Lesson 1 : WHY ETHICS?
That 'way of
Introduction Ethics (Assignment):
What is Ethics?
- Ethics is based on well-founded
standards of right and wrong that
prescribe what humans ought to do,
usually in terms of rights,
obligations, benefits to society,
fairness, or specific virtues.
- Ethics is only possible because we
can act against our nature, based on
our conscience. It stops us from
simply describing what is likely to
happen and allows us to make
judgements about what should
happen. Of all the ways you might
act, which is the best? Of all the
possibilities, which one should you
bring into reality? That’s the question
ethics seeks to answer.
"Being ethical is doing what the law
requires."
"Ethics consists of the standards of
behavior our society accepts."
Ethics is a system of principles that
helps us tell right from wrong, good
from bad.
Ethics can give real and practical
guidance to our lives.
What is Philosophy?
- Philosophy is a way of thinking
about certain subjects such as
ethics, thought, existence, time,
meaning and value.
thinking' involves 4 Rs:
responsiveness, reflection, reason,
and re-evaluation. The aim is to
deepen understanding. The hope is
that by doing philosophy we learn to
think better, to act more wisely, and
thereby help to improve the quality
of all our lives.
What does philosophy literally mean?
- lover of wisdom
Philosophy is a combination of two Greek
words, philein sophia, meaning lover of
wisdom. In ancient times a lover of wisdom
could be related to any area where
intelligence was expressed. ... Philosophy is
a term applied to almost any area of life.
Kay Pythgoras nagmula ang Philosophy.
Truth is what every philosophers wanted to
attain.
Reflection :
- What is the most important reason
why we have to learn ethics?
- Which is more important…the heart
or the mind?
The Method in teaching Ethics
• Heuristic technique (/hjᵿˈrɪstᵻk/; Ancient
Greek: εὑρίσκω, "find" or "discover"), often
called simply a heuristic, is any approach to
problem solving, learning, or discovery
that employs a practical method not
guaranteed to be optimal or perfect, but
sufficient for the immediate goals.
•Logical and imaginative thinking
prerequisites for this type of strategy.
• In heuristic method, students learn by
self-experience.
It focuses on the following:
• enhancing problem solving attitude.
• developing scientific attitudes toward
the problem.
• developing the power of self-expression.
The Required Skills
• Listening skills
• Asking the right question/s
• Opening oneself to different experiences
• Synthesizing or tying up the discussion
and relating it to the theories.
The Issue on Cultural Relativism and
Universal Values
•Cultural relativism assumes that beliefs,
behaviors, and ethical decisions are culture-
specific, and that the appropriateness of any
choice must be evaluated with regard to the
specific culture.
- Universal values are principles that
apply no matter what the situation.
- Universal values are used by the
students to examine a code of
conduct, read through some sample
situations, and then apply the code
to determine the appropriate course
of action.
The Issue on Human Freedom and
accountability
- Basically, human freedom is an
opportunity accorded to us to do
continuously and freely what we
want, with no “negative” thing such
as opposition or contradiction.
are
- It concerns issues on whether it is
absolute or having no freedom at all
due to the idea of creation.
The Issue on What Ethical Theory is best
applicable
- A moral theory is a mechanism for
assessing whether a particular
action or rule is ethically justified.
- The issues concerned are who
determines the best theory; which
argument a theory leans to;
universal principle possibility, etc.
The Role of Phronesis in Understanding
Ethics
accordingly....
This course is about developing
phronesis...
So, what do students say about it?
- Phronesis means practical wisdom.
It is the ability to both figure out what
to do at any given moment while
also knowing what is worth doing.
- So, the idea is that it's a practical
wisdom -that one is wise about the
intentions, wise about the ends, and
at the same time has a very clear
understanding of the means that
needed to be utilized to actually get
there.
- It is a kind of knowledge carved out
of, and shaped by, situations;
knowledge that is constructed and
reconstructed as we live out our
 stories and retell and relive them
through process of reflection”
(Clandinin,1992: 125).
ETHICS as NGEC
- This new General Education subject
“extends beyond the orientation of
specific disciplines and require
higher level reading, research and
writing competencies”.
- As a General Education course, it is
“more holistic and less disciplinal
program than what previously
existed.
The Expected Outcomes
Intellectual competencies
- High levels of comprehension;
