Design Handbook by Suraj - Apr 2011 PDF

DESIGN HANDBOOK
Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited.

Compiled and prepared by: Suraj Kumar Shrestha
Civil Engineer
MSc. in Hydropower Development
Printed: April 2011
Design Handbook Compiled and prepared by: Suraj Kumar Shrestha
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
2 LIST OF SYMBOLS, DIMENSIONS AND UNITS .......................................................................... 1
3 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR CHANNEL FLOW ............................................................................. 4
3.1 Manning's formula (Chow, 1959) ................................................................................ 4
3.2 Geometric Sections and Corresponding Formulae ..................................................... 4
4 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES ............................................................. 11
4.1 Design Formulas for Intakes ..................................................................................... 11
4.1.1 OPEN INTAKE (SLUICE) ......................................................................................... 11
4.1.2 PIPE INTAKE ........................................................................................................ 16
4.1.3 BOTTOM INTAKE ................................................................................................... 17
4.1.4 ORIFICE DESIGN................................................................................................... 18
4.1.5 WEIRS................................................................................................................. 18
4.2 Design Formulas for Inlets ........................................................................................ 21
4.2.1 FREE FALL PIPE INLET........................................................................................... 21
4.2.2 SUBMERGED PIPE INLET ....................................................................................... 22
4.2.3 OPEN FLUME INLET .............................................................................................. 22
4.3 Design Formulas for Outlets ..................................................................................... 24
4.3.1 TYPES OF OUTLETS .............................................................................................. 24
4.4 Design Formulas for Culvert ..................................................................................... 25
4.4.1 DISCHARGE FORMULAS ........................................................................................ 25
4.5 Design Formulas for Vertical Falls ............................................................................ 26
4.6 Design Formulas for Spillways.................................................................................. 27
4.6.1 RECOMMENDED DESIGN FLOODS FOR THE SPILLWAYS ............................................ 27
4.6.2 TYPES OF SPILLWAYS ........................................................................................... 28
4.7 Design Formulas for Siphons.................................................................................... 36
4.7.1 TYPES OF SIPHONS .............................................................................................. 36
4.7.2 DISCHARGE OF SIPHON ........................................................................................ 37
4.8 Hydraulic Jump ......................................................................................................... 42
4.9 Entrance Loss Coefficient ......................................................................................... 48
4.10 Maximum Permissible Shear Stresses.................................................................. 49
4.11 Suction Head requirement..................................................................................... 50
4.11.1 PRESSURE PIPE ............................................................................................... 50
4.11.2 INTAKE............................................................................................................. 51
4.12 Flushing Outlets .................................................................................................... 51
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4.13 Head loss in pressurized conduct ......................................................................... 52

4.13.1 MINOR HEAD LOSS............................................................................................ 52
4.13.2 FRICTION FACTOR ............................................................................................ 52
4.14 Prediction of Sediment-Delivery Rate ................................................................... 54
4.15 shear stress ........................................................................................................... 54
4.16 Method for Determining Runoff for Minor Hydraulic Structures ............................. 55
5 DISCHARGE OF WELLS ...................................................................................................... 56
5.1 Well Types ................................................................................................................ 56
5.2 Well Discharge in a Confined Aquifer ....................................................................... 56
5.3 Well Discharge in an Unconfined Aquifer ................................................................. 57
5.4 Radius of Influence ................................................................................................... 57
5.5 Screen Entrance Velocity.......................................................................................... 57
5.6 Recommended Well Diameter .................................................................................. 58
6 DESIGN FORMULA FOR SCREEN ......................................................................................... 62
6.1 Trash Rack Loss ................................................................................................................ 62
6.2 Trash rack area.................................................................................................................. 64
7 DESIGN FORMULA FOR FILTER ........................................................................................... 65
8 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR FLOW IN PIPES ............................................................................. 67
8.1 Conveyance Method ................................................................................................. 67
8.2 Minor Losses............................................................................................................. 68
8.3 Head lossses due to Friction and Structural Transition ............................................ 69
8.4 Loss of head through valves ..................................................................................... 72
8.5 Entrance Loss ........................................................................................................... 73
8.6 Bend Loss ................................................................................................................. 73
8.7 Sudden Contraction loss ........................................................................................... 74
8.8 Sudden Expansion Loss ........................................................................................... 74
8.9 Gradual Expansion loss ............................................................................................ 74
8.10 Gradual Contraction Loss..................................................................................... 75
8.10.1 EXIT LOSS ....................................................................................................... 76
8.10.2 FRICTIONAL LOSS IN LENGTH............................................................................. 76
9 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR PUMPING ..................................................................................... 78
9.1 Types of Pumps Used in Aquaculture....................................................................... 78
9.2 Total Dynamic Heads................................................................................................ 78
9.3 Specific Speed .......................................................................................................... 79
9.4 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) ........................................................................... 80
9.5 Power Requirement .................................................................................................. 80
9.6 Determination of the Most Economical Pipe Diameter ............................................. 81
10 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR POWERPLANTS ............................................................................ 86
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10.1 Settling basin ......................................................................................................... 86

10.1.1 PARTICLE APPROACH: ...................................................................................... 86
10.1.2 CONCENTRATION APPROACH ............................................................................ 86
10.2 Forebay/Headpond................................................................................................ 94
10.3 Steel Penstock ...................................................................................................... 94
10.4 Economic Diameter ............................................................................................... 95
10.4.1 STEEL PENSTOCK PIPE ..................................................................................... 95
10.4.2 FOR STEEL-LINED CONDUITS (FAHLBUSCH (1987)) ............................................. 95
10.4.3 FOR A CONCRETE-LINED CONDUIT ..................................................................... 95
10.5 Shell Thickness of Penstock Pipe ......................................................................... 95
10.5.1 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PENSTOCK: ..................................................................... 97
10.6 Air Vents and Air Valves........................................................................................ 97
10.7 Surge tank ............................................................................................................. 99
10.8 Water hammer..................................................................................................... 101
10.9 Gravel trap........................................................................................................... 102
11 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL EQUIPMENTS............................................................................... 105
11.1 Hydraulic turbines................................................................................................ 107
11.1.1 IMPULSE TURBINES ......................................................................................... 107
11.1.2 REACTION TURBINES ...................................................................................... 108
11.2 Turbine selection criteria ..................................................................................... 112
11.2.1 DISCHARGE VS HEAD...................................................................................... 112
11.2.2 NET HEAD...................................................................................................... 113
11.2.3 CAVITATION ................................................................................................... 113
11.2.4 MINIMUM TECHNICAL FLOW OF TURBINES ......................................................... 114
11.2.5 SPECIFIC SPEED ............................................................................................. 114
11.3 Preliminary design ............................................................................................... 115
11.3.1 PELTON ......................................................................................................... 115
11.3.2 FRANCIS ........................................................................................................ 115
11.3.3 KAPLAN ......................................................................................................... 116
11.4 Typical efficiencies of small turbines ................................................................... 117
11.5 Typical efficiencies of small generators............................................................... 117
11.6 PUMP/MORTAR MOMEMT OF INTERTIA ......................................................... 119
12 ROCK ENGINEERING ....................................................................................................... 120
12.1 Overburdern requirement .................................................................................... 120
12.1.1 THE FIRST NORWEGIAN DESIGN CRITERIA ........................................................ 120
12.1.2 MINIMUM OVERBURDEN REQUIRED .................................................................. 120
12.2 Rock bolt ............................................................................................................. 121
12.3 Spilling bolts ........................................................................................................ 122
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12.4 Shotcrete ............................................................................................................. 123

12.5 Cement curtain grounting below dam/weir .......................................................... 123
12.6 Steel lining and concrete plug ............................................................................. 123
12.7 Classification of Rock Mass Quality using Q method .......................................... 124
13 CLEAR COVER FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN HYDROPOWER PROJECTS ......................... 131
14 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 132
14.1 Hydraulic jump..................................................................................................... 132
14.2 Moody Diagram ................................................................................................... 133
14.3 Conduit sections .................................................................................................. 134
14.4 Modulus of elasticity ............................................................................................ 135
14.5 Useful links for professional engineers:............................................................... 135
REFERENCES:.......................................................................................................................... 136
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List of Figures
Figure 3-1: Lenkei’s channel design graph ............................................................................... 9

Figure 4-1: Open intake........................................................................................................... 11
Figure 4-2: Values of coefficient k ........................................................................................... 13
Figure 4-3: The range of downstream influence on flow under gates ..................................... 13
Figure 4-4: Pipe intake ............................................................................................................ 16
Figure 4-5: discharge coefficients for vertical-faced ogee-crested weir at design head .......... 20
Figure 4-6: discharge coefficients for vertical-faced ogee-crested weir other than design head
................................................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 4-7: discharge coefficients for ogee-crested weir with sloping upstream face at the
design head ............................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 4-8: Free fall pipe inlet.................................................................................................. 21
Figure 4-9: Discharge coefficient µ for flow through free fall pipe inlet .................................... 21
Figure 4-10: Open flume inlet l/sec ......................................................................................... 22
Figure 4-11: Relationships of discharge to B and H ................................................................ 23
Figure 4-12: Culvert................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 4-13: Vertical fall .......................................................................................................... 26
Figure 4-14: Side earthen channel spillway ............................................................................ 28
Figure 4-15: Overfall spillway .................................................................................................. 31
Figure 4-16: Types of the shaft spillways ................................................................................ 35
Figure 4-17: Siphon spillway ................................................................................................... 36
Figure 4-18: Details of the siphon ........................................................................................... 37
Figure 4-19: Details of the siphon ........................................................................................... 39
Figure 4-20: a hydraulic jump formed in a sink ....................................................................... 43
Figure 4-21: Control volume for hydraulic jump ...................................................................... 46
Figure 4-22: specific (dimensionless) shear stress versus the Reynolds number .................. 50
Figure 5-1: Generalized cross section defining well types ...................................................... 56
Figure 5-2: Radial flow in a confined aquifer ........................................................................... 56
Figure 5-3: Radial flow in an unconfined aquifer ..................................................................... 57
Figure 6.1-1: Head loss in screens, values of screen loss coefficient β for various bar shapes
................................................................................................................................................ 62
Figure 7-1: Flow through filter ................................................................................................. 65
Figure 8-1: Minor losses of valves and fittings to flow of water (Coronel, 1978) ..................... 68
Figure 9-1: Details of a pump station ...................................................................................... 78
Figure 9-2: characteristic curves for pump AGROFIL 500-D .................................................. 81
Figure 10-1: Settling basin of Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Project – 2.5 MW........................ 86
Figure 10-2: Camp’s Diagram ................................................................................................. 87

Figure 10-3: fall velocity graph ................................................................................................ 88

Figure 10-4: Longitudinal section through an ideal settling basin ........................................... 88
Figure 10-5: Chart gives settling velocities of spherical particles with specific gravities S, at
10°C ........................................................................................................................................ 89
Figure 10-6: Shiled’s Diagram ................................................................................................. 90
Figure 10-7: Fall velocity of quartz spheres in still water......................................................... 91
Figure 10-8: Gravel trap of Sunkoshi Small Hydropower project-2.5MW .............................. 103
Figure 11-1: Powerhosue of Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Plant-2.5 MW, owned by Sanima
Hydropower Pvt. Ltd. ............................................................................................................. 105
Figure 11-2: Main components inside the powerhouse of Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Plant-
2.5 MW .................................................................................................................................. 106
Figure 11-3: Typical section of powerhouse a) low head, b) high and medium heads ......... 106
Figure 11-4: Schematic view of Pelton turbines .................................................................... 107
Figure 11-5: Princple of a turgo turbine ................................................................................. 108
Figure 11-6: Priciple of a cross flow turbine .......................................................................... 109
Figure 11-7: Francis turbines (vertical and horizontal axis)................................................... 109
Figure 11-8: Principle of Kaplana nd bulb turbines ............................................................... 110
Figure 11-9: Turbine selection graph .................................................................................... 112
Figure 11-10: shows schematically a cross section of a Francis runner, with the reference
diameters D , D and D . ....................................................................................................... 115
1 2 3
Figure 11-11: Cross section of a Kaplan turbine ................................................................... 116

Figure 12-1: Rule of thumb for high pressure tunnel or shafts .............................................. 120
Figure 12-2: Typical applications of spilling (modified from Statens Vegvesen, 1994) ......... 122
Figure 12-3: typical layout of undergound hydropower plant ................................................ 124

List of tables
Table 1: Symbols, Dimensions and Units used ......................................................................... 1

Table 2: Symbols for Dimensionless Quantities ........................................................................ 1
Table 3: Manning’s n (SI UNIT) ................................................................................................. 2
Table 4: Values of the Roughness Coefficient n (Simon, 1976)................................................ 5
Table 5: Allowable Mean Velocities against Erosion or Scour in Channels of various Soils and
Materials .................................................................................................................................... 6
Table 6: Allowable Side Slopes for Trapezoidal Channels in various Soils (Davis, 1952) ........ 6
Table 7: Characteristic Dimensions of Optimum Trapezoidal Channel for given Gross-
sectional Area and Side Slope .................................................................................................. 7
Table 8: channel section geometry ......................................................................................... 10
Table 9: Values of Velocity Coefficient .................................................................................... 11
Table 10: Values of Contraction Coefficient ............................................................................ 12
Table 11: Values of Bligh's Coefficient C ................................................................................ 14
Table 12: Values of Discharge Coefficient C for open Flume Inlet.......................................... 23
Table 13: Values of the Discharge Coefficient C1, .................................................................. 35
Table 14: Values of the Discharge Coefficient C2 ................................................................... 35
Table 15: Recommended Minimum Velocities in Pipes for Siphons ....................................... 37
Table 16: Entrance Loss Coefficients for Pipe or Pipe Arch Culverts ..................................... 49
Table 17:Entrance Loss Coefficients for Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts .......................... 49
Table 18: Darcy-weisback friciton equations ........................................................................... 53
Table 19: Effective Roughness for various pipe materials ...................................................... 53
Table 20: common runoff coefficients ..................................................................................... 55
Table 21: Permissible Screen Entrance Velocities (Walton, 1962) ......................................... 58
Table 22: Recommended Well Diameter (Smith, 1961) .......................................................... 58
Table 23:Additional trash rack losses for non prependicular approach flows ......................... 62
Table 24: Permeability Coefficient k ........................................................................................ 65
Table 25: Velocity Moduli and Conveyance Factors of the Pipes ........................................... 67
Table 26: lists local loss coefficients for a variety of fixtures. .................................................. 70
Table 27: Recommended Velocities in Pipes for Water Supply .............................................. 77
Table 28: Recommended Design Range of ns ........................................................................ 80
Table 29: Values of Function FD .............................................................................................. 82
Table 30: Fall velocity of a particle is determined using the table below................................. 89
Table 31:Turbine selection criteria ........................................................................................ 113
Table 32: Minimum flows required for the operation of turbine ............................................. 114
Table 33: Range of specific speed for each turbine type ...................................................... 115
Table 34: Best efficiency of turbines ..................................................................................... 117
Table 35: Best efficiency of small generators........................................................................ 117
Table 36: Q-system description and ratings for the input parameters................................... 125
Table 37: Q-System ratings of the excavation support ratio (ESR)....................................... 127
Table 38: support system graph for the Q-system ................................................................ 128

1 INTRODUCTION
This ”Design Handbook” bascially deals with the flow hydraulic and optimum section of water
conveyance system such as pipes and tunnels for hydraulic structures especially in
hydropower, irrigation and pump schemes.
This book consists of 13 chapters which covers the practical aspect of the flow hydraulic and
various design parameters.
Chapter 1 is Introduction
Chapter 2 deals with symbols, dimension, units and manning’s unit
Chapter 3 discusses the design formula for channel flow
Chapter 4 introduces the reader to some design formulas for hydraulic structures
Chapter 5 deals with differnt types of well
Chapter 6 introcuces some design formula for trashrack screen
Chapter 7 discuss the design formula for filter
Chapter 8 is devoted in pipe hydraulic
Chapter 9 deals with pumps
Chapter 10 discusses the powerplant component design concept
Chapter 11 is about electro-mechanical equipments
Chapter 12 introduces rock engineering and design consideration
Chapter 13 explains the clear cover requirement for hydraulic structures
Chapter 14 is Appendices which various graphs and tables are annexed
This book serves as a starting point in understanding flow hydraulics and some design
concepts mostly deal with hydraulics and hydraulic structures.Therefore, the reader should
consult the publications listed in the References for detail study. In most of the chapter,
example problems are used to illustrate the concepts introduced.
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2 LIST OF SYMBOLS, DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

A list of symbols with their dimensions and units used in the formulas is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Symbols, Dimensions and Units used
Symbol Description Dimensions Units
A Area L2
m2
B Surface width of a channel L m
b Bottom width of a channel L m
D Diameter L m
d depth L m
g Acceleration due to the force of gravity L/T 2
m/sec2
H Total head; head over a crest L m
h Head or water depth L m
hl Head loss L m
k Permeability coefficient L/T m/sec
L Length L m
l Length L m
n Manning's roughness coefficient T/L 1/3
sec/m1/3
Pw Wetted perimeter L m
Allowable pressure head for siphon L m
Pressure L m
Q Discharge L3/T m3/sec

q Unit discharge L3/T m3/sec
R Hydraulic radius L m
r Radius L m
s Drawdown L m
V Volume L3
m3
v Average velocity L/T m/sec
W Weight F kg
w Unit weight of water; width of a structure F/L ; L
3
kg/m3; m
γ Density of water F/L 3
kg/m3
Table 2: Symbols for Dimensionless Quantities

Symbol Quantity
C Discharge coefficient
Ks Screen loss coefficient
S Bottom slope
z Ratio of the side slope for a channel cross-section (horizontal to vertical)
η Efficiency
λ Friction factor
π 3.1416
φ Velocity coefficient
ψ Contraction coefficient

Table 3: Manning’s n (SI UNIT)

