ETHICS 203

➢ Both morality and ethics loosely have to do ɸ (Phi)

with distinguishing the difference between - From Pythagoras
“good and bad” or “right and wrong.” - Greek Alphabet associated with
Philosophy
PHILOSOPHY
- Plato: “Philosophy starts with wonder.” ➢ MARTIN HEIDEGGER – “[Philosophy] It is
- It exists not in certainty but in doubt; not in an open path that is certainly not the only
judgment but in question. one.”
- Philosophical Insight = Doubt and Reason Karl Jaspers
- Philia = Love
- Questions are more important than
- Sophia = Wisdom
answers because answers themselves will
- Hence, “Love of Wisdom”
become questions, in turn.

➢ How people seek to understand

Ways of Doing Philosophy
fundamental truths about themselves, the
world, and their relationship to the world Speculative and Descriptive
and to each other. - When one is after the smallest details.
What is its essence.
➢ It is considered a method of seeking
knowledge.
Normative
➢ It does not intend to fully comprehend a - “What is good and bad? Or what should I
body of knowledge; as we can only know a do?”
fraction of knowledge in an ever-expanding - Based on societal norms
well of wisdom.
Critical
➢ Wisdom is how knowledge is put into
practice. - What is the truth → based on Logic or
correct reasoning.
- Epistemology → Episteme = Knowledge;
Scientific Knowledge Logos = A study
- A generalized body of laws and theories to
explain phenomena or behaviors of interest
Practical
that are acquired using the scientific
method. - What is the truth in relation to action; to put
things into practice.
- It is not enough to think but to also act.
➢ The “why” of things is addressed rather
than just merely the “what”.
➢ ALETHEA – The truth; the unveiling of
being.
➢ SCIRE – To Know
➢ LEY NATURAL – Nature is in order; “Lahat
➢ Cognito per Causas – The cause of things ay may kaayusan na.”

➢ In philosophy, you don’t give an immediate Nature of Philosophy

answer; you need to consider possible - The inquiry of the person to know himself
opinions and also focus on understanding and the things around him.
the question.

➢ ABSTRACTION – The process of - Radical Dynamism of the Human Spirit

reasoning. – The inherent desire to know all that there
is to know about all that there is.

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 ETHICS 203
➢ Man by nature is a moral being; his
knowledge does not stop in his
senses/instincts.
➢ Man is rational; he uses his reason to
inquire about knowledge and does not stop
merely on his instincts.
➢ The nature of philosophy is to answer
central basic problems namely: the nature
of the universe, the standard of justice, the
validity of knowledge, the correct
application of reason, and the criteria of
beauty.
Value of Philosophy
1. It is natural to wonder, to be inquisitive
2. Philosophizing is pleasurable; Plato called
philosophizing “that dear delight”.
3. We appeal to philosophy’s usefulness.
Philosophy engenders knowledge and
wisdom.
John F. Kavanaugh, S.J.
- “The act of questioning, of wanting to know,
is the initiation of philosophy.”
➢ Man is endowed by nature with Moral
Sense (Agapay).
Ethics
➢ Mos (moral),
➢ Mores (morality)
➢ Latin Word
➢ Tradition or custom (Agapay)
Ethics vs. Morals
➢ Ethics – What is right or wrong
➢ Moral – What is good or bad
Moral - it applies to a specific group of
people community, culture, or even
personal. i.e., Cultural Relativism.
Ethics is the academic discipline of thinking
systematically about right and wrong
(Kvalnes & Øverenget, 2012). People learn
morality and ethics in different ways. Moral
beliefs and convictions are typically adopted
through social interaction, whereas ethics is
an academic discipline that must be learned
by reading books, attending seminars, and
such.

Branches of Philosophy
Further Definition of Ethics
1. Epistemology – Study of Knowledge
➢ Ethics is a philosophical Science dealing
2. Metaphysics – Reality (beings and Being)
with the morality of human acts (Panizo).
3. Logic – Correct reasoning
4. Ethics – Morality of human act
➢ Study of human motivation and rational
5. Aesthetics – Art
behavior (Agapay).
6. Social and Political Philosophy –
Society, liberty, and justice
7. Philosophy of the Human Person – Basic ➢ Normative Science of the conduct of
questions on the human person human beings living in societies.

ETHICS DEFINED ➢ Normative science is based on reason,

which interprets specific and paramount
➢ Refers to those characteristics belonging to facts, the elements of which are conduct
a man as a rational being, endowed with and oughtness (Babor).
intellect and free will.
➢ Ethics is derived from…
➢ Ethics, also called moral philosophy, is the
Ethos – Characteristic way of acting discipline concerned with what is morally
good or bad, right and wrong.
“Ethos” of Man
➢ Distinguish good from bad, right from
wrong, moral from immoral. ➢ Some of the questions treated by the field
➢ Obligation to do what is good. are: what is morally right? Are there any
➢ Accountability to one’s actions.