proficiency in communication;
understand basic concepts across
the domains of knowledge; critical,
analytical, and creative thinking;
application of different analytical
modes.
Personal and civic responsibilities
- Appreciation of the human condition;
capacity to interpret human
experience; ability to view
contemporary world from Phil. and
global perspectives; self-awareness
in knowing and being Filipino;
capacity to reflect on shared
concerns; ability to reflect on moral
norms and imperatives; respect for
human rights; contribute personally
and meaningfully to the development
of the county.
Civic responsibilities are tasks bestowed
upon citizens by their government to ensure
a balance between protection and
allegiance. ... Voting is the easiest thing
Filipinos can do to exercise their civic
responsibility.
Practical skills:
- ability to work effectively in a group;
facilitate research; problem solving;
and basic work-related skills and
knowledge.
So, how can we learn Ethics?
- Contextualize (place or study in
context) (iving important perspective
by citing similar examples or
relevant background)
- Synthesize (combine or arrange)
(combining ideas and allowing an
evolving understanding of text.)
•Must stem from our understanding on
what the course should accomplish.
INTRODUCTION TO WHAT ETHICS IS IN
GENERAL
When you're faced with a tough decision,
how do you figure out what to do? What
guidelines or examples do you use to make
up for your decisions?
Story example:
THE ALLIGATOR RIVER STORY
As most stories begin: Once upon a
time, there was a river that was practically
overflowing with alligators. As you may have
guessed, it was called the Alligator River. A
girl named Aurora lived on the bank of this
river, and on the opposite bank lived Greg.
Aurora and Greg were much in love with
each other and wanted very much to see
each other. But there was one slight
complication: No boat, and an alligator-filled
river stood between them.
Aurora decided to seek help so that
she could see her friend Greg. So she
approached Bong, who owned a boat. Now
this was very fortunate for Aurora, because
Bong’s boat was what exactly she needed
to get across the river. She explained her
situation to Bong, who then replied: “Sure
you can borrow my boat, but only under one
condition. The condition is that you sleep
with me tonight.
Now this startled Aurora, because
she didn’t want to sleep with Bong. She just
wanted to borrow his boat so she could see
Greg.
After Aurora had told Bong “Nothing
doing”, she wandered down the road until
she came upon Henry. Aurora explained her
predicament (her desire to see Greg and
Bong’s response) to Henry. He replied:
“That’s not my concern I’ve got other things
to do. Leave me alone”.
A despondent Aurora, her options
exhausted, finally decided to go back to
Bong. She slept with him that night. The
next morning, Bong, true to his word, loaned
his boat to Aurora.
Aurora sailed across the river and
saw her beloved Greg. After spending a few
delightful hours together, Aurora felt
compelled to tell Greg what has happened.
After she had related her whole story, Greg
blew up completely. “You what?’ he said, “I
can’t believe you did that. I just can’t believe
you slept with him. That’s it. It’s all over.
Just forget the relationship. Get out of my
life”.
Despondently, Aurora wandered off.
She came upon Larry, who was also
wandering around. Borrowing his shoulder
to cry on, Aurora poured out her story to
Larry. Larry then went looking for Greg (with
Aurora close behind). Larry found Greg and
proceeded to beat him up, with Aurora
gleefully laughing and applauding the
bloody pummeling.
That’s the end
of the Alligator story.
Now, what do you think of these five
characters?
(1) Who among them, in your opinion, is the
WORST of them all? Why?
Aurora Greg Bong
Henry Larry
(2) Who is the LEAST OBJECTIONABLE or
has the smallest mistake? Why?
ETHICS – derived from the Greek word
EOWO (Ethos) which means customs.
(Custom is the way of acting common to all
men of all places of all times.)
The English term moral is taken from the
Latin mos or moris which also means
customs. Thus, Ethics and Moral Science or
Moral Philosophy are identical.
Ethics is defined as the practical and
philosophical science of the morality of the
human act or human conduct.
1. Ethics is a science. A body of knowledge
together with its
explanations arranged systematically.
2. Ethics is a practical science. That which
presents principles and
 rules to be acted upon. or aware that he is acting.
3. Ethics is a philosophical science. That 2. Not free – the agent is obliged (under
which seeks to explain its force or violence) to do the act against the
subject matter in the light of its deepest wish of his will.
principle by means of 3. Involuntary – the will has no control over
human reason alone. the act.