S.N. Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
A NATURAL STREAM
1 Main Channels
1.1 Clean, straight, full, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
1.2 Same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
1.3 Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
1.4 Same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
Same as above, lower stages, more ineffective slopes 0.040 0.048 0.055
1.5 and sections
1.6 Same as "d" but more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
1.7 Sluggish reaches, weedy. deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways with heavy 0.070 0.100 0.150
1.8 stands of timber and brush
2 Flood Plains
2.1 Pasture no brush
2.1.1 Short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
2.1.2 High grass 0.030 0.035 0.050
2.2 Cultivated areas
2.2.1 No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2.2.2 Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
2.2.3 Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
2.3 Brush
2.3.1 Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2.3.2 Light brush and trees, in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
2.3.3 Light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
2.3.4 Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
2.3.5 Medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
2.4 Trees
2.4.1 Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
2.4.2 Same as above, but heavy sprouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
Heavy stand of timber, few down trees, little undergrowth,
2.4.3 flow below branches 0.080 0.100 0.120
2.4.4 Same as above, but with flow into branches 0.100 0.120 0.160
2.4.5 Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
Mountain Streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, with

3 trees and brush on banks submerged
3.1 Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
3.2 Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
B LINED BUILT-UP CHANNEL

1 Concrete
1.1 Trowel finish 0.011 0.013 0.015
1.2 Float Finish 0.013 0.015 0.016
1.3 Finished, with gravel bottom 0.015 0.017 0.020
1.4 Unfinished 0.014 0.017 0.020
1.5 Gunite, good section 0.016 0.019 0.023
1.6 Gunite, wavy section 0.018 0.022 0.025
1.7 On good excavated rock 0.017 0.020
1.8 On irregular excavated rock 0.022 0.027
2 Concrete bottom float finished with sides of:

S.N. Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

2.1 Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 0.017 0.020
2.2 Random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020 0.024
2.3 Cement rubble masonry, plastered 0.016 0.020 0.024
2.4 Cement rubble masonry 0.020 0.025 0.030
2.5 Dry rubble on riprap 0.020 0.030 0.035
3 Gravel bottom with sides of:

3.1 Formed concrete 0.017 0.020 0.025
3.2 Random stone in mortar 0.020 0.023 0.026
3.3 Dry rubble or riprap 0.023 0.033 0.036
4 Brick
4.1 Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
4.2 In cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.018
5 Metal
5.1 Smooth steel surfaces 0.011 0.012 0.014
5.2 Corrugated metal 0.021 0.025 0.030
6 Asphalt
6.1 Smooth 0.013 0.013
6.2 Rough 0.016 0.016
7 Vegetal lining 0.030 0.500
C EXCAVATED AND DREDGED CHANNELS

1 Earth, straight and uniform
1.1 Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
1.2 Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
1.3 Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
1.4 With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
2 Earth, winding and sluggish

2.1 No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2.2 Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
2.3 Dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels 0.030 0.035 0.040
2.4 Earth bottom and rubble side 0.028 0.030 0.035
2.5 Stony bottom and weedy banks 0.025 0.035 0.040
2.6 Cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
3 Dragline-excavated or dredged
3.1 No vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
3.2 Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
4 Rock cuts
4.1 Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
4.2 Jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
5 Channels not maintained, weeds and brush

5.1 Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
5.2 Same as above, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
5.3 Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
5.4 Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140

3 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR CHANNEL FLOW

3.1 MANNING'S FORMULA (CHOW, 1959)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3.1)
where
v = average velocity, m/sec
R= = hydraulic radius, m
A = cross-sectional area of the channel, m2
Pw = wetted perimeter of the channel, m
S = slope of the channel
n = roughness coefficient
The values of n for various channel conditions are illustrated in Table 2.
Discharge formula
m3/sec -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3.2)
Normal water depth formula
, m -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3.3)
Slope formula
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3.4)
where
b = bottom width of the channel, m

z = ratio of the side slope
3.2 GEOMETRIC SECTIONS AND CORRESPONDING FORMULAE

Trapezoidal Parabolic
Formula/Shape Rectangular Circular
(“z”-Side Slope) T-Top width
1 2
Area-“A” b *h (b + zh )h (φ − sin φ )D 2 Th
8 3
Wetter 1 8h 2
Perimeter-“P”
b+2h b + 2h 1 + z 2 2φD b+
3T
Top Width of
Section-“T”
b=T b+2zh 2 h( D − h) T
Hydraulic bh (b + zh)h 1 ⎛ sin φ ⎞ 2T 2 h
⎜1 − ⎟D
Radius-“R” b + 2h b + 2h 1 + z 2 4 ⎜⎝ φ ⎟⎠ 3T 2 + 8h 2
⎛ ⎞
Hydraulic Depth- (b + zh)h 1 ⎜⎜ φ − sin φ ⎟⎟ 2
h D h
“D” b + 2 zh 8⎜ φ ⎟ 3
⎜ sen ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Section Factor 1.5 [(b + zh )h]1.5 2 (φ − sin φ )1.5 2.5

D 2
6Th 1.5
bh
b + 2 zh 32 sin 1 φ 9
2
Table 4: Values of the Roughness Coefficient n (Simon, 1976)
Channel condition Value of n

Exceptionally smooth, straight surfaces: enamelled or glazed coating; glass; lucite; brass 0.009
Very well planed and fitted boards; smooth metal; pure cement plaster; smooth tar or paint 0.010
coating
Planed lumber; smoothed mortar (1/3 sand) without projections, in straight alignment 0-011
Carefully fitted but unplaned boards, steel trowelled concrete in straight alignment 0.012
Reasonably straight, clean, smooth surfaces without projections; good boards; carefully built 0.013
brick wall; wood trowelled concrete; smooth, dressed ashlar
Good wood, metal, or concrete surfaces with some curvature, very small projections, slight 0.014
moss or algae growth or gravel deposition. Shot concrete surfaced with trowelled mortar
Rough brick; medium quality cut stone surface; wood with algae or moss growth; rough 0.015
concrete; riveted steel
Very smooth and straight earth channels, free from growth; stone rubble set in cement; shot, 0.017
untrowelled concrete deteriorated brick wall; exceptionally well excavated and surfaced
channel cut in natural rock
Well-built earth channels covered with thick, uniform silt deposits; metal flumes with excessive 0.018
curvature, large projections, accumulated debris
Smooth, well-packed earth; rough stone walls; channels excavated in solid, soft rock; little 0.020
curving channels in solid loess, gravel or clay, with silt deposits, free from growth, in average
condition; deteriorating uneven metal flume with curvatures and debris; very large canals in
good condition
Small, manmade earth channels in well-kept condition; straight natural streams with rather 0.025
clean, uniform bottom without pools and flow barriers, cavings and scours of the banks
Ditches; below average manmade channels with scattered cobbles in bed 0.028
Well-maintained large floodway; unkempt artificial channels with scours, slides, considerable 0.030
aquatic growth; natural stream with good alignment and fairly constant cross-section
Permanent alluvial rivers with moderate changes in cross-section, average stage; slightly 0.033
curving intermittent streams in very good condition
Small, deteriorated artificial channels, half choked with aquatic growth, winding river with clean 0.035
bed, but with pools and shallows
Irregularly curving permanent alluvial stream with smooth bed; straight natural channels with 0.040
uneven bottom, sand bars, dunes, few rocks and underwater ditches; lower section of
Channel condition Value of n

mountainous streams with well-developed channel with sediment deposits; intermittent streams
in good condition; rather deteriorated artificial channels, with moss and reeds, rocks, scours
and slides
Artificial earth channels partially obstructed with debris, roots, and weeds; irregularly 0.067
meandering rivers with partly grown-in or rocky bed; developed flood plains with high grass and
bushes
Mountain ravines; fully ingrown small artificial channels; flat flood plains crossed by deep 0.080
ditches (slow flow)
Mountain creeks with waterfalls and steep ravines; very irregular flood plains; weedy and 0-10
sluggish natural channels obstructed with trees
Very rough mountain creeks, swampy, heavily vegetated rivers with logs and driftwood on the 0.133
bottom; flood plain forest with pools
Mudflows; very dense flood plain forests; watershed slopes 0.22
Table 5: Allowable Mean Velocities against Erosion or Scour in Channels of various Soils and
Materials
Description v, m/sec
Soft clay or very fine clay 0-2
Very fine or very light pure sand 0.3
Very light loose sand or silt 0.4
Coarse sand or light sandy soil 0.5
Average sandy soil and good loam 0.7
Sandy loam 0.8
Average loam or alluvial soil 0.9
Firm loam, clay loam 1.0
Firm gravel or clay 1.1
Stiff clay soil; ordinary gravel soil, or clay and gravel 1.4
Broken stone and clay 1.5
Grass 1.2
Coarse gravel, cobbles, shale 1.8
Conglomerates, cemented gravel, soft slate, tough hardpan, soft sedimentary rock 1.8 - 2.5
Soft rock 1.4 - 2.5
Hard rock 3.0 - 4.6
Very hard rock or cement concrete (1:2:4 minimum) 4.6-7.6
Table 6: Allowable Side Slopes for Trapezoidal Channels in various Soils (Davis, 1952)
Type of soil z
Light sand, wet clay 3:1
Wet sand 2.5:1
Loose earth, loose sandy loam 2:1
Ordinary earth, soft clay, sandy loam, gravelly loam or loam 1.5:1
Ordinary gravel 1.25:1
Stiff earth or clay, soft moorum 1:1
Tough hard pan, alluvial soil, firm gravel, hard compact earth, hard moorum 0.5:1
Soft rock 0.25:1

Table 7: Characteristic Dimensions of Optimum Trapezoidal Channel for given Gross-

sectional Area and Side Slope
Side slope
0.5:1 0.759 0.938 1.698 2.640 0.379

1:1 0.739 0.612 2.092 2.705 0.370
1.5:1 0.689 0.417 2.483 2.905 0.344
2:1 0.636 0.300 2.844 3.145 0.318
2.5:1 0.589 0.227 3.169 3.395 0.295
3:1 0.549 0.174 3502 3.645 0.275
where:
h = water depth, m
b = bottom width, m
B = surface width, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
R = hydraulic radius, m
A = cross-sectional area, m2
Example 1
A trapezoidal earth channel of 1.5:1 side slopes is to be built on a slope of S = 0.001 to carry
Q = 1.0 m3/sec. Design the channel cross-section such that the hydraulic radius is optimal.
Solution;
Using Figure 1 first we mark off the length of the 1.0 m3 /sec discharge on the edge of a sheet
of paper. Next, keeping the line horizontal we place the paper's edge on the upper graphs,
moving it upward along the corresponding slope S = 0.001 and shape (1.5:1) lines. Where the
distance between the lines equals the discharge length we note the magnitude of the
hydraulic radius R.
R = 0.40 m
The corresponding velocity in the channel is
v = 0.70 m/sec
obtained from the slope graph. The cross-sectional area is:
A = 1.43 m2
from the shape graph.
Entering the left bottom graph along the R = 0.40 curve, we find the intercept with the radial
line indicating optimum conditions. In this case for
R = Ropt = 0.40 m
we get
b = 0.50 m
and
h = 0.82 m
Example 2
Design a channel in firm loam, for a discharge of 1 500 l/sec, at maximum permissible
velocity.
Solution
From Table 3, the maximum allowable velocity in firm loam is v = 1,0 m/sec. From Table 4
assume side slopes of 1.5:1. From Table 2 the roughness coefficient is defined as n = 0.025.
Canal properties
From Table 6

Figure 3-1: Lenkei’s channel design graph

Table 8: channel section geometry
The slope of the channel is obtained from the Equation 3.4 as
Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 10 | P a g e

4 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

4.1 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR INTAKES
4.1.1 OPEN INTAKE (SLUICE)
Figure 4-1: Open intake
4.1.1.1 Free discharge formula

m3/sec ---------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.1)
where
φ = velocity coefficient
Hl= contracted water depth, m
b = width of the gate, m
= upstream energy level, m

H = upstream water depth, m
v0 = approach velocity, m/sec
g = 9.81 = acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2
Table 9: Values of Velocity Coefficient
Types of gate φ
Broad crested gate 0.85 - 0.95
Uncrested gate 0.95 - 1.00
Contracted water depth:
H1 = ψ ×a ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.2)
where φ = contraction coefficient.

Table 10: Values of Contraction Coefficient
ψ ψ ψ ψ
0.00 0.611 0.30 0.625 0.55 0.650 0.80 0.720

0.10 0.615 0.35 0.628 0.60 0.660 0.85 0.745
0.15 0.618 0.40 0.630 0.65 0.675 0.90 0.780
0.20 0.620 0.45 0.638 0.70 0.690 0.95 0.835
0.25 0.622 0.50 0.645 0.75 0.705 1.00 1.000
4.1.1.2 Submerged discharge formula

, m3/sec --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.3)
where
C = φ.ψ = discharge coefficient

a = opening height of the gate, m
b = width of the gate, m
h = Ho - H2 = head, m
Ho= upstream energy level, m
H2= downstream water depth, m
g = 9.81, m/sec2
The subcritical conjugate depth:
, m -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.4)
where
H1 = contracted water depth
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.5)
---------------------------------------------------------------------(4.6)
4.1.1.3 Discharge formula influenced by downstream
Qretarded = k.Q, m3/sec ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.7)
where
k = coefficient (Figure 3)
Q = free discharge, m3/sec (see Equation (4.1))

Figure 4-2: Values of coefficient k
Figure 4-3: The range of downstream influence on flow under gates
4.1.1.4 Apron and floor length formulas
Total length of the apron:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.8)
where

ds = depth of the sill from the downstream floor, m

4 h2 = length of the hydraulic jump, m
h2 = subcritical conjugate depth, m
Bligh's method
Total length of the floor:
Lf = C × HFS-b, m ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------( 4.9)
where
C = Bligh's coefficient
HFS-b = difference between the full upstream supply level and the downstream bed level of the
channel
Table 11: Values of Bligh's Coefficient C
Type of soil C
Soft clay and silt 3.0
Medium clay 2.0
Loam 5.0
Light sand and mud 8.0
Peat 9.0
Coarse grained sand 12.0
Fine micaceous sand 15.0
Example 3
A 3.0 m wide vertical uncrested gate discharges into a feeder channel in which the water level
is 1.2 m. The upstream water level is 2.0 m and the gate opening is 0.70 m. The approach
velocity is 0.75 m/sec. Determine the discharge through the structure and the length of the
required apron.
By Figure 4 we find the type of flow condition existing
Observing the location of the point described, we note that the outflow is free. Therefore the
free discharge is obtained using Equation (4.1)

where from Table 7
φ = 0.97 and
from Table 7
ψ = 0.628
then
H1 = ψ ×a = 0.628×0.70 = 0.44 m
therefore
Total length of the apron is defined from Equation (4.8)
where
H0 = 2.03 m
ds = 0
H1 = 0.44 m
then
therefore

4.1.2 PIPE INTAKE

Figure 4-4: Pipe intake
Calculating formulas
m3/sec
where
C = discharge coefficient
A = pipe cross-sectional area, m2
h = head, difference in upstream and downstream water surface levels, m
Value of the discharge coefficient C is obtained by the formula
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.10)
where
ke =0.5 = entrance friction coefficient

λ = 0.03 = friction factor for concrete pipe
l = pipe length, m
D = pipe diameter
Protection length on the downstream side is determined from the following formula:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.11)
where
vp = velocity in pipe, m/sec

vs = scouring velocity, m/sec (Table 3)
Example 1
Determine the discharge of the intake and the required protection length on its downstream
side with the data below:

D = 45 cm
l = 12.5 m
Ho = 2.0 m
H2 - 1.6 m
Bed soil = sandy loam
Solution
where
h = H0-H2 = 2.0-1.6 = 0.4 m
From Table 3 the allowable velocity is defined as vs = 0.8 for sandy loam.
Then
therefore
4.1.3 BOTTOM INTAKE

2
Q = .c.µ.B.L. 2 gh
3
And,
c = 0.64.a/b.cos3/2 β
where
L : intake length over the grids (m); extension of
the calculated length by 20% for more security
because of possible partial grid obstruction
B: intake width (m)
Q: design flow (m3/s)
β: grid slope

hcr: critical depth (m)

h: water depth in start point of grid (m)
µ: discharge coefficient (grill shape)
c: grid coefficient (a/b, β)
Assumptions
a : 2 to 4 cm
a/b : 1/3 , 1/2 , 2/3
β: 30° to 45°
4.1.4 ORIFICE DESIGN

4.1.4.1 Orifice Discharge into free air
Q = CLh 3 / 2 ------------------------------------(4.12)
where
Q = discharge through orifice, m3/s
L = width of opening, m
h = head on horizontal center line of orifice, m
4.1.4.2 Orifice Discharge under falling head
Q = CA 2 g∆h ---------------------------------------(4.13)
where
A = cross-sectional area of orifice, m2
∆h = driving head, m
4.1.5 WEIRS
4.1.5.1 Rectangular Sharp-Crested
Q = CLH 3 / 2
H
C = 3.27 + 0.40
P

where
Q = discharge over weir crest, m3/s
L = effective length of crest, m
H = depth of flow over the crest, m
P = hieght of weir above the river bed, m
4.1.5.2 Rectangular Sharp-Crested (submerged)
0.385
Qs ⎛ H 2n ⎞
= ⎜1 − ⎟ --------------------------------(4.14)
Q ⎜⎝ H 1 ⎟⎠
where
Q = discharge over wer crest, m3/s
Qs = discharge through submerged weir
N = 3/2 for a rectangular sharp-crested weir and 5/2 for a triangular weir
H1 = head upstream, m
H2 = head downstream, m
4.1.5.3 Weirs Not Sharp-Crested
3
⎛ V 2 ⎞2
Q = CL⎜⎜ H + ⎟ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.15)
⎝ 2 g ⎟⎠
where
⎛V 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = velocity head, m
⎝ 2g ⎠
4.1.5.4 Ogee shape and broad crested weir

Q = CLH 3 / 2
where
P = hieght of weir above the river bed, m

Figure 4-5: discharge coefficients for vertical-faced ogee-crested weir at design head
Figure 4-6: discharge coefficients for vertical-faced ogee-crested weir other than design head
Figure 4-7: discharge coefficients for ogee-crested weir with sloping upstream face at the
design head

4.2 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR INLETS

4.2.1 FREE FALL PIPE INLET
Figure 4-8: Free fall pipe inlet
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.16)
where
Q = discharge of the inlet, m3/sec

µ = discharge coefficient
A = internal cross-sectional area of the pipe, m2
g = 9.81 = acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2
H = head of the upstream water surface over the centre of the pipe, m
Figure 4-9: Discharge coefficient µ for flow through free fall pipe inlet
Example 2
Determine the discharge of the free fall inlet with a diameter of 15 cm if its length is 4.0 m and
the water depth in the feeder channel is 50 cm.

