Branches of Philosophy: and justification of ethical concepts,

and principles.
 Metaphysics (Beings of Beings)
- deals with the fundamental PLATO
questions of reality.
- MIND and MATTER - ‘’ NOTHING we experience in the physical
- ta meta (beyond) ta physika (physical) world
 Epistemology (validity – reliability – extent ) with our five senses is real. REALITY is just the
- deals with nature, sources, limitations opposite.
and It is unchanging, eternal, immaterial, and
validity of knowledge. can be
- How we know what we claim to know? detected only by the intellect. ‘’
- How we can find out what we wish
POLYCARP IKUENOBE
to know?
- How we can differentiate truth from - “we have to CONSIDER and REALIZE our
falsehood? fallibility through the act of questioning.”
 Logic (reasons – lies – fallacies)
- considered as a tool that concerns FILIPINO THINKING
truth
- Filipino generally believes in the innate
and validity of our arguments regarding
goodness of the human being … ethics has an
such objects.
internal code and sanction that flow from within
- TRUTH = IDEAS + OBJECTS
itself.
* Epismology and Logic
- KNOWLEDGE = Opinion, Illusion & Three Dimensions:
Imagination
 Ethics (morals – values – virtues)  Freedom
- is the branch of philosophy that explores  Dignity
the nature of moral virtue and evaluates  Loob
human actions.
- which is concerned with human values Bahala Na
and
- leave everything to God (Bathala) in the
how individuals should act.
vernacular, puts complete trust in the Divine
- TRADITIONAL RELIGION BASED MORALITY ->
Providence; it contains the element of resignation.
PHILOSOPHICAL ETHICS
- COURAGE in taking risk
a) Normative Ethics (What is good)
- pertains to certain norms or Values & Thoughts
standards
 COLONIAL MENTALITY
of goodness and badness, rightness
 RESPECT TO ELDERS
or
 BAYANIHAN
wrongness of an act. Moral
 REMEDYO ATTITUDE
framework
 FILIPINO TIME
are used to set standards of morality.
 RELIGIOUS
 FUN-LOVING TRAITS
b) Meta Ethics (What’s your justification
 OVERSENSITIVE
for
 CRAB MENTALITY
claiming in your theory that pleasure
 FAMILY ORIENTED
is good)
- examines the presuppositions,
meanings
Jose Rizal
- ‘’He who does not know to look back at
where he came from will never get to his
destination.’’
Methods of Philosophizing:
 Critical Thinking
- analyze > realize > evaluate
 Empiricism
- is the view that knowledge can be
attained only through sense
experience.
 Rationalism
- is the view that knowledge can be
obtained by relying on reason
without the ad of the senses.
Francis Bacon
- if a man will begin with certainties, he shall
end in doubt. But if he will be content to begin with
doubts, he shall end in certainties.
Abundance
- “ABUNDARE” – “to overflow nonstop”
- is to EVOLVE into a higher being
- is a choice
NOT:
- what we gather but what we scatter
- what we keep but what we give away
- what we hold but what we share
 Phenomenology
- based on person’s CONSCIOUSNESS.
- phenomenon – “what it appears”
REALITY – perceived or understood in the human
consciousness, and not of anything independent of
human consciousness.
Edmund Husserl
- “I have been through enough torment
from lack of clarity and from doubt that goes back
and forth. Only one absorbs me: I must win clarity
else I cannot live; I cannot bear life unless I can
believe that I shall achieve.”
Martin Heideger
- “When are no longer identified with the
idea of ourselves, the entire relationship between
subject and object, knower and known, undergoes
a sudden and revolutionary change. It becomes a
real relationship, a mutuality in which the object
creates the subject. The knower no longer feels
himself to be independent of the known; the
experiences no longer feel him to stand apart from
the experience.”
Self
- contemplation of the truth
 EXISTENTIALISM
- based in exercising choices and personal
FREEDOM.
o the human condition od the relation of the
individual to the world
o the human response to that condition
o Human freedom
o the significance of truth and decision in the
absence of certainty
o The correctness and subjectivity of life as
lived, against abstractions and false
objectification
Soren Keirkegaard
- “What I am to do, not what I am to know.
The things are to understand myself, to see what
God really wishes me to do; the thing is to find a
truth which is true for me, to find the idea for which I
can live and die.”
John – Paul Sartre
- “There is no fixed human nature, so we are
free to be what we choose.”
Existence