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 ETHICS 203
objective standards of right and wrong? Nature of Ethics
Are moral values absolute or relative? ➢ Speculative and Descriptive, Normative,
Critical, and Practical.
➢ Ethics, for example, refers to those
standards that impose the reasonable Acts of Man vs. Human Acts
obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, ➢ Human acts are actions performed by
murder, assault, slander, and fraud. man, knowingly and freely, deliberate or
Ethical standards also include those that intentional (Agapay).
enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and
loyalty.
➢ Acts of man are instinctive or involuntary
(Agapay).
➢ Ethics refers to the study and development
of one's ethical standards. So, it is
necessary to constantly examine one's
standards to ensure that they are
reasonable and well-founded. Ethics also
means, then, the continuous effort of
studying our own moral beliefs and our
moral conduct, and striving to ensure that
we, and the institutions we help to shape,
live up to standards that are reasonable
and solidly based.

➢ Ethics is a system of moral principles. ➢ Virtuous – a person having the inclination

They affect how people make decisions
and lead their lives.
➢ Ethics is concerned with what is good for
individuals and society.
➢ Ethics can provide the tools we need to
examine and live an ethical life.
➢ Ethics covers the following dilemmas:
- How to live a good life
- Our rights and responsibilities
- The language of right and wrong
- Moral decisions – what is good and
bad?
or habit to do good.
➢ Vicious – a person having the inclination
or habit to do wrong.
➢ Ethics is a dimension of human existence
whereby man is always oriented towards.
➢ Every human person is in constant search
for the meaning of good own life.
➢ Man has an ideal vision or a goal. Such
vision or goal is that which lead him to
happiness.

Why Study Ethics? Value of Studying Ethics

1. Ethics is indispensable knowledge. ➢ Man by nature is good.
2. Without moral perception, man is only an
animal.
3. Morality makes man a rational being. ➢ Imago Dei – We are imaged in the
4. Moral integrity is the only measure of what likeness of God.
man ought to be.
5. Morality is the foundation of every society. ➢ Because God is considered as the
(Agapay). Summum Bonum or the Highest Good,
man is also naturally good (cf. Genesis 1,
26-27).

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 ETHICS 203
➢ It is the nature of the human person to
incline himself towards the good. The
human person naturally finds beauty in
doing good deeds.
➢ He will eventually obtain meaning in his
existence if he will be in constant search of
goodness.
➢ There is always the possibility that he may
choose to turn away from goodness.
➢ HAPPINESS – man needs to study ethics
to be guided so that he may be able to fully
understand what real happiness is.
➢ Through ethics, the human person will be
able to understand that the goal of a
human being is not merely the acquisition
of material goods.
➢ His actual fulfillment lies in the
development of the moral quality, which
places human person above all other
creation.
Ways of Doing Ethical Inquiry
Normative Ethics
- Prescriptive
- Seeks to provide norms and standards that
regulate good and bad conduct.
- Attempts to develop guidelines or theories
that tells us how we ought to behave.
Metaethics
- Descriptive
- It aims to understand the nature and
dynamics of ethical principles.
- Asks the origin of moral acts and how we
acquire moral disbelief.
Applied Ethics
- Actual application of moral and ethical
theories for the purpose of deciding which
moral actions are appropriate in a given
situation.
Transcription by: Ocampo, Febe D & Puno, Charisse Y. | BSEd English 2C
- Ex.: Business ethics, biomedical and
environmental ethics, social ethics, etc.
Ethical Theories and their Principles
Theistic
➢ God is the Supreme Creator and Lawgiver
➢ Man is free and must exercise his freedom
to promote his personal and social
interests along with his fellowmen/women
➢ Man has an immortal soul
➢ Man is accountable for his action, both
good and evil.
Atheistic
➢ Matter is the only reality
➢ Man is matter and does not have spiritual
dimension
➢ Man is free and must exercise his freedom
to promote the welfare of the society
➢ There is no life after death
➢ Man is accountable only to the state
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg
- Born in the year 1927
- Grew up in Bronxville, New York
- Died, January 19, 1987
- Professor of Education and Social Psych
! Kohlberg conducted a study where he
posed a situation that the participants must
answer. This is how he formed his theory of
Moral Development and Reasoning.
 ETHICS 203
A woman was on her deathbed. There was Level I: Preconventional Morality
one drug that the doctors thought might save
her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment
the same town had recently discovered. The Avoidance)
drug was expensive to make, but the - Children see rules as fixed and absolute.
druggist was charging ten times what the Obeying the rules is important because it is
drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for a means to avoid punishment.
the radium and charged $2,000 for a small
dose of the drug. The sick woman's - Children view adults’ rules as
husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew unquestionable.
to borrow the money, but he could only get
together about $1,000 which is half of what it
Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange/
cost. He told the druggist that his wife was
dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let Instrumental Relativist Orientation)
him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I - Children account for individual points of
discovered the drug and I'm going to make view and judge actions based on how they
money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and serve individual needs.
broke into the man's laboratory to steal the
drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken - Individual interest: behavior driven by
into the laboratory to steal the drug for his self-interest and rewards.
wife? Why or why not?
- At this stage children recognize that there
➢ Should Heinz steal the drug? Yes or No? is not just one right view that is handed
down by the authorities.
1. Heinz should not steal the drug Level II: Conventional Morality
because it is the disobedience of law.
(Preconventional Level)
Stage 3 (Good Interpersonal
Relationships)
2. Heinz can steal the drug but should
be punished by the law. - Often referred to as the “good boy-good
(Conventional Level) girl” orientation, this stage is focused on
living up to social expectations and roles.
3. Heinz can steal the drug and no law
- Emphasis on conformity, being “nice”, and
should punish him. consideration of how choices influence
(Postconventional Level) relationships.