Solution
Determine the discharge from Equation (4.16)
The discharge coefficient is defined as µ = 0.7
then
4.2.2 SUBMERGED PIPE INLET

Calculating formulas given for pipe intake may be used.
4.2.3 OPEN FLUME INLET

Figure 4-10: Open flume inlet l/sec
where
Q = design discharge of the inlet, l/sec

B = width of the throat, cm
H = height of the designed full supply level in the feeder channel above the sill level of the inlet

Figure 4-11: Relationships of discharge to B and H
Table 12: Values of Discharge Coefficient C for open Flume Inlet
B in cm C
6 to 10 0.0160
10 to 15 0.0164
over 15 0.0166
Length of the cistern: lc = 0.82 H2, m

Depth of the cistern: dc = 0.1 H2, m
where H2 = water depth in the pond, m
Depth of the glacis dg = 0.5 H, m
where H = maximum water depth above the sill level
of the inlet, m
Example 3
Design an open flume inlet for a discharge of 150 l/sec if the water depth in the feeder canal is
45 cm and 1.50 m in the pond.
Solution
The corresponding width of the throat to the water depth of 150 l/sec is defined from Figure 11.
then
B = 30 cm
dg = 0.5×H = 0.5×0.45 = 0.23 m
lc = 0.8×H2 = 0.8×1.50 = 1.20 m
dc = 0.1×H2 = 0.1×1.50 = 0.15 m
4.3 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR OUTLETS

4.3.1 TYPES OF OUTLETS
1. Open outlet (sluice)
2. Pipe outlet
Formulas given for intakes can be used.
The insertion of the stoplogs into the outlet creates over-shot flow conditions. The discharge
formula (neglecting the approach velocity), for over-shot flow is:
where
B = internal width of the outlet monk, m

H = head, the difference between the pond water level and the stoplog crest, m
Time for emptying ponds or tanks:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.17)
where
T = emptying time in seconds

A1 = average cross-sectional area of the pond or tank, m2
A2 = cross-sectional area of the outlet, m2
H1 = water depth in the pond at the beginning, m
H2 = water depth in the pond at the end, m
If the pond is completely emptied H2 will be = 0
Example 4
Determine the emptying time of 2 ha pond having its water depth of 1.5 m if the diameter of the
outlet is 45 cm.
Solution
To obtain the required emptying time we use Equation (4.17)

where
A1 = 2 ha = 20 000 m2
H1 = 1.5 m
H0 = 0
then
4.4 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR CULVERT

Figure 4-12: Culvert
4.4.1 DISCHARGE FORMULAS

4.4.1.1 Submerged discharge formula
The formulas given for pipe intake can be used, but the following entrance friction coefficients
should be used to calculate the discharge coefficient C.
Table 11 Values of Entrance Friction Coefficients for Culverts Flowing Full
Entrance condition ke
Sharp-edged projecting entrance 0.9
Flush entrance, square edge 0.5
Well rounded entrance 0.08
4.4.1.2 Unsubmerged discharge formula
where
Q = design discharge of the culvert, m3/sec
A2 = actual flow area of the culvert, m2

n = roughness coefficient for concrete pipe = 0.012 for corrugated metal pipe = 0.024
Pw = wetted perimeter of the culvert
S = slope of the culvert
Entrance head:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.18)
where
H = head on entrance above the bottom of the culvert, m

dc = water depth in the culvert, m
To solve Equation (4.18), it is necessary to try different values of dc and corresponding values
of R until a value is found that satisfies the equation. If the head on a culvert is high, a value of
dc less than the culvert diameter will not satisfy Equation (4.18). This means the flow is under
pressure and discharge can be calculated by submerged discharge formula.
4.5 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR VERTICAL FALLS

Figure 4-13: Vertical fall

4.5.1.1 Free discharge for vertical fall with a trapezoidal cross-sectional area
where
Q1= design discharge of the vertical fall, m/sec

A1= contracted cross-sectional area of the flow, m v

H = upstream water depth in the channel, m

v = approach velocity, m/sec
H1 = contracted depth = 0.92 hc, m
h2 = critical depth, m
The critical depth can be obtained from the formulas (4.4) and (4.5).
4.5.1.2 Submerged discharge
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.19)
where
A = cross-sectional area of the flow, m2

hs = H2 - p, m
H2 = downstream water depth, m
ps = height of sill over-downstream bed level, m
h2 = subcritical conjugate level = 1.14 hc
4.5.1.3 Length and depth of the basin
The length of the basin is given by empirical formula
Lb = 5 (H×h)1/2 , m ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.20)
where
H = upstream water depth, m

h = head, difference in upstream and downstream water surface levels, m
The depth of the basin is
db = 0.17 (H×h)1/2, m
4.6 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR SPILLWAYS

4.6.1 RECOMMENDED DESIGN FLOODS FOR THE SPILLWAYS
Reservoir Design flood
Volume Height of dam (m/sec)
(m )3
(m)
10 5
or max. 2.5 Q2%
10 - 10
5 6
2.5 - 6.0 Q1%
106 - 3.106 6.0 -10.0 Q0.5% - Q0.1% 1/
In case the failure of the dam would create danger to human life or would cause great property
damage, Q0,1% has to be used to design the spillway

4.6.2 TYPES OF SPILLWAYS

4.6.2.1 Side channel spillways
1.1 Side earthen channel spillway

1.2 Side lined channel spillway
2. Overfall spillway
3. Shaft spillways
3.1 Circular crest
3.2 Standard crest
3.3 Flat crest
4. Siphon spillway

4.6.3.1 Side earthen channel spillway
Figure 4-14: Side earthen channel spillway
A) Discharge over the crest
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.21)
where
L = overflow crest length, m

h = water depth above the crest, m
Q = designed discharge, m3/sec
B) Velocity in the earthen channel
Using Manning's formula:
To prevent erosion in the earthen channel the calculated velocity should be less than the
scouring velocity of the material concerned as shown in Table 3.
C) Length of the crest protection
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.22)

where
v = velocity of the designed discharge, m/sec

vs = scouring velocity, m/sec
4.6.3.2 Side lined channel spillway
The side channel has to be lined when the valley side has such great gradient that the
calculated velocity in the side channel is higher than the scouring velocity concerned.
Example 5
Design a side earthen channel spillway for a discharge of 12 m3/sec in stiff clay soil if the
gradient of the valley side along the axis of the channel is 4 percent.
Solution
The scouring velocity of stiff clay soil is defined as vs =1.4 m/sec from Table 3.
Considering the channel as an unkempt artificial channel with considerable aquatic growth the
value of n equals to 0.030 from Table 2. The next step is to determine the measurements of the
spillway.
Assuming that the water depth over the crest is h = 0.30 m the length of the crest is determined
by the use of Equation (4.21).
For the length of the crest protection using Equation (4.22)
where
vs = 1.4 m/sec
h = 0.30 m
Entering these values into Equation (4.22)
To check the velocity in the channel first the measurements of the channel are defined as
follows:

The cross-sectional area of the channel is:
Assume that the channel has a bottom width of 30 m and its side slope of 1:1 then the normal
water depth can be calculated by the following formula:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.23)
where
z = ratio of the side slope (horizontal to one vertical)
with
b = 30 m
z=1
A = 8.6 m2
then
The wetted perimeter is:
The hydraulic radius is
The velocity in the channel is then equal to
Since this velocity is higher than the scouring velocity, therefore, the channel should be lined or
its gradient can be lowered by some falls. The slope of the bottom in the channel is obtained
from Equation (3.4)

4.6.3.3 Overfall spillway

Figure 4-15: Overfall spillway
A) Discharge over the crest
Q = 1.7×L×h3/2, m3/sec ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.24)
where
L = overflow crest length, m

Q = designed discharge, m
B) Design formulas for the glacis and the stilling basin
Critical depth is from Equation (4.5)
where
The velocity of the flow at the toe of the spillway may be computed by
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.25)
where
e = g×q
P = the crest height above the stilling basin

and
The head loss along the glacis can be determined by the formula
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.26)
where
n = roughness coefficient, sec/m1/3

1 = length of the glacis, m
The subcritical conjugate depth is defined by the formula
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.27)
The depth of the stilling basin is:
ds = h2 - h3, m
The length of the stilling basin can be calculated by the formula:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.28)
Example 6
Design an overfall spillway with the following data
Q = 30 m3/sec
h = 1.0 m
P = 5.0 m
gradient of the glacis = 2:1
n = 0.012
h3 = 1.20 m
Solution
From Equation (4.24) the length of the crest is:

Discharge per unit width is
The critical depth is then
The length of the glacis is defined as
The head loss along the glacis is obtained from Equation (4.26)
where
Q = 30 m3/sec
n = 0.012
l = 11.18 m
A = hc×L = 0.66×18.0 = 11.88 m2
Pw = L + 2 hc = 18.0 + 2×0.66 = 19.32 m
then
The velocity of the flow at the toe of the spillway is defined from Equation (4.25)
where
P = 5.0 m

hc = 0.66 m
h0 = 1.63 m
then
e = g×q = 9.81×1.67 = 16.38
now
then
The water depth at the toe of the spillway is
The subcritical conjugate depth in the stilling basin is defined from Equation (4.27)
The depth of the stilling basin is
ds = h2 - h3 = 1.65 - 1.20 = 0.45 m

The length of the stilling basin is obtained from Equation (4.28)
where
then
4.6.3.4 Shaft spillways

Figure 4-16: Types of the shaft spillways
(A) Discharge over the crest
1. Circular crest
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.29)
where
C1 = discharge coefficient (Table 10)

r = radius of the circular
Table 13: Values of the Discharge Coefficient C1,
h/r 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
C1 1.82 1.78 1.63 1.33 1.12 0.93 0.80 0.70 0.62 0.57
2. Standard crest
Q = 2×C2×r×π ×h1/3, m3/sec ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.30)
Table 14: Values of the Discharge Coefficient C2
h/r 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

C2 1.83 1.825 1.815 1.80 1.785 1.76 1.74 1.72

3. Flat crest
Q = 3.2×r×π ×h3/2, m3/sec -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.31)
3.6.3.5 Siphon spillway
Figure 4-17: Siphon spillway
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.32)
where
A = cross-sectional area of the throat, m
h = head, m
Value of the discharge coefficient is determined by the formula
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.33)
where
λ = friction factor = 0.03 (concrete pipe)

1 = length of the siphon, m
d = diameter of the siphon, m
Σ k = all local loss coefficients
In order to determine the approximate size of the siphon the value of C can be considered as
follows:
Types of siphons Diameter (mm) C

medium 120 - 200 0.4 - 0.6
large 200 - 1 200 0.6 - 0.8
4.7 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR SIPHONS

4.7.1 TYPES OF SIPHONS
Diameter (mm) Length (m) Discharge (m3/sec)
a) Small, mobile 25 - 120 <5 0.00025 - 0.015

Diameter (mm) Length (m) Discharge (m3/sec)

b) Medium, movable 120 - 200 < 10 0.015 - 0.050
c) Large, stabile 200 - 1 200 < 100 0.050 - 3.10
Table 15: Recommended Minimum Velocities in Pipes for Siphons
Pipe diameter (mm) Velocity (m/sec)

120 1.0
200 1.5
250 1.55
300 1.6
400 1.7
450 1.8
500 1.9
600 2.2
800 2.4
1 000 2.6
1 200 2.6
4.7.2 DISCHARGE OF SIPHON

Figure 4-18: Details of the siphon
Calculating formulas
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.34)
where
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe, m2
H = head, m
The discharge coefficient C can be calculated by the formula
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.35)

where
λ = friction factor = 0.02 (steel pipe)

1 = length of the siphon, m
d = diameter of the siphon, m
Σ k = all local loss coefficients along the siphon
The allowable pressure head for siphon
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.36)
where
Altitude in m 0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 3 000

10.3 9.8 9.2 8.6 8.1 7.2
Water temperature °C 10 20 30
0.123 0.24 0.43
The allowable suction head of the siphon is:
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.37)
where
v = velocity in the pipe, m/sec
The maximum allowable downstream head of the siphon is:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.38)

where
Depth of water above the entrance of the siphon
(a) Entrance with vertical axis
v D h
(m/sec) (m) (m)
1.5 0.1 - 0.3 2 D, but min. 0.3
1.5 - 2.5 0.3 - 0.8 1D 0.7
> 2.5 > 1.0 1.7 D 2.0
(b) Entrance with horizontal axis
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.39)
where
ke = entrance loss coefficient
(c) Entrance with inclined axis
-------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.40)
where α = angle of the tilt in degree
Example 7
Design the siphon shown in Figure 17 for a discharge of 350 l/sec if water temperature is 30°C.
Figure 4-19: Details of the siphon

Solution
Considering the designed discharge Q = 0.35 m3/sec the siphon is a large one. The velocity is
calculated by the following formula assuming that its diameter is 400 mm.
As this velocity is higher than the recommended minimum one in Table 14 hence, the selected
diameter is satisfactory.
The next step is to determine the water depth above the entrance of the siphon by using
Equation (4.39)
v = 2.79 m ke = 0.1
then
The discharge coefficient of the siphon is defined from Equation (4.35)
λ = 0.02
l = l1 + l2 + l3 + l4 + l5 + l6 = 1.80 + 14.0 + 8.70 + 13.0 + 5.0 + 1.50 = 44 m
d = 0.40 m
Computation of the local loss coefficient
Diffusor inlet 0.1

Fraction bends (30°) 4×0.09 = 0.36
Fraction bends (90°) 0.34
Valve 0.07
Outlet diffusor 0.5
Σ k = 1.37
Substitution of the above values into the equation gives:

The allowable suction head of the siphon is obtained if we use Equation (4.36)
where
then
The suction head of the siphon is defined from Equation (4.37)
where
then
Hs = 7.35 - 1.03 = 6.32 m

Heffs = 550 - 545 - 5.0 m
The allowable downstream head of the siphon is determined from Equation (3.38)
where

then
HT = 7.35 + 0.88 = 8.23 m

HeffT = 550 - 543 = 7.00 m
The design of the siphon is satisfactory because both Heffs and HeffT are below their allowable
values.
The discharge of the siphon is defined by Equation (4.34)
where
C = 0.47
A = 0.126 m2
H = 545 - 543 = 2.0 m
then
This is acceptable, since the designed Q = 0.35 m3/sec.
4.8 HYDRAULIC JUMP

(December 2, 2003; By: Cathy Hartner, Shelly Davis, Michon Hale)
A hydraulic jump is a sudden rise in water level due to decreasing velocity. In flowing water,
the water before the jump is moving much faster than the water after the jump. When the
velocity of the water decreases to critical flow speed a jump occurs. Above this velocity, the
water is moving too quickly to allow gravity waves to move upstream. At the point where the
water reaches critical flow speed, the gravity waves become unable to move upstream, and
build up at the jump, forming the sudden increase in water level, called a hydraulic jump.
Froude’s Number:
In order for a hydraulic jump to occur, the flow must be supercritical. The jump becomes more
turbulent and more energy is dissipated as Froude’s number increases. A jump can only occur
when the Froude’s number is greater than 1.0. Froude’s number (Fr) is a ratio relating inertia
and gravity forces.
V
Fr1 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.41)
gy1
Where
V=velocity
g=gravitational constant
y=depth of flow in open channel

Types of Hydraulic Jumps:

Froude’s
Name Energy dissipation Characteristics
Number
Undular Jump 1.0-1.7 <5% Standing waves
Weak Jump 1.7-2.5 5-15% Smooth rise
Oscillating Jump 2.5-4.5 15-45% Unstable; avoid
Steady Jump 4.5-9.0 45-70% Best design range
Strong Jump >9.0 70-85% Choppy, intermittent
• In standing waves there is only a slight difference in depths y1 and y2. Near Fr1 = 1.7 a
series of small rollers develops.
• When the Froude’s number is between 1.7 and 2.5, the flow is in the pre-jump condition.
The water surface is quite smooth, the velocity is reasonably uniform, and the energy
loss is low.
• The transition region is when the Froude’s number is between 2.5 and 4.5. An
oscillating action of the jump exists. Each oscillation of the jump produces a large wave
of irregular period that can travel downstream for miles and damage earth banks. It is
recommended to avoid this range of Froude numbers in the design of stilling basins.
• The best range for dissipating energy effectively is with a Froude number from 4.5-9.0.
The jump is well balanced and the action is at its best. Energy losses range from 45%
to 70%.
• Effective, but rough jumps occur at dissipating energy when Froude’s number is greater
than 9.0. Energy losses range from 70% to 85%. Other types of stilling basins may be
more economical.
Reynold’s Number:
When a fluid jet falls vertically at high Reynolds number and strikes a horizontal plate, a circular
hydraulic jump may occur. The fluid is then expelled radially, and the fluid generally thins until
reaching a critical radius at which the depth increases abruptly, causing a hydraulic jump (See
Figure 1). The Reynolds Number (R) is used to determine whether the flow of the fluid is
laminar or turbulent. Flow is turbulent at larger Reynolds numbers and laminar at smaller
Reynolds numbers.
VD DV
R =ρ =
µ v
Where
D=diameter of the pipe V=velocity

ρ =fluid density µ =fluid viscosity
v=Kinematic viscosity of fluid
Figure 4-20: a hydraulic jump formed in a sink

