on Soil resting for Engineering pur-
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Houcs, B. K. (19-57).Basic SctilsEngineering, Ronald Press,New york.
MavNE, P. w., and Pour-os, H. G. (1999). "Approximate Displacement Influence Factors for
Elastic Shallow Foundations," Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engi-
neering,ASCE, Vol. 125,No. 6, 453-460.
310 Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Na.canar, T., and MuRrv, B. R. S. (1985)."Prediction of the PreconsolidationPressureand

Recompression Index of Soils," Geotechnical TestingJournal, Vol. 8, No. 4, 199-202.
Ntsstoe, Y. (1956). "A Brief Note on Compression Index of Soils," Journal of the Soil Me-
chanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol. 82, No. SM3, 1027-1-1027-I4.
RENooN-HEnneno, O. (1983)."Universal CompressionIndex Equation," Drscusslon,Jour-
nal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 109, No. 10, 1349.
ReNpoN-HERRe,no, O. (1980). "Universal Compression Index Equation," Journal of the Geo-
technical Engineering D ivision, ASCE, Vol. 106, No. GT1 1, 1779-1200.
RoerNSON,R. G., and Ar.t-err, M. M. (1996)."Determination of Coefflcientof Consolidation
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S c n r E t c r s p R , F . ( 1 9 2 6 ) . " Z u r T h e o r i e d e s B a u g r u n d e s ,B" u u i n g , e n i e u r , Y o l . T . 9 3 l - 9 3 5 , 9 4 9 -
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ScHvEnrnrnNN, J. H. (1953). "Undisturbed Consolidation Behavior of Clay," Transactions,
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'frryr-on,
D. W. (1942)."Research on Consolid:rtionof Clays," Serial No.82, Department of
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