- which makes an entity what it is, that
defining characteristics in whose absence a thing
would not be itself.
Existence precedes essence
  Post Modernism
- accepted as “not absolute’’
- Is the view that there are many
realities and that these realities are
constructed by the many languages
of the cultures and subcultures that
are now swirl around us.
 Analytical Tradition
- language cannot objectively
describe truth
- Analytic philosophy is the
conviction that to some significant degree,
philosophical problems, puzzles, and errors are
rooted in language and can be solved or avoided
by a sound understanding of language and careful
attention to its workings.
 Logic
- based on reasoning and critical
thinking
- is the study of the methods and
principles used to distinguish correct
from incorrect reasoning.
Argument
- A group of statements consisting of
premises and conclusions of such a type that the
premises are intended to prove or demonstrate the
conclusion.
o Deductive – universal to particular
o Inductive – particular to universal
What is true and what is right?
ARGUMENTATION - VALIDITY – CONCLUSION = TRUE
Albert Einstein
-‘’ Education is not learning the facts, but
the training of the mind to think.’’
Fallacies
- an incorrect way of reasoning; an
argument that tries to persuade psychologically but
not logically.
A. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad
misericondiam)
- a fallacy in which the argument
relies on generosity, altruism, or
mercy, rather than on reason.
- a specific kind of appeal to
emotion in which someone tries to
win support for an argument or idea
by exploiting his or her opponents
feelings of pity guilt.
B. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum as
ignorantiam)
- a fallacy in which a proposition is
held to be true just because it has
not been proven false or false
because it has not been proven true.
Example: Lucifer lives in the core of the sun.
If you want to disprove it then give me a
picture of you inside the solar core.
C. Equivocation
- a fallacy in which two or more
meanings of a word or phrase are
used.
Example: “Who did you pass on the road?”
said the King “Nobody,” said the messenger
“Quite right,” said the King; “this young lady
saw him too. So of course nobody walks
slower than you.”
D. Composition
- may be described as reasoning
fallaciously from the attributes of the
parts of a whole to the attributes of
the whole itself.
Example: Because every part of a certain
machine is light weight, the machine “as a
whole” is light in weight.
E. Division
- consists of arguing fallaciously that
what is true of a whole must be true
of its parts.
Example: Aetas are disappearing. That man
is an Aeta.Therefore that man is disappearing.
F. Against to Person (Argumentum ad
hominem)
- fallacy in which the argument relies
upon an attack against the person
taking a position.
- fallacy attempts to link the validity of a premise to
a characteristic or belief of the person advocating
the premise. However, in some instances, question
of personal conduct, character, motives, etc., are
legitimate if relevant to the issue.

G. Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad baculum)

- fallacy in which the argument relies
upon an open or veiled threat of
force.

Example: “If you expect to receive

allowance tomorrow, I suggest you don’t talk to
your boyfriend anymore!”

H. False cause (post hoc)

- fallacy in which something that is

not really the cause of something
else is treated as its cause.

Example: Course evaluation forms are now

required in many institutions and salaries are
influenced by the results. When I joined the
University of Michigan 30 years ago, my salary was
higher than that of any member of the
anthropology department who is still active today.
My standards for grading have not followed the
trend toward institution. Students’ complaints about
grades have increased, and now my salary is at
that bottom of the professional list.

I. Hasty generalization
- an informal fallacy in which a
principle that is true of a particular
case is applied, carelessly or
deliberately, to the great run of
cases.

Example: “Take my son, Martyn. He’s been

eating fish and chips his whole life, and he had a
cholesterol test, and his level is below the national
average. What better proof could there be than a
fryer’s son?

J. Begging the question (Petitio principii)

- an informal fallacy in which the
conclusion of an argument is stated
or assumed in one of the premises.