Example 8
Problem:
Analyze the water-surface profile in a long rectangular channel lined with concrete (n=0.013).
The channel is 10 ft wide, the flow rate is 400 cfs, and the channel slope changes abruptly from
0.0150 to 0.0016. Find also the horsepower loss in the resulting jump.
Solution:
2/3
1.486 ⎛ 10y 01 ⎞
400 = (10y 01 )⎜
⎜ 10 + 2y 0
⎟
⎟
(0.015)1/2
0.013 ⎝ 1 ⎠
y01=2.17 ft (normal depth on the upper slope)
Using a similar procedure, the normal depth y02 on the lower slope is
4.81 ft.
1/3
⎡ ⎛ 400 ⎞ 2 ⎤
1/3 ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎛ q2 ⎞ ⎢ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎥
yc = critical flow = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = = 3.68 ft
⎝ g ⎠ ⎢ 32.2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
The flow is supercritical (y01<yc) before the break in slope and subcritical (y02>yc) after the
break, so a hydraulic jump must occur.
The depth conjugate to the 2.17-ft normal depth on the upper slope is:
2.17 ⎧ ⎡ 8(40) 2 ⎤
1/2
⎫⎪
y'1 = ⎨− 1 + ⎢1 + 3⎥ ⎬ = 5.77 ft
2 ⎩ ⎣ 32.2(2.17) ⎦ ⎪⎭
Therefore, a jump on the upper slope must rise to 5.77 ft. When the flow enters the lower
slope, the depth would be greater than y02=4.81 ft. A jump cannot occur because the water
surface cannot come down from 5.77 ft to 4.81 ft. The depth conjugate to the 4.81-ft normal
depth on the lower slope is:
4.81 ⎧ ⎡ 8(40) 2 ⎤
1/2
⎫⎪
y'2 = ⎨− 1 + ⎢1 + 3⎥ ⎬ = 2.74 ft
2 ⎩ ⎣ 32.2(4.81) ⎦ ⎪⎭
This lower conjugate depth of 2.74 ft will occur downstream of the break in slope. The water
surface on the lower slope can rise from 2.16 ft to 2.74 ft and therefore, a jump will occur.
The location of the jump (its distance below the break in slope) is:
E1 − E 2
∆x =
S − S0
E1 = 2.17 +
(40 / 2.17 )
2
= 7.45 ft
2(32.2)
E 2 = 2.74 +
(40 / 2.74)2
= 6.05 ft
2(32.2)
1 ⎛ 40 40 ⎞
V= ⎜ + ⎟ = 16.53 fps
2 ⎝ 2.17 2.74 ⎠
1 ⎛ 21.7 27.4 ⎞
Rh = ⎜ + ⎟ = 1.641 ft
2 ⎝ 14.34 15.47 ⎠

⎟ = ⎢ (0.013)(16.53 ) ⎤ = 0.01081
2
⎛ nV ⎞ ⎡
S = ⎜⎜ 2/3 ⎟ 2/3 ⎥
⎝ 1.486R h ⎠ ⎣1.486(1.641) ⎦
7.452 − 6.054
∆x = = 151.8 ft
0.01081 − 0.00160
ANS: Thus, the depth on the upper slope is 2.17 ft; downstream of the break the depth
increases gradually to 2.74 ft over a distance of approximately 152 ft; then a hydraulic
jump occurs from a depth of 2.74 ft to 4.81 ft; downstream of the jump the depth
remains constant at 4.81 ft.
To find the horsepower loss in the jump:
h Lj =
(4.81 − 2.74)3 = 0.1695 ft
4(4.81)2.74
(γ )Qh L 62.4(400)0.1695
ANS: P loss =
j
= = 7.69 hp
550 550
Momentum:
The momentum principle is an important concept in flow problems where we need to determine
forces. Such forces occur whenever the velocity of a stream of fluid changes in either direction
or magnitude. The momentum principle from Newton’s second law states that the sum of the
external forces F on a body of fluid or system S is equal to the rate of change of linear
momentum mV of that body or system. Since the symbols F and V represent vectors the
change in momentum must be in the same direction as the force.
In steady flow, conditions within the control volume do not change, so d(mV)cv/dt=0 Thus, for
steady flow the vectorial summation of all forces acting on the fluid mass in the control volume
is equal to the net rate of outflow of momentum across the control surface.
∑F= d(mV)outcv - d(mV)incv

dt dt
When supercritical flow has its velocity reduced to subcritical in the hydraulic jump the
momentum principle may be applied. Consider the fixed control volume shown in Fig. 2 the
volume of fluid before and after the hydraulic jump with end forces included can be written as:
∑Fx=P1A1–P2A2=ρQ(V2-V1)
P is equal to γ hc (hc is the depth to the centroid)

A is the area
Ρ is the density of the flow
Q is flow rate or discharge
V is the velocity
So that,
∑Fx= γ hC1A1- γ hC2A2=ρQ(V2-V1)

Figure 4-21: Control volume for hydraulic jump
For rectangular channels, the momentum equation is
y1 and y2 are the flow depths before and after the hydraulic jump
q is the flow rate per unit width
The equation relating the depth ration y2/y1 and the upstream Froude number is given by
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.42)

Energy Loss:
The hydraulic jump is nature’s energy dissipation device. A hydraulic jump occurs whenever
fluid transitions from supercritical to subcritical flow. This phenomena is marked by a great deal
of turbulence and consequently, high-energy losses. Since energy losses are non-trivial, they
must be included in the expression that also relates water depths upstream and downstream of
a hydraulic jump. Therefore, the head losses are found by using the momentum balance
equation. Energy losses across a jump can be computed once the depths are known.
The equation that can be used to find the drop in energy for any channel is:
⎛ q2 ⎞ ⎛ q2 ⎞
HL = ∆E = E1 – E2 = ⎜⎜ y1 + ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ y 2 + ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 gy12 ⎠ ⎝ 2 gy 22 ⎠
Or
⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛
2
V ⎞
2
HL = ∆E = E1 – E2 = ⎜ y1 + ⎟ − ⎜ y2 + 2 ⎟
⎜ 2 g ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 g ⎟⎠
⎝
The equation used for a flat channel bed is:
E1 − E 2 = H 1− H 2 ; Where E is equal to energy
The equation used for a rectangular channel is:
( y 2 − y1 )3
hL = ; Where hL is equal to the head loss
4 y1 y2

Would you like to see a few examples of the different types of hydraulic jumps? The following
pictures show what a hydraulic jump looks like when one occurs at a base of a dam, at the
water surface when Froude’s number is less than one and one that occurs upstream when
Froude’s number is greater than one.
4.9 ENTRANCE LOSS COEFFICIENT

Inlet head loss depends on the geometry of the inlet edge. This loss is expressed as the barrel
velocity head reduced by a factor known as the entrance head loss coefficient, Ke.
Where
HL = Head Loss (ft)
Ke = Head Loss Coefficient
V = Velocity in the barrel (ft/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity
The entrance loss coefficient, Ke, is the head loss term of the energy equation for open-channel
flow. The head loss coefficient is a measure of the efficiency of the inlet to smoothly transition
flow from the upstream channel into the culvert. Although it is typically reported as a constant,
it does vary with flow. Typically, reported Ke values are for near or full flow conditions. Under
fish passage flows, Ke values are often substantially less.
The coefficient can range in value between 0 and 1. Larger head loss coefficients are
associated with increased flow contraction in the inlet zone. Culverts having a width less than
the upstream channel will constrict flow and can create a steep drop in the water surface profile
at the inlet, often resulting in a velocity barrier for fish attempting to exit the culvert.
The entrance loss coefficient is a function of the flow. Coefficients are often supplied by culvert
manufacturers and are for relative depths (headwater depth/culvert rise) of about 1.2, well
above fish passage flows.
Attempts should be made to minimize the head loss at the culvert inlet to improve passage.
Sizing the culvert large enough to avoid constricting the flow will result in a inlet head-loss
coefficient of 0 for fish passage flows. Another means of reducing the head-loss at the inlet is
to build wingwalls to direct the flow smoothly into the culvert.

Bates (1992) suggests that inlet coefficients should not exceed 0.7 for adult salmonid fish
passage, 0.5 for sites with marginal passage conditions, and 0.2 for juvenile salmonid passage.
Table 16: Entrance Loss Coefficients for Pipe or Pipe Arch Culverts
Type of Culvert and Inlet Design Coefficient,
Ke
Concrete Pipe Projecting from Fill (no headwall)
Square cut end 0.5
Socket end 0.2
Concrete Pipe with Headwall and/or Wingwall
Square cut end 0.5
Socket end (grooved end) 0.2
Rounded entrance (radius = 1/12 of diameter) 0.2
Concrete Pipe
Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
End section conformed to fill slope 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7 or 45 degree bevels 0.2
Side slope tapered inlet 0.2
Corrugated Metal Pipe or Pipe Arch
Projecting form fill (no headwall) 0.9
Mitered (beveled to conform to fill slope) 0.7
Headwall or headwall with square edge wingwalls 0.5
End section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Beveled Ring 0.25
Headwall, rounded edge 0.2
Table 17:Entrance Loss Coefficients for Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts

Type of Culvert and Inlet Design Coefficient,
Ke
Headwall Parallel to Embankment (no wingwalls)
Square edged on three edges 0.5
Three edges rounded (radius = 1/12 barrel 0.2
dimension)
Wingwalls at 30 to 75 degrees to Barrel
Square edged at crown 0.4
Top corner rounded to radius of 1/12 barrel 0.2
Wingwalls at 10 to 25 degrees to Barrel
Corrugated Metal Pipe or Pipe Arch
Side or slope tapered inlet 0.2
4.10 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE SHEAR STRESSES

Reynold number:
R* = u * d -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.43)
ν
Shear velocity:
u* = τ ρ = gRS ≅ ghS m/s----------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.44)

Permisible shear stress

u*2
τ* = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.45)
( γ 1 − γ )gd
where,
ρ = density,
ν = kinetic viscosity of the water and strongly varies with the temperature,
R * = Shear Reynolds number
u * = shear velocity
Figure 4-22: specific (dimensionless) shear stress versus the Reynolds number
4.11 SUCTION HEAD REQUIREMENT

4.11.1 PRESSURE PIPE
Pressure pipe must maintain suction head at its entrance to avoid air entering into the pipe
which creates an unnecessary complication for the smooth flow. The minimum suction head
required for the pipe flow is:
V
S = µ *d * --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.46)
g *d
Where,
S - Suction head, m
d - Pipe diameter, m
V - Velocity in the pipe, m/s
µ - Co-efficient whose value is 1.8 for Symmetric and 2.2 for Lateral
g - Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

4.11.2 INTAKE
In order to have votex free intake (for rectangular of square cross-section), the minimum
submergence required is:
S = a * v * d ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.47)
Where,
S = submergence required
V = velocity at intake
a = 0.545 for symmetric flow and 0.725 for asymmetrical flow
The submersion is defined as ht. The following formulas express the minimum values for ht:
KNAUSS:
NAGARKAR:
ROHAN:
GORDON:
Where,
c = 0.7245 for asymmetric approach conditions
c = 0.5434 for symmetric approach conditions
4.12 FLUSHING OUTLETS

Flushing velocity based on particle sizes:
Vc = a d ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.48)
Where
a = 0.55- for particle size d>1mm
a = 0.66-for particle size 1mm>d>0.1mm
a = 0.77-for particle size 0.1mm>d
Velocity in the flushing gallery during the pressurized flow is given by:

V1 = 0.6 2 gh ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.49)
V1>Vc
Velocity V1 from the flushing conduct must always be greater than the velocity Vc
4.13 HEAD LOSS IN PRESSURIZED CONDUCT

4.13.1 MINOR HEAD LOSS
Minor head loss in pressurized conduct is given by the formula below:
V2
he = f e * --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.50)
2g
Where, f e is the frictional coefficient whose values are different for different cases and it is
calculated individually as in the case of open canal. V and g are velocity of flow canal and
acceleration due to gravity.
4.13.2 FRICTION FACTOR

Darcy-Weisbach has introduced a pipe friction loss formula as below:
fLV 2
hf = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.51)
2 gD
where,
hf - friction loss
1.25n 2
f - friction factor, f = 1
= U.S.Army Corps of Engineering
3
D
L - Length of conveyance
V - Velocity of flow
D - Diameter
g - acceleration due to gravity
f is the dimensionless coefficient called friction factor. It is derived considering the shear
stress of the pipe boundary. Process of obtaining the value of friction factor gradually
developed with time. Most of the formula for obtaining friction factor based on the complex
mathematical approach. Finally in 1944 Moody simplified the mathematical procedure by
reproducing the transition law curve on the standard f − R type diagram with reference to the
effective roughness e and diameter of the pipe.
Following are the Darcy-weisbach friction equaitons for various type of flow:

Table 18: Darcy-weisback friciton equations
Table 19: Effective Roughness for various pipe materials
Type of Pipe Effective Roughness, e (mm)

1. Cast iron 0.26
2. Cast iron, bitumen lined 0.03
3. Cast iron, concrete lined 0.03
4. Asphalt cast iron 0.12
5. Uncoated Steel 0.03
6. Coated Steel 0.06
7. Galvanized iron 0.16
8. Riveted steel 0.9 - 9.0
9. Commercial or welded steel 0.045
10. Coated cast iron 0.16
11. Uncoated cast iron 0.3
12. Wet mix spun precise concrete 0.6
13. Glazed stoneware 0.6
14. PVC, Drawn Tubing. Glass 0.0015
Example 9
Problem:
A cast iron pipe connects two reserviors. The line is 1200m long and has diamter of 1 m . if it
were to convey 2.5 m3/s, what would be the fricitonal head for this pipe? For this exercise
consider v = 1.14E-06 m2/s.
Solution:
The mean velocity inside the pipe:
Q
V = = 3.18 m/s
A
Pipe Reynolds number is

VD
Re = = 2.79E+06 ; > 4000, thus use wholly rough friction equation
v
From Table 19,

For cast iron, e = 0.26
e
= 0.26 = 0.00026
D

From Wholly rough equation for ƒ,
ƒ = 0.014481
Using Darcy weisbach equation:

fLV 2
hf = =9m
2 gD
Hazen-Williams C
The Hazen-Williams ”C” may also be entered for the friction factor coefficient. Typical values of
”C” for various materials are as follows:
140 extremely smooth, straight pipes, asbestos cement
130 very smooth pipes, concree, new cast iron
120 wood stave, welded steel
110 vitrified clay, new riveted steel
100 worn cast iron
95 riveted steel after years of use
60-80 old pipes in bad condition
The conversion from Hazen-Williams ”C” to the Darcy Weisbach is given by:
1014.2
f = Re −0.148 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.52)
C D 0.0184
1.852
Where;
C = Hazen-Williams C
D = Pipe diameter
Re = Reynolds number
4.14 PREDICTION OF SEDIMENT-DELIVERY RATE

Estimation of sediment transported load based on Schoklitsch formula:
3
86.7
Gb = 1
S 2 (Qi − bq o ) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.53)
(D ) 2
Where
Gb = total bed load, lb/s
Dg = effective grain diameter, in
S = slope of energy gradient
Qi = total instantaneous discharge, ft3/s
b =width of river, ft
4
qo = critical discharge, ft3/s per width = (0.00532 / S 3 ) D g
4.15 SHEAR STRESS

In unifrom flow, i.e. when bed and water surface are paralled, the bed shear stress (To) is found
by directly combining bed slope S, fluid density ρ and hydrulic radius R as follows:
To = g.ρ.R.S ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.54)
The limiting particle size (d) for uniform motion is given by equation:
d = 11RS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.55)
where;
d = diamter of particle, mm
S = bed slope
4.16 METHOD FOR DETERMINING RUNOFF FOR MINOR HYDRAULIC

STRUCTURES
The most common means for determining runoff for minor hydraulic structures is the rational
formula:
Q = CIA ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4.56)
Where
Q = peak discharge
C = runoff coefficient = percentage of rain that appears as direct runoff
I = rainfall intensity, mm/hr
A = drainage area, km
Table 20: common runoff coefficients

5 DISCHARGE OF WELLS
5.1 WELL TYPES
Figure 5-1: Generalized cross section defining well types
5.2 WELL DISCHARGE IN A CONFINED AQUIFER

Figure 5-2: Radial flow in a confined aquifer
Thiem's method
-------------------------------------------------------------------------(5.1)

where
k = permeability coefficient, m/sec

b = thickness of the aquifer, m
h0 = original piezometric head at the well
hw = piezometric head at the well, m
r0 radius of the influence, m
rw = radius of the well, m
5.3 WELL DISCHARGE IN AN UNCONFINED AQUIFER

Figure 5-3: Radial flow in an unconfined aquifer
Dupuit's method
----------------------------------------------------------------------------(5.2)
5.4 RADIUS OF INFLUENCE

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(5.3)
where
s = drawdown = h0 - hw, m, m
5.5 SCREEN ENTRANCE VELOCITY

To ensure a long service life of the well, movement of the finer fractions of the aquifer material,
resulting in subsequent clogging of the screen openings, has to be minimised. Therefore, the
screen entrance velocities have to be kept below the values recommended in Table below.

Table 21: Permissible Screen Entrance Velocities (Walton, 1962)
Permeability coefficient (m/day) Screen velocity (cm/sec)

> 250 6.1
250 5.6
200 5.1
150 4.3
100 3.5
50 2.0
20 1.5
< 20 1.0
5.6 RECOMMENDED WELL DIAMETER

In order to install the required pumping equipment properly in the well, the diameter of the well
should be determined on the basis of the well discharge as recommended in Table below.
Table 22: Recommended Well Diameter (Smith, 1961)
Pumping rate (m3/hour) Well diameter (m)

30 0.15
60 0.20
120 0.25
300 0.30
450 0.35
600 0.40
Example 1
Determine the discharge of a well with the diameter of 20 cm and the length of the screen of 30
m if k equals 10 m/day, the thickness of the unconfined aquifer is 40 m and the water table is at
the depth of 6 m below the ground level.
In order to determine the well discharge the approximate value of drawdown is chosen as 4.0
m.
From Equation (4.3) we get
where
s = 4.0 m
k = 10 m/day = 1.2×10-4 m/sec
hence

where
h0 = 34 m
hw = 30 m
rw = 0.10 m
Substitution of these values into Equation (4.2) gives
Determination of the entrance velocity of the screen:
The open area of the screen is assumed as 15 per cent of the total surface area of the screen.
Then the screen entrance area is obtained by
As = 0.15×2rw×π ×Ls
where
Ls = 30 m
now
As = 0.15×2×0.10×3.14×30 = 2.82 m2
The effective open area accounting for blockage by grains is estimated to be 50 per cent of the
actual open area i.e. 1.41 m . Hence the entrance velocity for a discharge of 0.015 m/sec is
defined as
Since ve is equal to the optimum screen velocity, the selected screen is adequate.
Diameter of well:
Checking the well discharge per hour
q = 3 600×Q = 3 600×0.014 = 51 m3/sec
As this value is almost equal to the pumping rate of 60 m3/sec, hence, the selected diameter of
20 cm is adequate.