DIFFERENCE: Acts of man don’t make the agent

MORALITY: A moral person knows what is
right and what is wrong and does what is
right.
IMMORALITY: An immoral person knows
what is right and what is wrong, but does
what is wrong anyway.
AMORALITY: An amoral person does not
have a sense of right and wrong. Ex:
infancy, insanity, senility, imbecility
responsible. They have no morality at all.
They are acts which are neither good nor
bad. They are not included in the study of
ethics.
Acts of man can easily become
human acts through consent and giving
approval to his act.
Story example 2:

HUMAN ACTS – refer only to those LIFEBOAT ETHICS

activities that are deliberate and free.
50 people sit in a lifeboat. To be
1. Human acts are deliberate. Human acts generous, it has room for 10 more, making
are done with the knowledge a total capacity of 60. The 50 in the lifeboat
(consciousness or awareness) of the agent see 100 others swimming in the water
of what he is doing or of what he is about to outside, begging for admission to be in the
do. boat. There are several options: one is to
2. Human acts are free. Human acts are live by the Christian ideal of being “our
those acts that may be done or may not be brother’s keepers”, or by the Marxist ideal of
done by the agent. The agent can choose “to each according to his needs”. Since the
between doing or not doing the act. His needs of all in the water are the same, and
choice is his free decision. since they can all be seen as “or brothers”,
3. Human acts are voluntary. Human act they could all be taken into the boat, making
is an act that is determined by the will of the a total of 150 in a boat designed for 60. The
agent. It is the intention of the agent. boat sails, everyone drowns. Complete
justice, complete catastrophe.
Human act is when and only when three
elements are present: knowledge,
freedom and will.
Since the boat has an unused excess
ACTS OF MAN – activities which lack any capacity of 10 more passengers, 10 more
of knowledge, freedom and will. passengers could be admitted.

1. Indeliberate – the agent is not conscious

(1) But which 10 would you admit into the
boat?
(2) How do you choose the 10 more
passengers?
Do you pick the “best 10” or “first come, first
served?
And what do you say to the 90 that are not
admitted or are excluded?
KINDS OF VOLUNTARY ACTS
The following is the classification of human
acts according to the degree of
voluntariness or intention of the agent that
influences them:
1. a) PERFECT VOLUNTARY ACT – done
with full knowledge and full consent of the
agent.
b) IMPERFECT VOLUNTARY ACT –
done with some defect in the knowledge or
consent of the agent.
2. a) SIMPLE VOLUNTARY ACT – chosen
by the agent because he likes doing the
act.
b) CONDITIONAL VOLUNTARY ACT –
chosen by the agent under one condition or
circumstances.
3. a) ACTUAL VOLUNTARY ACT – act
done as a result of an intention done here
and now.
b) VIRTUAL VOLUNTARY ACT – act
done as a result of a previous intention
which is not forgotten.
c) HABITUAL VOLUNTARY ACT - act
done as a result of a present intention
similar to a past intention which is forgotten
already.
d) INTERPRETATIVE VOLUNTARY
ACT – act influenced by an intention which
is presumed to be present in an agent who
lacks the ability to express his actual
intention.
4. a) POSITIVE VOLUNTARY ACT – act
of commission.
b) NEGATIVE VOLUNTARY ACT – act
of omission.
5. a) DIRECT VOLUNTARY ACT – act
which is intended in itself by the agent
.
b) INDIRECT VOLUNATARY ACT – the
result or effect of another act which is
directly intended.
THE PRINCIPLE OF INDIRECT
VOLUNTARY ACT
An agent is responsible for the evil effect of
an act which he directly intended when the
following conditions are fulfilled:
1. The agent must foresee the evil effect
of his act.

2. He must be free to stop from doing the
act which is the cause of the evil effect.
3. He must be morally obliged to stop
doing the act which is the cause of the evil
effect.
THE PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EFFECT
An agent is allowed to do an act having two
effects, one good and the other evil if the
following conditions are fulfilled:
1. The act must be good in itself or at
least morally indifferent.
2. The evil must not come first than the
good effect. At least, they should happen
simultaneously.
3. There must be a sufficient reason for
doing the act. A sufficient reason for doing
the act exists when:
a) the good effect is more important
or at least equally important with the bad
effect.
b) the act is the only means of
achieving the good effect.
4. The intention of the agent must be
honest.
THE CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE
VOLUNTARINESS OF HUMAN ACTS
1. IGNORANCE – the lack or absence of
knowledge.
a). INVINCIBLE (unconquerable)
IGNORANCE – is that ignorance which
cannot be cleared up or the knowledge that
is lacking cannot be acquired.
CAUSES:
(i) It is impossible to remove
ignorance because one has no way of
suspecting that he is ignorant.
(ii) It is morally impossible for one to
obtain the knowledge (lack of means of
removing the ignorance).
No wrong act makes one responsible if it is
performed in invincible ignorance inasmuch
as the element of knowledge is lacking and
such lack of knowledge is not due to the
fault of the agent.
b) VINCIBLE (conquerable) IGNORANCE –
can be cleared up if one uses sufficient
diligence.
(i) SIMPLE VINCIBLE IGNORANCE
– exists when one uses some but not
enough diligence to remove his ignorance.