Stage 4 (Law and Order)

- Adolescents see others both as individuals
and as members of unit (society, family,
culture, class, team, etc.)

- Individuals are making decisions based on

the implications on society, showing they
now see themselves as members of a
group emphasis is on maintaining social
order through fulfilling responsibilities and
obeying the law.

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 ETHICS 203
Level III: Postconventional Morality
Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual
Rights)
- People begin to account for the differing
values, opinions, and beliefs of other
people.
- Rules of law are important for maintaining
a society, but members of the society
should agree upon these standards.
- Morals and rights are seen to be superior
to certain laws.
- Talks about “morality” and “rights” that take
some priority over particular laws. Kohlberg
insists, however, that we do not judge
people to be at stage 5. We need to look at
their social perspective and mode of
reasoning.
Stage 6 (Universal Principles)
- Kohlberg’s final level of reasoning; based
on universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning.
- People follow these internalized principles
of justice, even if they conflict with laws and
rules.
- This stage is considered to be a
hypothetical ideal that few people ever
achieve.
- People adhere to a few abstract, universal
principles (equality of all people, respect for
human dignity, commitment to justice, etc.)
that transcend specific norms and rules.
- People answer to a strong inner
conscience and willingly disobey the law
that violates their own ethical principles.
MORAL DILEMMAS
➢ Occurs when our well-defined values and
principles compere with each other.
“We are what we repeatedly do.” – Aristotle
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➢ Moral dilemmas are situations in which the
decision-maker must consider two or more
moral values or duties but can only honor
one of them; thus, the individual will violate
at least one important moral concern,
regardless of the decision.
➢ They are a pervasive part of working life.
They occur in the public and private
sectors and from the smallest to the
largest organizations. Every decision
maker can encounter them, from the
executive level and downwards.
➢ They occur in the public and private
sectors and in organizations of all sizes. In
hectic working environments, people can
become blind to their moral dilemmas,
thus failing to see the moral dimensions of
their choices.
Two Types of Moral Dilemma
Real Dilemma
- A dilemma where the choice is between the
wrong and another roughly equal wrong.
False Dilemma
- A.K.A. Non-Moral Dilemma
- The choice is between right and wrong.
➢ A real dilemma, in the most general sense,
is a situation that requires a choice
between two options that are (or seem to
be) equally undesirable or unsatisfactory.
➢ There are non-moral dilemmas, in which
the choice is between options that are
undesirable or unsatisfactory for reasons
other than morality.
➢ A moral dilemma can occur because of a
prior personal mistake. This is called a
self-inflicted dilemma. The choice, in
other words, is between a lesser wrong
and a greater wrong.
➢ In a narrow sense, a moral dilemma is a
situation in which the moral values at stake
are of equal importance.
 ETHICS 203
False Moral Dilemma 3. Articulate the dilemma as clearly as
- False moral dilemmas are instances in possible as you can
which it is clear what ought to be done but a) Make a “dilemma statement”
in which there is temptation or pressure to b) Articulate a dilemma in a “___ vs. ___”
act in another way. In business ethics, the c) These values however are not really in
distinction between true and false opposition as much as competing
dilemmas has also been described as the
distinction between dilemmas and 4. List the alternatives
temptations (Kidder, 1995, p. 7; ➢ Two extreme alternatives in a dilemma
Brinkmann, 2005, p. 183). a) Think creatively: think of a third, middle
option
How do we decide? b) Make a three-column matrix charting
➢ A dilemma happens because good and the three alternatives you have thought
evil are not apparent. of.