Example 2
Design a well for an indoor hatchery with a peak discharge of 700 1/min in an unconfined
aquifer of 20 m. The fluctuation of the water table level is 4.0 m with a maximum level of 3.0 m
below the ground level. Assume the value of k as 100 m/day.
(i) Selection of well diameter

Q = 700 l/min = 42 m3/hour = 0.012 m3/sec
For this discharge the recommended well diameter is 2rw = 0.15 m from Table 20.
(ii) Screen length

For k = 100 m/day = 1.16×10-3 m/sec the permissible screen entrance velocity is obtained from
Table 15 as ve =3.5 cm/sec = 0.035 m/sec. The screen length is calculated from the formula
below (Garg, 1978).
Q = ve×Asef
where
Asef = effective open area of the screen = 0.5×0.15×As m2
Assuming that the screen's open area of 15 per cent is blocked by 50 per cent due to
obstruction by aquifer grains
then
Substituting the values into the formula gives
(iii) Radius of influence
Assuming s = 1.5 m then

(iv) Discharge of the well

where
k = 1.16×10-3 m/sec
h0 =13 m, considering the minimum water table level
hw =11.5 m
r0 =153 m
rw 0.075 m
Substitution of these values into Equation (5.2) gives
Since the calculated discharge is larger than the required one, the above calculations have to
be repeated with a lowered value of the drawdown.
Assume s = 1,0 m
then
This is equal to the peak water demand of the hatchery, hence the tube well with a diameter of
15 cm and a screen length of 10 m as well as a drawdown of 1.0 m yields the required 700
1/min for the hatchery.

6 DESIGN FORMULA FOR SCREEN

6.1 TRASH RACK LOSS
Kirschner's formula
V2
ht = ft * --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(6.1)
2g
4
⎛ t ⎞3
ft = β * sin θ * ⎜ ⎟ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------(6.2)
⎝b⎠
where
ht = Trashrack loss
V1 = Mean velocity before trashrack
β = Bar shape co-efficient
θ = Trashrack inclination
t = Width of bar
b = Clear span between bars
ft = Head loss co-efficient
Figure 6.1-1: Head loss in screens, values of screen loss coefficient β for various bar shapes
Table 23:Additional trash rack losses for non prependicular approach flows

Example 1
Design a Screen chamber for a pumping station with the following data
Q = 0.50 m3/sec
β = 70°
h = 0.80 m
v = 0.70 m/sec
t = φ 10 mm
b = 2 cm
Procedure:
(i) Head loss of screen
Head loss of screens is obtained from Equation (6.3) with
Ks = 1.79
t = 0.01 m
b = 0.02 m
v = 0.70 m/sec
sin β = sin 70° = 0.9397
Substituting these values into Equation (6.3) gives
(ii) Width of the pumping chamber
The width of the pumping chamber is calculated first without any screens as below
the number of spacing
now
t + b = 0.01 + 0.02 = 0.03 m
Hence, the total width of the screen chamber is obtained as
wef = ns×(t +b) = 45×0.03 = 1.35 m

6.2 TRASH RACK AREA

According to experience the velocity at the entrance of the rack should be between 0.25 m/s to
1.0 m/s. The required trash rack area is estimated by the formula:
where
Q = design flow in m3/s
V0 = Mean velocity before trashrack in m/s
β = Bar shape co-efficient
α = Trashrack inclination in degree
t = Width of bar in mm
b = Clear span between bars in mm
Kt = Head loss co-efficient
S = Trash rack area in m2
At the entrance of the intake, a trash rack inclined 60° with the horizontal and is made of
stainless steel flat bars ( b = 12 mm thick) having a width (t) between bars 70 mm, the deisgn
discharge of 3 m3/s, coefficient Kt of 0.8 and mean velocity of 1m/s at the entrace, the
calculated area of trash rack using above equation if found to be 5.07 m2.
Similalry, the headloss in trash rack as computed from the Kirschner equation is as follows

7 DESIGN FORMULA FOR FILTER

Figure 7-1: Flow through filter
Darcy's Formula (Morris, 1963)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(7.1)
where
Q = discharge of the filter, m3/sec

k = permeability coefficient, m/sec
h = head, m
L = thickness of the filter media, m
A = surface of the filter, m2
Table 24: Permeability Coefficient k
Soil type Average grain size (mm) Range of k (m/sec)

Medium gravel 4-7 (2.5 - 4.0)×10-2
Fine gravel 2-4 (1.0 - 2.5)×10-2
Coarse sand 0.5 - 2 10-4 - 10-2
Medium sand 0.3 - 0.5 5.0×10-5 - 10-4
Fine sand 0.1 - 0.3 (1.0 - 5.0)×10-5
Example 1
Design a filter box of a feeder channel against trash fish for a discharge of 200 l/sec. The
thickness of the filter gravel with average grain size of 7 mm is 35 cm and the head is 30 cm.
Solution
Assuming that the length of the filter box is l = 3.0 m
From Equation (6.1)

where
A = l×w = 3.0m
L = 0.35 m
Q = 0.2 m3/sec
From Table 17 for average grain size of 7 mm we obtain k = 4.0×10-2
h = 0.30 m
then
so
Therefore, the required width of the filter box with the selected length of 3.0 m shall be 2.0 m.

8 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR FLOW IN PIPES

8.1 CONVEYANCE METHOD
Calculating Formulas
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.1)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.2)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.3)
where
Q = design discharge of the pipe, l/sec

S = H/L = slope of the energy line, m
H = head, m
L = length of the pipe, m
V = velocity in the pipe, m/sec
M = velocity modulus, m/sec
K = conveyance factor of the pipe, l/sec
Table 25: Velocity Moduli and Conveyance Factors of the Pipes

8.2 MINOR LOSSES

Minor losses along the pipe may be expressed in the equivalent length of pipe that has the
same head loss for the same discharge. The chart in Fig. 23 shows a convenient method of
estimating these losses
Example 1
Determine the discharge of a 200 mm diameter galvanized pipe if the length of the pipe is 1 000
m and the head loss is 5.0 m.
Solution
The above given conditions imply that:
L = 1 000 m
D = 200 mm
H = 5.0 m
Figure 8-1: Minor losses of valves and fittings to flow of water (Coronel, 1978)

From Equation (8.1)
from which
FromTable 25, K for the galvanized pipe of 200 mm in diameter is 476.9 l/sec.
Example 2
Determine the required head loss for a discharge of 50 l/sec in the pipe described in Example
1.
Solution
Using Equation (7.2) modified below
where
L = 1.0 km
From Table 18
Then
H = 502×1.0×0.0044 = 11.0 m
8.3 HEAD LOSSSES DUE TO FRICTION AND STRUCTURAL TRANSITION

In the hydraulic design of pipelines the energy loss through friction along the pipe is dominant
for pipes of 50 m or longer. For shorter pipe lengths the aggregate of local energy losses at
elbows, valves, inlet devices etc., may be equal or more than the frictional losses along the
pipe. Local losses in piping fixtures were found to be proportional to the amount of kinetic
energy entering the fixture. The configuration of the fixture determines the constant of
proportionality. Accordingly, local loss in a pipe fixture is computed by:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.4)
in which k is the so-called local loss coefficient and v is the velocity in the pipe before the
fixture, unless otherwise specified.
Table 26: lists local loss coefficients for a variety of fixtures.


8.4 LOSS OF HEAD THROUGH VALVES

Symbol Description k

8.5 ENTRANCE LOSS

V2
he = f e * -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.5)
2g
Where,
he — head loss
fe — entrance loss coefficient
2
V — entrance velocity
8.6 BEND LOSS
V2
hb = K bend * -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.6)
2g
where
hb = bend loss
v = velocity
r = bend radius
d = bottom width or diameter of conveyance system
r/d 1 2 3 5
K bend θ = 20
o
0.36 0.25 0.20 0.15
K bend θ = 45o 0.45 0.38 0.30 0.23
K bend θ = 90o 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30

8.7 SUDDEN CONTRACTION LOSS

2 2
V − V1
hc = K c * 2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.7)
2g
where
hc = contraction loss
kc = contraction coefficient
V1 = velocity before contraction
V2 = velocity after contraction
d1 and d 2 = width before and after contraction
d1/d2 1 1.5 2.0 2.5 5.0

K contraction 0 0.25 0.35 0.40 0.50
8.8 SUDDEN EXPANSION LOSS
2 2
V1 − V2
hse = f s -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.8)
2g
Where,
V1 - Velocity before expansion

V2 - Velocity after expansion
fs - sudden expansion coefficient = 1
8.9 GRADUAL EXPANSION LOSS
( V1 − V2 ) 2
hge = f ge -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.9)
2g
Where,
f gc - Gradual Expansion loss coefficient

V1 - Velocity before expansion
V2 - Velocity after expansion

8.10 GRADUAL CONTRACTION LOSS

2
V2
hgc = f gc ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.10)
2g
f gc - gradual contraction loss coefficient

8.10.1 EXIT LOSS
2
V2
hex = f exit -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.11)
2g
hex - exit loss

f exit - exit loss coefficient
V2 - exit velocity
8.10.2 FRICTIONAL LOSS IN LENGTH

a) The friction loss h f ( ) in length is calculated by the equation:
2 2
n *V * L
hf = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.12)
R4/3
where,
hf = friction loss
V = velocity in m/s.
R = hydraulic radius in m,
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient, and
L = length of canal in m.
b) Friction loss in length in Turbulent flow using Darcy-Weisbach for pipe friction loss:
λLV 2
hf = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8.13)
2 gD
where,
hf - friction loss
λ - friction factor, dimensionless coefficient
L - Length of conveyance
V - Velocity of flow
D - Diameter
Total head losses:
H L = h f + ht
where,
H L = the total head loss or energy loss;

hf
= the loss due to frictional resistance, and
ht = the loss due to transitions or changes in direction, also called local losses.

Table 27: Recommended Velocities in Pipes for Water Supply
Pipe diameter (mm) Velocity (m/sec) Pipe diameter (mm) Velocity (m/sec)
25-50 0.60 400 1.25
60 0.70 500 1.40
100 0.75 600 1.60
150 0.80 800 1.90
200 0.90 900 1.95
250 1.00 1 000 2.00
300 1.10 1 200 2.20

9 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR PUMPING

9.1 TYPES OF PUMPS USED IN AQUACULTURE
1. Propeller pumps
2. Centrifugal pumps
3. Turbine pumps
9.2 TOTAL DYNAMIC HEADS

Figure 9-1: Details of a pump station
Calculating formulas (Hicks, 1957)
HT = HST + HDT = total dynamic head, m ------------------------------------------------------------------------------(9.1)
where
HST = He + HSS +HSV + HSf = tota1 suction head, m
HDT = HDS + HDV + HDf = total discharge head, m
ke = local loss coefficient of the mouthpiece (Table 23)
vs = suction velocity in the suction pipe, m/sec
HSS = suction static head is the vertical distance in metre between the downstream water
surface and the centreline of the pump. It may be either positive or negative, depending upon
the location of the pump centreline with respect to the water surfacesuction velocity head is the
equivalent head through which the water would have to fall to acquire the velocity it has in the
suction.

λ = 0.02 = friction factor (steel pipe)
ls = length of the straight suction pipe, m
Ds = inside diameter of the suction pipe, m
Σ ks = local losses of the suction pipe, m
Q = discharge of the pump, m3/sec
A = pipe cross-sectional area, m2
HDS = discharge static head is the vertical distance in metre between the centerline of the pump
and the point of discharge
vd = velocity of flow in the discharge, m/sec

vs = velocity of flow in the suction, m/sec
If the suction and discharge openings are of equal diameter, the discharge velocity head will be
zero.
Where
ld= length of the straight discharge pipe, m

Dd = inside diameter of the discharge pipe, m
Σ kd = local losses of the discharge pipe, m
9.3 SPECIFIC SPEED
where
n = impeller speed, rpm

Q = discharge, m3/sec
H = head, m

Specific speed n is a widely used criterion for pump selection. It is the impeller speed
corresponding discharge of 1.0 m3/sec at 1.0 m of head for the most efficient design. The
recommended design range of ns is shown in Table below.
Table 28: Recommended Design Range of ns
Type of pump ns
Centrifugal pumps radial flow with
narrow impeller 10 - 30
medium impeller 30 - 45
wide impeller 45 - 80
Centrifugal pumps mixed flow 80 -150
Propeller pumps 135 -320
9.4 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(9.2)
where
To prevent cavitation, the pump should be placed such that the total suction head HST is less
than the head available, based on the local atmospheric pressure minus the vapour pressure of
the water.
9.5 POWER REQUIREMENT

Power required by a pump motor is commonly expressed in terms of brake horsepower and
may be computed as follows:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(9.3)
where
γ = 1 000 kg = unit weight of water in m

Q = discharge of the pump, m3/sec
HT = total dynamic head, m
η p = efficiency of the pump
η m = efficiency of the motor
Efficiency of a pump varies with Q and H. The value is included in the manufacturer's
characteristic curves of the pumps available in pump catalogues, an example of which is shown
in Figure 25.

Figure 9-2: characteristic curves for pump AGROFIL 500-D
The electric motor's power requirement must be expressed in kilowatts
1 horsepower = 0.7457 kW
Therefore, if Equation (9.3) is expressed in kilowatt we obtain:
(8.5)
Efficiency of the motor depends upon the type of the driven motors as follows:
Types of the driven motors ηm

Direct-coupled electric motor 0.90 - 0.95
Diesel engine 0.65 - 0.80
9.6 DETERMINATION OF THE MOST ECONOMICAL PIPE DIAMETER

To ensure the minimum operation cost and the amortization of a pump station having a longer
pipeline, its most economical pipe diameter can be defined by the following function as
Agroszkin (1952) recommended.
Where,

γ = 1 000 kg = unit weight of water in m

Q = discharge of Q the pump, m3/sec
T = yearly pumping hours
Rc = unit cost of a horsepower-hour
η = η p×η m = total efficiency
pa = percentage of the amortization
Cp = unit cost of one metre diameter pipe per metre
The values of function FD are shown in Table below.
Table 29: Values of Function FD
Diameter Types of pipes

(inches) (mm) Plastic, G.I. new cast iron Concrete
2 50 0.000002 0.000001
3 75 0.00002 0.000013
4 100 0.00012 0.000082
5 125 0.00049 0.00033
6 150 0.0015 0.00105
7 175 0.0040 0.0028
8 200 0.009 0.013
9 225 0.019 0.01364
10 250 0.036 0.026
12 300 0.114 0.081
14 350 0.296 0.213
16 400 0.679 0.490
18 450 1.409 1.022
20 500 2.71 1.97
24 600 8.4 6.2
28 700 21.9 16.1
30 750 33.5 24.8
32 800 50.0 37.0
36 900 103.6 76.9
40 1 000 199.1 148.3
Example 1
A pump with the designed arrangement as shown in Figure 24 delivers 175 l/sec. Determine
the total dynamic head and the required brake horsepower.
Solution:
The total dynamic head is obtained by Equation (9.1)
HT = HST + HDT

where
HST = He + HSS + HSV + HSf,
and
HDT = HDS + HDV + HDf
The first step is to determine the various heads which are computed as follows:
From Table 23 for strainer bucket without foot valve
ke = 5.5
From Figure 30
D = 300 mm
then
hence
HSS = 4.0m
ls = 2.5 + 4.0 = 6.5 m

λ = 0.02
D = 0.30 m
kb = 0.17 (45° bend. Table 23)

Substituting these values in Equation HSf we get
The total suction head is, therefore
HST = 1.68 + 4.00 + 0.305 + 0.184 = 6.169 m
From Figure 30
HDS = 3.0 m
As the discharge and suction pipes have the same diameter, hence
HDV = 0
lD= 3.0 + 28.0 + 1.0 = 32.0 m
From Table 23 for gate valve with e/D = 1/3
kv = 0.07
for two 90° bends with R/d = 1
kb = 2×0.53 = 1.06
then
The total discharge head is, hence
HDT = 3.0 + 0 + 0.995 = 3.995 m
Then the total dynamic head is
HT = 6.169 + 3.995 = 10.164 m say 10.20 m
The brake HP is determined by the use of Equation (9.3)
where
γ = 1 000 kg
Q = 0.175 m3/sec
HT = 10.20 m
Assuming
η p =0.75 and η m =0.90
then
Example 2
Determine the most economical pipe diameter for the pump station described in Example 1 with
the following data
T= 20.365 = 7 300 hours a year
Rc = US$ 0.07
pa = 10%
Cp = US$ 175
Using Equation with the above data we obtain
From Table 27, the corresponding diameter is defined as
D = 500 mm

10 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR POWERPLANTS

10.1 SETTLING BASIN
A settling basin is placed after the gravel trap (where there is bed load in the river) or after the
intake incase of river with sand and silt. Usually, settling basin is desinged to trap the particle
size below 0.2mm diameter. Settling basin desinged to trap 0.2mm particle with 90% trapping
efficieny for 2.5 MW Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Project is shown in Figure 32.
Figure 10-1: Settling basin of Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Project – 2.5 MW
10.1.1 PARTICLE APPROACH:

D*v
w= --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.1)
L
Where,
w = Fall velocity
D = Depth of the desanding basin
L = Length of the desanding basin
v = Horizontal transit velocity
10.1.2 CONCENTRATION APPROACH