[ABORTION] - If one performs a wrong act which

wrongness one is unaware of
1. Direct Abortion because of simple vincible
2. Indirect Abortion ignorance, one is responsible.
3. Therapeutic Abortion However, the responsibility is
4. Eugenic Abortion lessened by the presence of that
ignorance.

(ii) CRASS or SUPINE VINCIBLE

IGNORANCE – that which can be cleared
up but is left fully undisturbed.
Crass or supine ignorance lessens the
responsibility to an act.
(iii) AFFECTED VINCIBLE IGNORANCE –
one deliberately entertains in order that he
not be involved by what investigation may
arise.
Affected ignorance increases the
responsibility of an agent to his wrong
action.
2. FEAR – mental disturbance brought
about by the understanding of a present or
imminent danger. The danger may be real
or imaginary, for as long as something is
understood as a danger, it can cause fear.
a) Grave fear - aroused by the
presence of a danger:
(i) that is regarded by most people as
serious.
(ii) that is judged to be serious by the
one concerned.
b) Slight fear – aroused by:
(i) a danger that is not serious.
(ii) a grave danger that is not very
probable.
One acts through fear if it is fear that causes
him to act.
Actions performed through fear are
voluntary and so one is responsible.
One acts with fear if fear accompanies
one’s act but does not cause it.
Actions performed with fear are
simply voluntary because the agent
chooses to do the act with or without fear.
3. PASSION or CONCUPISCENCE –
strong tendencies towards the possession
of something good or towards the
avoidance of something evil. Passions are
also known as emotion or feeling.
1. LOVE – like of an object
2. HATE – dislike of an object
3. DESIRE – approach to an object
4. AVERSION – retreat from an object
5. JOY/DELIGHT – possession of an object
6. SADNESS/SORROW – dispossession of an
object
7. HOPE – approach to object that is
attainable
8. DESPAIR – approach to object that is
unattainable
9. COURAGE – approach to evil as obstacle
to a desired good
10. FEAR – retreat from evil as obstacle to a
desired good
11. ANGER – approach to revenge as a good
desired against evil or injury
In themselves, passions are
indifferent. They may be called good when
ordered by the rational will to help man in
the practice of virtue or in the attainment of
that which is morally good.
Passions are considered bad when
used by the rational will to accomplish
morally evil actions.
Two kinds of passions:
a) ANTECEDENT PASSION is that
which arises immediately before reason and
the will can control the psychological
situation.
(i) antecedent passions may
completely destroy freedom and moral
responsibility, when they suddenly arise and
compel us to act before any control of the
will is possible.
 (ii) antecedent passions lessen
freedom and the responsibility of the agent Thus, we exclude internal causes like
because antecedent passions tend to blind diseases, hunger, thirst, etc. and causes not
the judgment of the intellect and to block the capable of acting freely, such as the
freedom of the will. elements of nature like storm, strong wind,
lightning, flood, etc.
CONSEQUENT PASSION – deliberately
aroused by the will in order to ensure a There are three principles that may
willing operation. be applied in determining the effect of
violence on the voluntariness of the act and
b) Consequent passions, however great, do imputability of the agent.
not lessen the voluntariness but may
increase it because these passions are a) If one resists the violence as much as
deliberately exciting and they are voluntary possible, one is not responsible for the evil
in themselves. act to which one is forced.

4. HABITS – constant activities that tend b) If one does not resist the violence as
to influence one repeatedly to perform much as possible, the responsibility of the
similar actions. Habits may be good or evil evil act is lessened but not taken away.
according to whether they influence one to
do good or evil. c) If one sees that any resistance is not
effective, there is no obligation to resist. The
If repetitive evil acts, it is vice; if repetitive reason is that one is not obliged to do what
good acts, it is virtue. is useless.

Two general principles may be stated (i) such resistance might show one’s
concerning the effects of habits on the lack of consent to the act to which one is
responsibility of evil actions: being forced.
(ii) such resistance might help one in
a) evil habits do not lessen the preventing internal consent to the external
responsibility of evil actions performed by act.
force of habit if the habit has been
recognized as evil and is freely permitted to
continue.

b) evil habits lessen the responsibility of

evil actions performed by force of habit if
one is sincerely trying to correct the habit.

5. VIOLENCE – is a force by a free and

external cause exerted on a person to
compel him to perform a certain action
against his will. The cause exerting the
influence must be external and free.