➢ Such dilemmas are not mostly about 5. List the corresponding values or
good and evil, rather about one’s principles
competing values.
6. List the consequences
➢ One must never decide based only on their
feelings.

Ethical Decision Making is a Reasoned

Process
➢ It includes considering…
1. Facts
2. Stakeholders
3. Values
4. Options
5. Consequences

Seven Checkpoints for Ethical Issues and

7. Make a decision
Moral Dilemmas
a) There is no such thing as a painless
➢ A Proposal: Stop, Look, and Listen
decision, and sometimes the best
decisions are the toughest to make.
1. Gather the facts b) Justify your decision!
a) What do I know?
c) What do you have?
b) What do I need to know? d) Reasoned process

2. Who are the stakeholders? FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY

a) Who are affected?
➢ Freedom as the foundation of Morality
b) What are their interests?
Ex.:
Realization
➢ We always have reasons why we do things
and why we do the things we do.

➢ Therefore, at the end of the day, you

always find yourself free in the face of any
situation.

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 ETHICS 203
➢ “Man is nothing but what makes of himself”
(Jean Paul Sartre)
➢ “Existence precedes essence.” (Jean Paul
Sartre)
➢ “We have no one to blame for what we are
except ourselves” (Jean Paul Sartre)
Free Will
➢ Free will is the “power of acting or of not
acting, according to the determination of
the will: that is, if we choose to remain at
rest, we may; if we choose to move, we
also may. (David Hume)
➢ Freedom consists in there being no
external impediments to an agent doing
what he wants to do: “A free agent is he
that can do as he will, and forbear as he
will, and that liberty is the absence of
external impediments.” (Thomas Hobbes)
Is human life really something that a
person’s choice totally determines or is it
something that is defined by internal and
external structures?
Pan-Determinism
➢ Human person is not free because his/her
decisions, actions, and behavior are
determined by his/her BIOLOGICAL,
PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND
SOCIOLOGIGAL CONDITION
➢ Therefore, in this view, FREEDOM is an
ILLUSION
Biological Determinism
➢ I am calm, kind, friendly, and sociable;
others have the opposite traits. Your
behavior is determined by the traits you
have as an individual.
➢ These traits affect the way I decide, act
and behave. Human behavior is directly
controlled by an individual’s genetics.
Transcription by: Ocampo, Febe D & Puno, Charisse Y. | BSEd English 2C
➢ Ex. New Year’s Resolution
Psychological Determinism
Sigmund Freud
- Father of Psychoanalysis
➢ He is known for his concepts of the three
aspects of human personality (id, ego, and
superego) and the three levels of the mind
(conscious, subconscious, and
unconscious)
➢ Supposedly, you have three suitors. The
first one is young, tall, dark, and
handsome. The other one is young,
intelligent, and rich. And the third one is 15
years older than you, not good-looking but
kind, and not rich but financially stable.
Supposed they have been courting you for
year now, an ample time for you to know
each one. You are giving yourself one
month to deliberate on your choice. You
may choose guy number one because you
are attracted to him. You may also choose
guy number two, thinking of your secure
future. Or you may also choose guy
number three for his kindness. But, whom
will you choose?
➢ Freud: your choice is predetermined!
➢ Your choice is a product of your values,
preferences, wishes and hopes and past
experiences that continue to determine
your present decision, action and
behavior.
Sociological Determinism
➢ Burrhus Frederic Skinner commonly
known as B. F. Skinner
➢ Popular proponent of the science of
behaviorism
➢ Human behavior can be controlled by way
of positive and negative reinforcement,
reward and punishment, and extinction.
➢ The environment creates human being.
 ETHICS 203
➢ Skinner suggests: governments may Human Person as Self-Determining Being
prescribe the perfect and desirable human
behavior Biological
Against the Idea
Determinism
➢ Goal: to increase the statistical rate of
seeing a good behavior - REWARD ! How can we
explain the triumphs
➢ Goal: to decrease the probability of in life of those
recurrence of a particular bad behavior – persons who suffer
PUNISHMENT from physical
disabilities, and the
failures of those who
➢ Therefore: People can be directed to ! Your behavior is got what it takes to
adhere to a form of discipline and the strict determined by the succeed in life?
compliance of rules of behavior in order to traits you have as an
achieve a form of controlled social order individual. Your traits Ex. The Child who
are directly attempted to commit
Skinner’s view is clearly deterministic. controlled by your suicide at the age of
genetics. ten is now one of
the world’s most
evangelical and
Determinism
motivational
➢ Made popular by Skinner speakers spreading
the power of love,
hope, faith, and will
➢ All events, including human actions are
power. (Nick Vujicic)
ultimately determined by causes external
to the human will.
Psychological
Against the Idea
➢ Individual human beings have no free will Determinism
and cannot be held morally responsible for
their actions
! To condition does
not mean to
➢ In his investigation, the reaction of any determine.
! Human freedom is
organism to stimuli is a result of controlled
impossible because
behavior – malleable. ! Freud is correct if
human behavior is
we allow these
determined by
External Causes drives and past
mental states that
- Stimuli that lead to involuntary actions of experiences govern
human persons
compulsion, contrary to one’s wishes or our lives.
have no awareness
desires. and control.
! We can control,
Victor E. Frankl process and direct
our mental states.
- Austrian philosopher, neurologist, and
psychotherapist.
- Founder of logo therapy, the third school of
psychotherapy.