Vetter equation:
⎛ w. As ⎞
−⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
η = 1− e ⎝ Q ⎠
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.2)
Where,
η = Trap efficiency
As = Net surface area
Q = Discharge
w = Fall velocity

Trap efficiency for this method is determined using Camp’s diagram given below.
Figure 10-2: Camp’s Diagram
*
CAMP formula for the settling velocity in a sand trap (Alternate of this graph) is:
ω = ω0 - 0.04 Vmc
where,
ω = Settling velocity of sand in flowing water (m/s)

Vmc = 0.44 * (dsc)0.5 Critical mean flow velocity (m/s)
dsc = Design grain size (mm)
ω0 = Settling velocity of sand in quiescent water (m/s) = dsc *g/η *(ρs-ρ)/18

ρs = Specific mass of the particle
ρ = Specific mass of the fluid
η = dynamic viscosity of fluid

Figure 10-3: fall velocity graph
Vmc
m/s
ω0
Figure 10-4: Longitudinal section through an ideal settling basin

Table 30: Fall velocity of a particle is determined using the table below
Partical Size(mm) Fall Velocity(cm/s) Velocity for quartz particles

o
Oc 15oc 40oc
0.05 0.13 0.2 0.3 0.2
0.10 0.5 0.7 1.2 0.7
0.15 1 1.5 2 1.7
0.20 1.7 2.1 3 2.3
0.25 2.1 3 4 3
0.30 3 4 5 3.8
0.40 4.2 5.3 6.5 5
0.60 7 9 11
0.80 10 12 14
1 13 15 17
2 26 27.5 30
4 42 43 44
7 60 60 60
10 72.5 72.5 72.5
Figure 10-5: Chart gives settling velocities of spherical particles with specific gravities S, at
10°C
Trap efficiency of the basin is calculated using Camp’s diagram with respect to the following
two parameters:
w w * As
*
and
u Q
where,
u* - Shear Velocity
Q- Design discharge
Shear Velocity is calculated by using Manning’s’ formula for energy gradient Se and Hydraulic
Radius Re
u* = g * Re * S e ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.3)
Shield’s diagram is used for the calculation of re-suspension of deposited silts due to
turbulence in the conveyance system.
Figure 10-6: Shiled’s Diagram
u *d
Re =
υ
Design concept:
1. The travelling time of a particle through the basin is
tx = L/v
2. The settling time of the same particle is
ty = H/w
Where,
w is the fall velocity of the particle
3. If the particle is to reach the bottom of the basin at point C, the two times tx and ty must
be equal:
L/v = H/w

4. The basin should be not more than 8 times longer than wide. Considering this, the
above formulas and the equation of continuity, we receive the following equation:
8Q
L= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.4)
w
47The fall velocity w can be obtained from Shield’sgraph, below
Figure 10-7: Fall velocity of quartz spheres in still water
5. According to Vischer and Huber, 1982, the critical water velocity can be estimated
using the following formula:
v = 0.44 d ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.5)
Where, d is in mm and the critical velocity is 0.2 m/s for 0.2mm size settling particle.
6. Velikanov proposed a number of correction factors as follows:

Qλ2 v(H 2 − 0.2 )
2
L= --------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.6)
Bw 2 7.51H

Where,
L = length of the sediment trap in m
B = width of the sediment trap in m (estimated from 4.)
Q = design flow in m3/s
w = fall velocity of sediment particle in m/s (Shield)
λ = 1.55 (coefficient that accounts for the amount of settled particles to those
transported)
v = average velocity through desilting basin in m/s (see 5.)
H = depth of basin in m (without storage depth)
7. The effective depth H becomes (using the equation of continuity):
Q
H=
VB
Alternative
The equation above is used to size pretreatment settling basin surface area. It was derived by
the Washington State Department of Ecology from the Camp-Hazen Equation.
As = -(Qo/w) ( Ln(1-E) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.7)
where:
As = Sedimentation basin surface area (ft2)
E = Trap efficiency; which is the target removal efficiency of suspended solids (set equal
to 90%)
w = Particle settling velocity; for target particle size (silt) use settling velocity = 0.0004
ft/sec (0.0033 ft/sec for I > 75%, where I is percentage impervious area)
Qo = rate of outflow from the basin; which is equal to the water quality volume (WQv)
divided by the detention time (td); use 24 hours.
The equations simplify to:

As = 0.066 ( (WQV) ft2 for I < 75%
As = 0.0081 (WQV) ft2 for I >= 75%
The length to width ratio of the sedimentation basin should be 2:1 or greater. Inlet and outlet
structures should be located at extreme ends of the basin. Baffles may be used to mitigate
short-circuiting and/or dead storage problems. The basin bottom shall have a minimum depth of
3 feet to minimize resuspension and turbulence. The basin bottom shall be nearly level to
facilitate sedimentation.
Example
The 2.5 MW, Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Project two chambered (gravity hydraulic flushing)
settling basin is designed adopting following design parameters:
Designed discharge = 2.7 m3/s
Gross head = 120 m
Settling basin type = conventional type i.e. gravity flushing (intermittent)
Number of chamber = 2
Design discharge, Q = 2.7 m3/s
Minimum particle size = 0.2 mm
Trapping efficiency = 90%
Longitudinal slope = 1 in 100 (V:H)

Calculations
a) Camp method:
Adopted manning’s n = 0.025
Initial assume deptd, d = 3m
Longitudinal slope, S = 1 in 50
From Equation 10.5, the critical water velocity is;
v = 0.44 d = 0.2 m
Using Equation 10.3 and manning’s formula, shear velocity is given by;
n*v* g 0.025 * 0.2 * 9.81
u* = 1
= 1
= 0.013m / s
R 6
3 6
From Figure 10-3, the fall velocity (w) of 0.2 mm particle is 0.022 m/s.
Using Figure 33,

w.As/Q = 0.90 for w/u* = 1.69 and η = 90%,
Therefore, As =Q/w = 0.90*2.7/0.022 = 120.2 m2 (60 m2 @ two chamber)
Using Equation 10.4, the effective length of settling basin is;
8q 8 * 2 .7
L= = = 22.2 m (10 to 20% shall be added extra to incorporate turbulance at
w 2 * 0.022
the inlet of the basin)
Therefore, correction of basin length for turbulence = 30* 22.2 = 6.65 m
Total effective length of the basin, L = 22.2 +6.65 = 28.8 m for each basin
Width of each basin, B =As/L =60/28.8 = 2.09 m
Using Equation 10.1, the depth of each basin is;
L * w 28.8 * 0.022
D= = = 3.17 m
v 0.2
Ratio check
L/B = 13.8
H/B = 1.5
b) Vetters method
From Equation 10.7, the surface area of the basin is:
As = -(Qo/w)* Ln(1-E) = -(2.7/0.02)*(LN(1-0.9) = 310.8 m2 (155.4 m2 @ two units)
Adopted width (B) of each basin, 4.5 m
Length (L) of each basin = As/B = 155.4/4.5 = 34.5 m
Correction of basin length for turbulence = 30* 34.5 = 10.4 m
Adopted effective length of the basin, L = 34.5 + 10.4 = 44.9 m for each basin
Using Equation 10.1, the depth of each basin is;
L * w 31.33 * 0.022
D= = = 4.94m
v 0.2

Ratio check
L/B = 9.98
H/B = 1.1
The design parameters obtained from the Vetters method being conservative, thus adopted in
the design.
10.2 FOREBAY/HEADPOND
A Forebay/head-pond is always loacated after the settling basin however in some case head-
pond can also be incorpated as Forebay. Bascially, the volume of forebay/head-pond should be
suffcient to provide 3 minutes of storage. Depth of forebay/head-pond shall be suffcient for the
genereted down-surge to prevent from vorted free water into the waterways after forebay.
However, there shall be provision of spillway to spill excess flow generated by upsurge due to
load rejection. The size of spillway should be suffcient to spill 2 times the design discharge.
In case of sudden closure, the maximum height of the surge is given by the expression known
as:
E. Feifel’s equation:
2
V2 ⎛V 2 ⎞ V2
∆hmax = + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 2 × h ----------------------------------------------------------------------(10.8)
2g ⎝ 2g ⎠ 2g
For the gradual and complete closure

V2 h
∆hmax = +V ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.9)
4g g
where
V = water velocity (mean velocity of flow)
h = water depth – effective depth
∆hmax = height of the surge
10.3 STEEL PENSTOCK

The fundamental condition of identical discharge:
n nos. Of penstock for identical flow
Descriptions One penstock
For identical flow velocities For idnetical head loss
Discharge Q Q Q
D D
Diameter D 2
n n 5
D
Velocity v v 1
v5
1
Headloss h h
hn 2
t t
Wall thickness t 2
n n 5
1
Total weight G G
Gn 5
10.4 ECONOMIC DIAMETER

10.4.1 STEEL PENSTOCK PIPE
1. D = EP x P 0.43 x H -0.57 --------------------------------------------------------------(10.10)

2. D = 0.52*H-0.17 x (P/H)0.43 --------------------------------------------------------------(10.11)
3. D = 0.82 x Q0.5 --------------------------------------------------------------(10.12)
4. D = 2.69*(n2Q2*L/H)0.1875 --------------------------------------------------------------(10.13)
5. D = 3.55*[Q2/(2gH)]0.25 --------------------------------------------------------------(10.14)
Where,
Ep = 0.49
D = diameter in meter, m
P = turbine rated capacity, kW
H = turbine rated head, m
Q = flow, m3/s
L = length of penstock, m
n = friction factor
Permisbile verlocity inside the penstock pipe

According to USBR-1961 by P J Bier as follows:
V = 0.125 2 gH ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.15)
Where,
V = permisble velocity, m/s
H = rated head, m
10.4.2 FOR STEEL-LINED CONDUITS (FAHLBUSCH (1987))
⎛ Q 0.45 ⎞
D = 1.12⎜⎜ 0.12 ⎟ ± 20% deviation -----------------------------------------------------------(10.16)
⎟
⎝ Hn ⎠
D = Q0.40 for 30 to 80 m head ------------------------------------------------------------------(10.17)
Where,
D = diameter of pipe
Q = flow, m3/s
Hn = meters
10.4.3 FOR A CONCRETE-LINED CONDUIT

D = 0.62 Q 0.48 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.18)
Where,
D = diameter of pipe
Q = flow, m3/s
10.5 SHELL THICKNESS OF PENSTOCK PIPE

Hoop stress is give by the relation:
PD
Pt =
2t

Pipe shell thickness is given by the relation:
PR
t= +ε
fη ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.19)
Where,
t = Thickness of pipe shell in cm
Pt = allowable tensile stress, N/mm2
P = Internal pressure in kg/cm2
D = internal diameter
R = Internal radius of pipe in cm
f = Allowable stress in kg/cm2
η = Welding joint efficiency 0.9 – 1.0
ε = Corrosion allowance 0.2 cm
Minimum plate thickness of pipe shell (USBR 1958):

D + 800
t=
400 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.20)
Where,
t = Minimum thickness of pipe shell in mm
D = Internal diameter of pipe in mm
Minimum plate thickness of pipe shell

ASME recommends a minimum thickness in mm equivalent to 2.5 x D + 1.2 mm
Bureau of Reclamation:
tmin = (D+20)/400 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.21)
Where,
tmin = minimum thickness in mm and
D = pipe diameter in mm
IS Code (IS:11639:1995, Part –2):

R + 0.25
t min = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.22)
200
Where,
tmin = minimum thickness in m and
R = pipe radius in m
Minimum Thickness for shipping and Handling: The minimum thickness of the penstock shell
for shipping and handling can be calculated by using following relations:
tmin = D/288 (Pacific Electric's & Gas formula)

tmin = (D+20)/400 (Bureau of Reclamation Formula)
Where,
tmin = minimum thickness in mm and
D = pipe diameter in mm

Mosony’s recommendations:
• 6 mm for small diameter liners
• 10 mm for large diameter liners
10.5.1 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PENSTOCK:

Non-embedded Penstocks
According to the ASME Code, a penstock may be designed under the following conditions:
(i) Normal conditions – maximum static head plus pressure rise due to normal operation
Allowable stress = ultimate tensile strength /3 (3)
< 2/3 (0.5) Minimum yield stress
(ii) Intermittent condition – conditions during filling & draining the penstock
Allowable stress = Ultimate tensile strength / 2.25 (2.5)
< 0.8 (2/3) Minimum yield stress
(iii) Emergency condition – gate closure etc
Allowable stress = Ultimate tensile strength / 1.5 (2)
< (0.8) Minimum yield stress
(iv) Exceptional condition – Condition includes malfunctioning of control equipment in the most
adverse manner and shall not be used as the basis of design.
Embedded Penstocks
According to the IS 11639 (PartII) 1986, a penstock may be designed under the following
conditions.
(i) Normal conditions – maximum static head plus pressure rise due to normal operation
Allowable stress = ultimate tensile strength /3
< 0.6 Minimum yield stress
(ii) Intermittent condition – conditions during filling & draining the penstock
Allowable stress = 0.4 Ultimate tensile strength
< 2/3 Minimum yield stress
(iii) Emergency condition – gate closure etc
Allowable stress = 2/3 Ultimate tensile strength
> 0.9 Minimum yield stress
(iv) Exceptional condition
Allowable stress < Minimum yield stress
10.6 AIR VENTS AND AIR VALVES

Air Vents and Air Valves are provided on the immediate
downstream side of the control gate or valve to facilitate
connection with atmosphere. Air inlets serve the purpose of
admitting air into the pipes when the control gate or valve is
closed and the penstock is drained, thus avoiding collapse
of the pipe due to vacuum excessive negative pressure.
Similarly, when the penstock is being filled up, these vents
allow proper escape of air from the pipes.

The factor governing the size of the vents are length, diameter, thickness, and head of water, and
discharge in the penstock and strength of the penstock under external pressure.
The size of the air vent may be determined by the following equation:
3/ 2
Q S ⎛d ⎞
F= ⎜ ⎟ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.23)
750000C ⎝ t ⎠
Where,
F = area of the air inlet, m2
Q = flow of air through inlet, m3/s
S = factor of safety against collapse of pipe, 3 to 4
C = co-efficient of discharge through air vent (0.5 for ordinary type of intake valves
and 0.7 for short air inlet pipes)
d = diameter of pipe, mm
t = thickness of pipe, mm
A certain area of the penstock can remain under the Energy Gradient Line and collapse by sub-
atmospheric pressure. The collapsing depression will be given by:
3
⎛e⎞
Pc = 8825900⎜ ⎟ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.24)
⎝D⎠
where
e = the wall thickness, mm
D = diameter of the pipe, mm
This negative pressure can be avoided by installing an aeration pipe with a diameter in cm
given by:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.25)
Provided Pc ≤ 0.49 kgN/mm2; otherwise d = 8.94√Q
Some empirical relationships for size of air vent pipe air:

1. U.S.B.R. design guide
Capacity of air vent = 25% of conduit discharge
2. G.S. Sarkaria’s Formula

0.273
⎛ P 2 .L ⎞
d = 0.00573⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ----------------------------------------------------------------------(10.26)
⎝ H ⎠
Where,
d = diameter of air vent pipe, m
L = Length of air vent pipe, m
P = Rated output (H.P.)
H = Rated head of turbine, m
3. Euger & Seelay’s formula

Q = 400*c*A*√P --------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.27)
Where,
Q = flow of air through inlet, m3/s
A = area of the air inlet, m2
P = differential pressure between the atmosphere and in the penstock, kg/cm2

4. Fourth congress on large dam guide

Area of air vent = 10% of control gate area ---------------------------------------------(10.28)
Purposes:
(i) To admit air when gate is closed and the water in the conduit recedes down.
(ii) To exhaust air when the penstock is being filled through bye pass lines to balance the
water pressure on two sides of the gate prior to its being lifted up.
(iii) To control sub-pressures downstream of gate at partial opening.
10.7 SURGE TANK

A surge tank is placed after the tunnel or before the penstock or shaft. The purpose of the
surge shaft is to provide sufficient volume for the generated up-surge and down-surge during
operation. Depending upon site topography, a spillway can also be incorporated to spill excess
during up-surge generated by load rejection.
The requirement for a surge chamber is that the Penstock Time Constant (Tw) should be
smaller than one second. The Penstock Time Constant is calculated as:
Q l
Tw = x∑ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.29)
gxH a
Where
Q = discharge
g = acceleration due to gravity
H = net head
l = length of conduit
a = area of conduit
The size of the surge tank has been determined to satisfy the following conditions:
• Cross sectional area of the surge tank shall not be less than the Thoma cross section
area but shall also be practicle diameter to facilitate construction.
• Adequate freeboard should be provided above (min 2.0 m) and below (min 4.0 m) the
maximum upsurge and minimum down surge.
Design Concept
Undamped oscillation:
1. Instantaneous total closure/opening from the maximum discharge:
l. f
Ymax = vo (m) -----------------------------------------------------------------------(10.30)
g.F
Where
vo = velocity inside the conduit
l = length of conduit
ƒ = area of conduit
F = area of surge shaft
g = acceleration due to gravity
2. Oscillations ensuring upon instantaneous partial opeining:

l. f
Y = (vo − v1 ) (m) ----------------------------------------------------------------------(10.31)
g.F

Where
v1 = Q1/ƒ
3. The time of total cycle, i.e. the period of the mass oscillation:
l. f
T = 2π (sec) -----------------------------------------------------------------------(10.32)
g.F
According to the Thoma Formula suggested in case of small oscillations, the limit cross-
sectional area of the surge tank is
l. f
At hom a = n (m2) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.33)
2.g.β .H o
Where
n = factor of safety, 1.5 to 2.0,
vo = velocity inside the tunnel
β = the resistance factor of the tunnel, sec2/m
l = length of tunnl, m
ƒ = tunnel area, m2
Ho = H – βvo2 = net head, m
Damped oscillation:
The Mises equation for obtaining surge value as:
mY – ln (mY + 1) = A ------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.34)
where, A is intial constant.
g.F
A = 2.β 2 .vo
2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.35)
l. f
Where
vo = velocity inside the tunnel
β = the resistance factor of the tunnel, sec2/m
l = length of tunnl, m
ƒ = tunnel area, m2
F = surge shaft area, m2
The damping factor:

2.g.F
m= β --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.36)
l. f
The resitance factor of the tunnel neglecting other minor looses is obtained from Manning-
Stricler formula:
l
β= 4
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.37)
2
k .R 3
Where, k is coefficient of roughness and for concrete lined tunnels Ch. Jaeger proposed the
following “k” values:
For opeining k = 70 to 75
For cloure k = 85 to 95
Mean value k 80 to 82
The surge limit defined by Pattantysis:

l. f
Ymax = (m) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.38)
2.g.β .F
10.8 WATER HAMMER

According to the classical Joukowski equation, the water hammer pressure rise ∆h is directly
proportion to the wave speed a.
a.∆v
∆h = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.39)
g
Where
∆h = water hammer pressure rise
a = wave speed
∆v = change in flow velocity
g = gravitational acceleration
The value of the wave speed, a, is influenced by many factors, some of which cannot be
accurately estimated in a typical pipeline. For an elastic pipe, the wave speed is expressed as
K/ρ
a= -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.40)
⎛ KDC1 ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ e.E ⎠
where
a = wave speed
K = bulk modulus of the fluid medium
ρ = fluid density
D = pipe diameter
E = modulus of elasticity of the pipe material
e = pipe wall thickness
Wave speed varies on type, shape and material of the conduit (thin walled , thick walled, Rock
tunnels or compositematerials
1. For Thin and Thick Walled Pipes (from V CStreeter, "Fluid Transients*)
Where µ is the Poisson Ratio for the pipe material.

2. Circular Tunnels (where the rock thickness is very large)
Note: The wave speed calculated by formula in Streeter's book is less than value calculated
from the formula quoted in M H Chaudhry's book.
3. Steel Line Rock Tunnels
Note: The wave speed calculated by formula in Streeter's book is less than value calculated
from the formula quoted in M H Chaudhry's book.
4. Reinforced Concrete Pipe (from M H Chaudhry, Applied Hydraulic Transients)

Replace the pipe with an equivalent steel pipe of equivalent thickness given by
Where
EC = modulus of elasticity of concrete
ES = modulus of elasticity of steel
Er = ratio of EC/ES
EC = thickness of concrete pipe
AS = Reinforcing steel cross sectional area
lS = spacing of the reinforcing steel
ER may vary between 0.06 to 0.1. Chaudhry suggests a value of ER = 0.05 to allow for cracks
in the rock.
10.9 GRAVEL TRAP

A gravel trap is usually placed after the intake but before the settling basin. The bed load that
enters into the intake through intake opening is usually trapped in the gravel trap and can be
seen from Figure 38. The gravel trap is basically designed to trap the bed load upto 10 - 5 mm
diameter particles.

Figure 10-8: Gravel trap of Sunkoshi Small Hydropower project-2.5MW
Design Concept
1. Adopt the flow velocity (v) of 0.6 m/s.
2. Critical velocity of flow required to move 5 mm size particle
Vc = 36 d ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.41)
Where
d = particle diameter, mm
Vc = critical velocity, m/s
3. From table 27, adopt the settling velocity (w) of 5 mm particle i.e w = ~0.55 m/s
4. Cross-sectional area required to trap adopted particle into the gravel trap
Q
A= -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.42)
v
Where
A = crossectional area, m2
Q = flow, m3/s
v = settling velocity, m/s
5. Depth of the gravel trap

A
D= -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.43)
B
Where
D = depth of the gravel trap, m
B = width of the gravel trap, m
6. Length of the gravel trap

L = 3 x B (headrace canal width) ------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.44)
D.Vc
L= (m) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.45)
w

The length of the gravel trap should not be less than 2m.
7. Longitudinal bed slope: the bed slope of the gravel trap should be sufficient to transport
the max particle that entered into the gravel trap. Generally, 1 in 40 or 1 in 50 bed slope
is preferred however, the transport capacity of the gravel trap shall also be checked
using following equation.
d = 11RS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10.46)
Where
d = particle diamter, m
S = bed slope of the gravel trap
8. Side slope: to faciliate the easy flushing of gravel, it is recommended to construct

hopper shaped gravel trap i.e with side slopes (recommended slope 30° .

11 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL EQUIPMENTS
This chapter briefly describes some preliminary design rules and some selection criterion of the
electromechanical equipment.
As can be seen from Figures 39 and 40, the main components inside the powerhouse are as
follows:
a. Inlet gate or valve
b. Turbine
c. Speed increaser (if needed)
d. Generator
e. Control system
f. Condenser, switchgear
g. Protection systems
h. DC emergency supply
i. Power and current transformers
Figure 11-1: Powerhosue of Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Plant-2.5 MW, owned by Sanima
Hydropower Pvt. Ltd.

Figure 11-2: Main components inside the powerhouse of Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Plant-2.5
MW
a b c
d e f
g
a) Gate valve, b) turgo turbine and generator, c) control system plus DC supply, d) cooling
water system, e) lightining arrestor (protection system) f) supply transformer and g) Main power
transformer
Figure 11-3: Typical section of powerhouse a) low head, b) high and medium heads

11.1 HYDRAULIC TURBINES

There are two types of turbines namely impulse and reaction turbines.
11.1.1 IMPULSE TURBINES

a) Pelton turbine
Pelton turbines are impulse turbines where one or more jets impinge on a whee (runner) with
large number of buckets on it (min. 17 buckets). Each jet issues water through a nozzle with a
needle valve to control the flow (Figure 42). These types of turbines are usually applicable for
high heads ranging from 60 m to more than 1000 m. The axes of the nozzles are in the plan of
the runner. In case of an emergency stop of the turbine (e.g. in case of load rejection), the jet
may be diverted by a deflector so that it does not impinge on the buckets and the runner cannot
reach runaway speed. Because of this, the generated overpressure surge in the pipeline is
sually in an acceptable level i.e. max 1.15 gross head. One or two jet Pelton turbines can have
horizontal or vertical axis however, three or more nozzles turbines have vertical axis. Reference
is made on Figure 42. The maximum number of nozzles is 6 (not usual in small hydro).
Figure 11-4: Schematic view of Pelton turbines

b) Turgo turbine
The Turgo turbine can operate under a head in the range of 50-250 m. Like the Pelton, it is an
impulse turbine, however its buckets are shaped differently and the jet of water strikes the
plane of its runner at an angle of 20º. Water enters the runner through one side of the runner
disk and emerges from the other (figure 43). It can operate between 20% and 100% of the
maximal design flow.
Figure 11-5: Princple of a turgo turbine
The efficiency is lower than for the Pelton and Francis turbines.Compared to the Pelton, a
Turgo turbine has a higher rotational speed for the same flow and head. A Turgo can be an
alternative to the Francis when the flow strongly varies or in case of long penstocks, as the
deflector allows avoidance of runaway speed in the case of load rejection which results low
overpressure surge in pipeline than that can occur with a Francis turbine.
11.1.2 REACTION TURBINES

a) Cross flow turbine
This impulse turbine, also known as Banki-Michell is used for a wide range of heads
overlapping those of Kaplan, Francis and Pelton. It can operate with heads between 5 and 200
m. In this turbine, flow enters into the turbine directed by one or more guide-vanes located
upstream of the runner and crosses it two times before leaving the turbine. This simple design
makes it cheap and easy to repair in case of runner brakes due to the important mechanical
stresses.
The Cross-flow turbines have low efficiency compared to other turbines and the important loss
of head due to the clearance between the runner and the downstream level should be taken
into consideration when dealing with low and medium heads. Moreover, high head cross-flow
runners may have some troubles with reliability due to high mechanical stress. It is an
interesting alternative when one has enough water, defined power needs and low investment
possibilities, such as for rural electrification programs.

Figure 11-6: Priciple of a cross flow turbine
b) Francis turbine
Francis turbines are reaction turbines, with fixed runner blades and adjustable guide vanes,
used for medium heads (25 to 350 m). Water enters in the turbine radially but the outlet is axial
i.e. water enters the turbine by the spiral case that is designed to keep its tangential velocity
constant along the consecutive sections and to distribute it peripherally to the distributor. As
with Peltons, Francis turbines can have vertical or horizontal axis.
Figure 11-7: Francis turbines (vertical and horizontal axis)
Turbine Shaft
Governing Ring
Spiral Casing Upper Cover

Guide Vanes
Stay Ring
Labyrinth
Stay Vanes seals
Runner
Lower Cover
Svartisen Power Plant, Norway Draft Tube Cone
Vertical axis Francis turbine Horizontal axis Francis turbine

c) Kaplan and propeller turbines

Kaplan and propeller turbines are axial-flow reaction turbines; generally used for low heads
from 2 to 40 m. The Kaplan turbine has adjustable runner blades and may or may not have
adjustable guide- vanes. If both blades and guide-vanes are adjustable it is described as
"double-regulated". If the guide-vanes are fixed it is "single-regulated". Fixed runner blade
Kaplan turbines are called propeller turbines. They are used when both flow and head remain
practically constant, which is a characteristic that makes them unusual in small hydropower
schemes.
Figure 11-8: Principle of Kaplana nd bulb turbines
Double requlated Kaplan turbine Double regulated bulb turbine
Typical section of Kaplan turbine

The hydraulic power at disposition of the turbine is given by:

Ph = ρ.Q.g.H ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.1)
Where:
ρ = water specific density, kg/m3
Q = Discharge, m3/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
H = net head, m
The mechanical output of the turbine is given by:

Pmec = η.Ph ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.2)
η = turbine efficiency
The specific speed of a turbine is defined as:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.3)
Where
Q = Discharge, m3/s
E = specific hydraulic energy of machine, J/kg
n = rotational speed of the turbine, t/s

11.2 TURBINE SELECTION CRITERIA

11.2.1 DISCHARGE VS HEAD
Figure 11-9: Turbine selection graph

11.2.2 NET HEAD

Table 31:Turbine selection criteria
Turbine type Head range in metres
Kaplan and Propeller 2 < H < 40
n
Francis 25 < H < 350
n
Pelton 50 < H < 1'300
n
Crossflow 5 < H < 200
n
Turgo 50 < H < 250
n
11.2.3 CAVITATION
Cavitation is characterised by the cavitation coefficient σ (Thoma's coefficient) defined
according to IEC 60193 standard as:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.4)
Where NPSE is the net positive suction energy defined as:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------(11.5)
Where
P = atmospheric pressure = 1.01 bar m = 1.01x10^6 m at sea level and 0.65
atm
bar m in 3000 m above mean sea level,
P = water vapour pressure = 800 m
v
3
ρ = water specific density, kg/m
2
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s
V = outlet average velocity, m/s
H = net head, m
n
H = suction head, m
s
To avoid cavitation, the turbine should be installed at least at the Hs as defined by equation
below:
------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.6)
As a first approach, one can consider that V = 2 m/s.
The Thoma's sigma is usually obtained by a model test, and it is a value furnished by the
turbine manufacturer.
----------------------------------------(11.7)
-----------------------------------------(11.8)
Where
σ = thoma’s sigma
n = efficiency for the Francis and Kaplan turbines
QE

Hn = net head, m
It must be remarked that P decreases with the altitude, from roughly 1.01 bar m at the sea
atm
level to 0.65 bar at 3000 m above sea level. So then a Francis turbine with a specific speed of
0.150, working under a 100 m head (with a corresponding σ = 0.090), that is in a plant at sea
level, will require a setting of
installed in a plant at 2000 m above the sea level will require
a setting requiring an excavation.
11.2.4 MINIMUM TECHNICAL FLOW OF TURBINES

Table 32: Minimum flows required for the operation of turbine
Turbine type Q (% of Q )
min design
Francis 50
Semi Kaplan 30
Kaplan 15
Pelton 10
Turgo 20
Propeller 75
11.2.5 SPECIFIC SPEED

In general turbine manufacturers denote the specific speed of their turbines. Some of the
formulae are as follows:
--------(11.9)
--------(11.10)
--------(11.11)
--------(11.12)
--------(11.13)

Table 33: Range of specific speed for each turbine type
------------------(11.14)
------------------(11.15)
------------------(11.16)
------------------(11.17)
11.3 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

some statistical formulae allowing for the determination of the main dimensions of the turbine
runner for Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines.
11.3.1 PELTON
----------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.18)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.19)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.20)
Where
n = rotational speed in t/s
njet = nozzles number
D1 = diameter of the circle describing the buckets centre line
B2 = bucket width, mainly depending on the discharge and number of nozzles
De = nozzle diameter.
As a general rule, the ratio D1/ B2 must always be greater than 2.7. If this is not the case, then a
new calculation with a lower rotational speed or more nozzles has to be carried out.
11.3.2 FRANCIS
Francis turbines cover a wide range of specific speeds, from 0.05 to 0.33 corresponding to high
head and low head Francis respectively.
Figure 11-10: shows schematically a cross section of a Francis runner, with the reference
diameters D , D and D .
1 2 3

The de Siervo and de Leva and Lugaresi et Massa articles, based on a statistical analysis of
more than two hundred existing turbines, enables a preliminary design of the Francis Turbine.
The outlet diameter D is given by:

3
-------------------------------------------------------(11.21)
The inlet diameter D is given by

1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.22)
The inlet diameter D is given by equation 6.22 for nQE > 0.164
2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.23)
For nQE < 0.164, we can consider than D = D

1 2
11.3.3 KAPLAN
The Kaplan turbines exhibit much higher specific speeds than Francis and Pelton.
Figure 11-11: Cross section of a Kaplan turbine

In the preliminary project phase the runner outer diameter D can be calculated as:
e
---------------------------------------------------------(11.24)
The runner hub diameter D can be calculated as

i
--------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.25)
11.4 TYPICAL EFFICIENCIES OF SMALL TURBINES

Table 34: Best efficiency of turbines
Turbine type Best efficiency
Kaplan single regulated 91%
Kaplan double regulated 93 %
Francis 94 %
Pelton n nozzles 90 %
Pelton 1 nozzle 89 %
Turgo 85 %
11.5 TYPICAL EFFICIENCIES OF SMALL GENERATORS

Table 35: Best efficiency of small generators
Rated power [kW] Best efficiency
10 91 %
50 94 %
100 95 %
250 95.5 %
500 96 %
1000 97 %
Examples
The following example will help in understanding the concepts exposed in this chapter and
particularly the use of the specific speed tool.
3
Selecting a turbine to equip a 200-m net head scheme with a nominal flow of 1.5 m /sec. The
powerhouse is located at an altitude of 1000 m over the sea level.
According to Table 28 or to Figure 47 the plot of head and flow falls into the envelopes of a
Francis and a Pelton turbine. The turbine speed is given as a function of n by equation 11.3:
QE
(t/s)
If we select a one nozzle Pelton, the maximum value for n according to Table 31, will be
QE
0.025. The corresponding rotational speed would be 6 t/s = 360 t/min.

As we intend to use direct coupling, the rotational speed has to be synchronous, according to
table 6.5. In this case, we would be obliged to choose a 333 t/min rotational speed (5.55 t/s =
34.87 rad/s).
According to equation 11.3, the corresponding n would be:

QE
The main Pelton dimensions according to the equations 11.18, 11.19 and 11.20 would be:
Quite huge dimensions are not very realistic from an economical point of view.
If we now consider a 4-nozzle Pelton, the maximum specific speed (according to equation
11.15) would be:
Using the same calculation as for the one nozzle option, the rotational speed would be 600 rpm
and the corresponding nQE would be 0.042.
The main Pelton dimensions would be D = 0.962 m, B = 0.274 m and D = 0.108 m which are
1 2 e
quite reasonable.
If we now select a Francis turbine, the maximum value of n would be 0.33 (table 6.2). Using
QE
equation 11.3, the corresponding speed would be n = 76.43 t/s or 4'765.8 rpm, which is far from
a realistic synchronous rotational speed. For this reason, we will choose the maximum usual
value, which is 1,500 rpm.
According to equation 11.3, the corresponding n would be:

QE
The main Francis runner dimensions according to the equations 11.21, 11.22 and 11.23 would
be:

As n < 0.164, we can consider than D = D = 0.595 m.

QE 2 1
According to equation 11.7, the cavitation coefficient would be:
According to equation 11.6, the setting would be:
A setting that requires important excavation.
If we have selected a Francis running at 1000 rpm we would have had:
n = 0.069, D = 0.576 m, D = 1.02 m, σ = 0.0305 and H = 3.21 m which does not need
QE 3 1 s
excavation.
The final choice will be economical. If the flow strongly varies, a 4-nozzle Pelton could be a
good choice. If it is not the case, a 1000-rpm Francis that does not need any excavation could
be the best alternative.
11.6 PUMP/MORTAR MOMEMT OF INTERTIA

An approximate value for the moment of inertia (I) of the pump/motor can be obtained from the
following equation:
Where
PR = rated power (kW)
Nr = rated speed of motor (rpm)
I = moment of inertia ( kgm2)

12 ROCK ENGINEERING
12.1 OVERBURDERN REQUIREMENT
12.1.1 THE FIRST NORWEGIAN DESIGN CRITERIA
The rule of thumb for planning unclined pressure shaft with inclination varied between 31° to
47° and 45° is more common is:
h = c x H -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.1)
Where,
h = vertical depth of point studied, m
H = static water head at the point studied, m
c = a constant, 0.6 for valley sides with inclination upto 35° and in increased
to 1.0 for valley sides of 60°
When inclination of valley side is direct taken into account while determining overburden:
γ wH
L= -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(11.2)
γ r Cosβ
Where,
L = shortest distance between the surface and the point studied, m
β = average inclination of the valley side
γw = density of water
γ = density of rock, 2.2 N/mm2 to 3.5 N/mm2
Figure 12-1: Rule of thumb for high pressure tunnel or shafts
12.1.2 MINIMUM OVERBURDEN REQUIRED

The tunnel location shall comply with the following criteria:
dmin = (γw x H x F )/( γr x cos β) + 20 m
Where
dmin = shortest distance to surface
γw = density of water = 1,000 kg/m3
γr = density of rock overburden = 2,500 kg/m3
H = water head in tunnel
F = factor of safety = 1.6
β = average incline of hillside from tunnel level and uphill

dmin = (Hw / cos β) - δf + 20 m

Where
Hw = groundwater level above tunnel level
δf = deduction due to curved equipotential lines in a valley side.
+20 m is due to weathered rock.
These two criteria will also determine the adit bulkheads' locations.
The rule of thumb for planning pressurised tunnel is:

a) Vertical overburden requirement = 0.5 * water head * Factor of safety of 1.5
b) Lateral cover = 2 * vertical overburden requirement
12.2 ROCK BOLT

Typical length of rock bolt in tunnels is 2-4m and typical diameters used are 20-25 mm. In
caverns bolt length of 6 m length and 32 mm diameter are often used. In Norwegian tunnels the
following expression has often been used to find the bolt length.
Length of bolt (Lb) = 1.4 + 0.184 Dt (in meters)
Where,
Dt = the diameter or span in tunnel (in meters)
Ideally, the length of bolts should be designed according to the rock mass conditions, especially
regarding their block size. The following expressions have been suggested by Palmstrom
(2000)
⎛ 0.1 ⎞
Length of rock bolt in roof (Lbroof) = 1.4 + 0.16 Dt ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ Db ⎠
⎛ 0.1 ⎞
Length of rock bolt in wall (Lb wall ) = 1.4 + 0.08( Dt + 0.5Wt )⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ Db ⎠
Where,
Db = the block diameter (in meters)
Wt = the tunnel wall height (in meters)
These above equations are graphically solved in figure below, giving bolts length for roof and
for walls.