➢ Victor disagreed with the notion that

Freedom is an Illusion, that everything is
already pre-determined.

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 ETHICS 203
Sociological ➢ “It would seem that determinism as a
Against the Idea scientific method has a great deal to offer
Determinism
us in helping us understand how one’s
historicity influences one’s behavior. As a
! The environment total explanation of all human behavior, it
does not completely fails to account for the data of questioning,
determine persons self- reflection, and intelligent inquiry.”
behavior. (Kavanaugh)
! What becomes of
a person is a ➔ What sort of behavioral motivation does a
product of his/her ship captain possess in order to avoid
decisions and something bad to happen?
! The person’s creations
perspective,
attitudes, values, What is at work is the truth:
and beliefs are
! SELF-
nothing but a
DETERMINATION ➢ That the captain sees something that is
product of his/her greater than him
social condition. ! It is an innate ➢ A grand purpose,
capacity of the ➢ A dream
human person to ➢ Or the future of his children
determine his/her
decisions and
actions and ➔ Human destiny may very well mean that he
ultimately his/her is in charge of something: LIFE
own life amidst
constraining
Absolute Freedom
conditions.
➔ Is man free to do everything he wants?

Freedom Jean Paul Sartre

➢ Man can never be reduced to the The Three Types of Being
automatic reactions to the stimuli he finds 1. En-soi (in itself)
in the environment. 2. Pour-soi (for itself)
3. Pour-autrui (for others)
➢ Man can always transcend his physical
condition if he chooses to. En-soi (in itself)
➢ Refers to that which is static and self-
➢ The person is the owner of his life. contained, Human facticity, Human
situatedness

➢ He cannot be solely be determined by his

environment Pour-soi (for itself)
➢ Existing as a conscious subject

➢ Incarnate existence, through the choices

that we make, is essentially lived. ➢ Is truly dynamic and reflexive. It is not
fixed.
➢ It cannot be reduced into the sheer
influence of external factors. ➢ It refers to transcendence and possibility

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 ETHICS 203
➢ Man holds the ability to go beyond his
given situations
➢ He can rise above his circumstances.
➢ It is not a question of being born poor but
how to emerge from poverty through work
➢ In the act of choosing, man chooses alone
for he is the one and final arbiter of his
choice.
➢ Freedom in this regard is absolute
➢ “Freedom is man; man is freedom.

➢ Existence precedes essence (man ➢ In this essence, man is nothing but the
decides and act) choices that he makes.

➢ Free choice constitutes the individual’s
dignity as a person
➢ To violate this is to violate the very
essence of man as man
➢ Man is responsible for himself.
➢ He makes and re-makes himself
➢ “Without the fundamental capacity to make
a choice, the human person can never be
truly happy. Happiness can only be found
in a life that is worth living”
➢ We all have a past. We all made choices
that maybe weren’t the best ones. None of
us are completely innocent, but we get a
fresh start everyday to be a better person
than we were yesterday.

➢ Man becomes the person that he has

chosen himself to be.

Pour-autrui (for-others)
➢ Man chooses not only for himself but for all
of humankind

➢ He is responsible not only for his own

individuality but for everyone.

Anguish
➢ Man must take responsibility for what he
does

➢ This means that he carries with him the

great moral burden of being responsible
for his fellow human being.

➢ To abandon this means to abandon one’s

humanity

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