Note: the block size to be used is the average block size at the actual location
Example
For tunnel span 9 m, wall height 12 m and block diameter Db = 0.5 m, Lb = 3.1 m in roof and Lb
= 2.8 m in wall (using above figure).
a) Thumb rule for minimum rock bolt length:

• For small diamter tunnel in rock = 1/3of tunnel diamter
• For large diameter tunnel in rock = ½ of tunnel diamter
• For tunnel in soft rock (soil) = ½ of tunnel diameter
b) Thumb rule for rock bolt diameter
• Rock bolt greater than 3 m = 25 mm diameter
• Rock bolt less than 3 m = 20 mm diameter
12.3 SPILLING BOLTS

Spilling bolts are installed ahead the tunnelling works in a fan shaped pattern oriented 10º to
25º relative to the tunnel axis. Commonly, fully grouted bolts with a diamter of 25-32 mm and a
length of about 6 m (bolt length = length of blasting round + 2 to 4 m ) are used. Typical bolt
spacing are between 0.3 to 0.8 m (Statens Vegvesen, 1994)
Figure 12-2: Typical applications of spilling (modified from Statens Vegvesen, 1994)
Thumb rule:

• Length of spilling rod = 2 times tunnel diameter

• While probbing, overlapping of at least 1/3rd length in rock and half the length in soft
rock shall be considered for planning purpose
12.4 SHOTCRETE
Three differnt types of shotcrete is commonly used:
a) Ordinary shortcrete: Plain shotcrete of about 100 mm thickness
b) Mesh shotcrete: this is produced by first spraying a layer of concrete before installing the
wire mesh with typically 5-6 mm diameter steel bars with second layer (sometimes more
layers) of concrete to cover the mesh.
c) Fibre shotcrete: shotcrete with thin needles of fires of about 20-50 mm long (commonly
used 25-32 mm long). A thickness of 50-100 mm is normally applied. 1 volume % of
shotcrete usually increases the concrete strength of about 85%
A combination of fibre shotcrete along with systematic rock bolting may often used where cast
in place concrete was previously the only alternative.
12.5 CEMENT CURTAIN GROUNTING BELOW DAM/WEIR

• Depth of grouting in rock = 1/3rd the water head behind the dam
• Depth of grouting in river bed material/soil = ½ the water head behind the dam
(½ - 1/3)*h
Cement cutain grouting
12.6 STEEL LINING AND CONCRETE PLUG

Based on general experience from medium and high head powerplants, the minimum distance
from the power station to the unlined pressure tunnel or the length of steel lining shoud be 12%
to 20% of the water head (highest value for high head power staion) as a rule of thumb.
As can be seen from the Figure 51, the length of the plug (between the entrance of access
tunnel) is normally 10 – 40 m , depnding on the water head and the geological conditions (in
most cases about 4% of the water head). Leakage may occur at the concrete/steel bounday
therfore, very carefull grouting has to be carried out to prevent from leakage.

Figure 12-3: typical layout of undergound hydropower plant
12.7 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK MASS QUALITY USING Q METHOD

It is important to assess the rock mass quality. A low rock mass quality indicates the possible
presence of a weakness zone. There are several rock mass quality schemes available and one
of them is the Q-system where Q is the Rock Tunneling Quality Index. On the basis of an
evaluation of a large number of case histories of underground excavations, Barton et al (1974)
of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute proposed this index for the determination of rock mass
characteristics and tunnel support requirements. The numerical value of the index Q varies on a
logarithmic scale from 0.001 to a maximum of 1,000 and is defined by:
RQD J r J w
Q= * *
Jn J a SRF
Where
RQD is the Rock Quality Designation
Jn is the joint set number
Jr is the joint roughness number
Ja is the joint alteration number
Jw is the joint water reduction factor
SRF is the stress reduction factor
The Q-value is related to the tunnel support requirement by defining the equivalent dimensions
of the underground opening. This equivalent dimension (De), which depends on the size and
type of excavation, is obtained by dividing the span, diameter or wall height of the excavation
(Dt) by the excavation support ratio (ESR). In formula form this gives:
Dt
De =
ESR

Table 36: Q-system description and ratings for the input parameters


Table 37: Q-System ratings of the excavation support ratio (ESR)

Table 38: support system graph for the Q-system
Example
Project Work on geological Investigation of Bogna Hydropower Access Tunnel in Norway for
MSc. in Hydropower, 2006-2008.
The ratings shows that for the access tunnel to the Bogna Hydropowerplant, an ESR of 1.3
should be used (Table 36). Using that the span of the tunnel is 6 meter, the equivalent
dimension De is 4.62 meter. Based on field survey, following parameters are estimated.
Metamorph
Rock type Meta Sandstone Greenstone Phyllite ic Gneiss
Limestone
Tunnel Tunnel
Location Surface 1 Surface 4 Surface 5 Surface 7
0+050m 1+000m
RQD(%) 85 90 100 50 100 100
Jn 6 6 0,5 6 3 4
Jr 1 1 1 2 2 1
Ja 1 1 1 0,75 1 1
Jw 0,66 1 1 1 0,5 1
SRF 1,5 1,5 1 1 1 1
RQD J r J w
Q= * *
Jn J a SRF 6.2 10 200 22.2 33.3 25
Fair- Extremely
Rock class Fair Good Good Good
Good good

Metamorph
Rock type Meta Sandstone Greenstone Phyllite ic Gneiss
Limestone
Tunnel Tunnel
Location Surface 1 Surface 4 Surface 5 Surface 7
0+050m 1+000m
De 4.62 4.62 4.62 4.62 4.62 4.62
Boundar
Boundary
y of
of
unsuppo
unsupporte Unsupport Unsupporte Unsupp
Required rock support rted- Unsupported
d- ed d orted
systema
systematic
tic
bolting
bolting
CASE STUDY OF THIKRI TUNNEL
1 INTRODUCTION
Indira Sagar Project (District Khandwa) is a multipurpose key project of M.P. on the Narmada
River u/s of Sardar Sarovar Project. It is a very important project since the Projects proposed
d/s of it i.e. Omkareshwar, Maheshwar and Sardar Sarovar would be able to attain their full
potential of irrigation and power generation only after getting regulated releases from ISP.
The ISP project comprises of a 92 m high and 653 m long concrete gravity dam. with a surface
power house of 1000 MW installed capacity (8x125) and a 248.65 km long canal to provide
Irrigation in 1.23 lakh ha of C.C.A in the districts of Khandwa, Khargone and Barwani.
To provide irrigation facilities in 1.23 lakh ha., a lined gravity flow canal offtakes from ISP
reservoir through a 3.4 Km. long Punasa tunnel. The total length of the left bank main canal is
248.65 Km. The main flow canal alignment further passes through 5 tunnels viz Amba,
Ahirkheda, Thikri, Kundiyamal and Gulalnia. It is proposed to irrigate 98768 ha. of land through
flow canal in Khandwa, Khargone and Barwani districts.
2 MAIN FEATURES : THIKRI TUNNEL

• MAIN PROJECT : Indira Sagar Project, Phase – III
• MAIN CANAL : Left Bank Main Canal offtake from ISP R Reservoir
• LOCATION : From Km. 159.950 to Km. 160.750
• LENGTH OF TUNNEL : 800 Mtrs
• SHAPE OF TUNNEL : D – Shape
• INTERNAL DIAMETER : 6.0 Meter
• LONGITUDINAL GREDIENT : 1 in 2500
• ROCK COVER : 14 Mtrs, to 44 Mtrs.(>3D as per IS Code)
• EXISTING G.L. (at entrance) : 224.015 (at km 159.950)
• EXISTING G.L. (at exit) : 221.695 (at km. 160.750)
• INVERT LEVEL (at entrance) : 203.671
• INVERT LEVEL (at exit) : 203.349
• GENERAL GEOLOGY: Hard rock strata with RQD Value > 75%
3 DESIGN PARAMETERS : THIKRI TUNNEL

3.1 GEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
• Density of rock = 26.6 KN/cum
• Modulus of Elasticity of Rock = 1.5 x 10^7 KN/sqm
• Angle of Internal Friction = 30 degree
3.2 LINING
The structural design of tunnel lining is done as per IS : 4880 Part-IV-1971. The lining design is
considered for very good & good rock strata with a R.Q.D. value ranging from 75% to 90%. The
designed value/s are as follows :
• Thickness of lining for very good strata (RQD > 90%) = 0.20 mtrs. (Theoretical Value)
• Thickness of lining for good strata (RQD 75% to 90%) = 0.31 mtrs. (Theoretical Value)
• Thickness of lining for very good strata (RQD > 90%) = 0.30 mtrs. (Proposed Value)
• Thickness of lining for good strata (RQD 75% to 90%) = 0.31 mtrs. (Proposed Value)
• Grade of Concrete = M 20 Grade
• Stress developed due to Bending Moment, Normal Thrust and Radial Shear are calculated as
per IS : 4880 for tunnel empty & tunnel full conditions and are well within permissible limit.
4 TUNNEL SUPPORTING SYSTEM

SHOT-CRETE – At the entrance transitions and exit transitions of the tunnel, shot-Crete is
proposed in CC M25 with a thickness of 100 mm in two layers of 50 mm each with wire mesh.
The shot Crete is proposed for a length of 25 mtrs on the entrance and exit transitions for the
side slopes up to TBL.
ROCK BOLTS – 25 mm dia. and 2500 mm in length rock bolts of Fe 415 grade are proposed,
wherever required.
RIBS – Steel Ribs of ISHB 150 of mild steel conforming to IS : 2062 with a wt. 34.6 kg/m are
proposed for a length of the diameter of tunnel at the entrance and exit portal with a spacing of
1.0 mtr.

13 CLEAR COVER FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Flood wall / Diversion wall/Guide wall
Clear cover Descriptions
Baseslab (bottom second
75 mm Riverside wall
and outer layer)
50 mm Hillside wall -
40 mm - -
Intake
Inside wall (in case of no
75 mm Riverside wall steel lining or hard stone
and outer layer)
lining)
Inside wall (in case of steel
50 mm - Hillside wall
lining)
Topslab (top second and
40 mm - -
outer layer)
Intake culvert/canal
Baseslab (bottom outer Riverside walls (in case
75 mm -
layer) of contact with river)
50 mm Inner walls -
layer)
Riverside walls (in case of Topslab (top second and
40 mm Hillside walls
no contact with river) outer layer)
Gravel Trap
75 mm -
Riverside and hillside walls
50 mm Inner walls (in case of no contact with
layer)
river)
40 mm - -
outer layer)
Settling Basin
75 mm -
Riverside and hillside walls
50 mm Inner walls (in case of no contact with
layer)
river)
40 mm - -
outer layer)
Approach Canal
75 mm - - -
50 mm - - -
Baseslab (bottom outer and Riverside and hillside Topslab (top second and
40 mm
second layer) walls outer layer)
NOTE: Until unless mentioned, 75mm thick C15 concrete shall be used for blinding.

14 APPENDICES
14.1 HYDRAULIC JUMP

14.2 MOODY DIAGRAM

14.3 CONDUIT SECTIONS

14.4 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Approximate values for the modulus of elasticity of some common pipe materials are listed
below.
Modulus of
Pipe Material Roughness (mm) Poisson's Ratio
Elasticity (GPa)
0.5 (smooth)
Steel 200 - 212 2.6 ( light rust) 0.28
10 (heavily scaled)
Ductile Iron 170 1.5 0.21-0.30
Spun Concrete 14 - 30 0.19 0.1-0.3
Trowelled 14 - 30 0.28
Asbestos Cement 23 0.28 0.36
Plastics
HD Polyethylene 0.93 0.13 0.46
Medium Density PE 0.2 0.13 0.46
PVC rigid 2.4 - 2.75 0.13 0.46
Nylon 1.4 - 2.75 0.13 0.46
Copper 107 - 131 0.34-0.37
Cast Iron 80 - 170 1.5 0.25
Cast Iron with
0.5 0.25
bitumen layer
Rocks
Granite 50 0.28
Limestone 55 0.21
Sandstone 2.75 - 4.8 0.28
Schist 6.5 - 18.6
14.5 USEFUL LINKS FOR PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERS:

1. http://www.martindalecenter.com/Calculators4.html
2. http://www.martindalecenter.com/Calculators4_B_GeoT.html
3. http://web.mst.edu/~mecmovie/index.html
4. http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/geology/geoman.html - manual
5. http://www.usace.army.mil/publications/eng-manuals/em1110-1-1804/ - geotch investigation
6. http://www.usace.army.mil/publications/eng-manuals/ - eng manuals
7. http://web.mst.edu/~rogersda/umrcourses/ge341/ - eng geology and geotechnics

REFERENCES:
1. Applied Hydraulic Transients, M H CHaudhry
2. BS Codes
3. Civil works guideline for Micro-Hydropower in Nepal, Practical Action Nepal, second
edition 2009.
4. Design of Small Dam, USBR
5. Finnemore, John E. and Joseph B. Franzini. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering
Applications. 10th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002.
6. Guide on How to Develop a Small Hydropower Plant, ESHA 2004
7. High-head Power Plants;Emil Mosonyi
8. http://taylor.math.ualberta.ca/~bruce/imagelinks/teaching/hydjump.pdf
9. http://www.esba.be
10. http://www.metzgerwillard.com
11. http://www.rockmass.net
12. Hydraulic design criteria by Corps of Engineers
13. Project Work of TGB5100 Rock Mechanics Advanced Course at NTNU by Ali
Wondwosen B, Hui Lu, Sanne Brinkman, Suraj Kumar Shrestha, October 2007.
14. Rock Engineering by Bjorn Nilsen and Alf Thidemann, NTNU 1993.
15. Standardization of civil engineering works of small hydropower plants and development
of an optimization tool; Mohammadreza Andaroodi, Laboratory of Hydraulic onstructions
(LCH), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.
16. Underground Powerhouse and high pressure tunnels by Sverr Edvardsson and Einar
Broch, NTNU 2002.

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DESIGN HANDBOOK

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited.

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited i|Pa g e

4.13 Head loss in pressurized conduct ......................................................................... 52

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited ii | P a g e

10.1 Settling basin ......................................................................................................... 86

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited iii | P a g e

12.4 Shotcrete ............................................................................................................. 123

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited iv | P a g e

Figure 3-1: Lenkei’s channel design graph ............................................................................... 9

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited i|Pa g e

Figure 10-3: fall velocity graph ................................................................................................ 88

Figure 11-11: Cross section of a Kaplan turbine ................................................................... 116

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited ii | P a g e

Table 1: Symbols, Dimensions and Units used ......................................................................... 1

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited ii | P a g e

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 1|P a g e

2 LIST OF SYMBOLS, DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Q Discharge L3/T m3/sec

Table 2: Symbols for Dimensionless Quantities

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 1|P a g e

Table 3: Manning’s n (SI UNIT)

Mountain Streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, with

B LINED BUILT-UP CHANNEL

2 Concrete bottom float finished with sides of:

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 2|P a g e

S.N. Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

3 Gravel bottom with sides of:

7 Vegetal lining 0.030 0.500

C EXCAVATED AND DREDGED CHANNELS

2 Earth, winding and sluggish

5 Channels not maintained, weeds and brush

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 3|P a g e

3 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR CHANNEL FLOW

v = average velocity, m/sec

The values of n for various channel conditions are illustrated in Table 2.

Normal water depth formula

b = bottom width of the channel, m

3.2 GEOMETRIC SECTIONS AND CORRESPONDING FORMULAE

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 4|P a g e

Section Factor 1.5 [(b + zh )h]1.5 2 (φ − sin φ )1.5 2.5

Table 4: Values of the Roughness Coefficient n (Simon, 1976)

Channel condition Value of n

Channel condition Value of n

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 6|P a g e

Table 7: Characteristic Dimensions of Optimum Trapezoidal Channel for given Gross-

0.5:1 0.759 0.938 1.698 2.640 0.379

The corresponding velocity in the channel is

obtained from the slope graph. The cross-sectional area is:

from the shape graph.

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 8|P a g e

Figure 3-1: Lenkei’s channel design graph

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 9|P a g e

Table 8: channel section geometry

The slope of the channel is obtained from the Equation 3.4 as

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 10 | P a g e

4 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

4.1.1.1 Free discharge formula

= upstream energy level, m

Table 9: Values of Velocity Coefficient

Contracted water depth:

where φ = contraction coefficient.

Sanima Hydro and Engineering (P.) Limited 11 | P a g e