Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person

Roque Ferriols, SJ - “Like all activities, philosophizing is something which is easier to do than to define.

In order to fully understand the philosophy of the human person, it is important that students must be
able to know first what philosophy is all about, the importance of studying it.

“Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher, and philosophy begins in wonder.” - Socrates

The Meaning of Philosophy

PHILOSOPHY
 Etymologically, the word “philosophy” comes from two Greek words,
philo – “to love”
sophia – “ wisdom”
• Originally meant “love of wisdom”, and in a broad sense, wisdom is still the goal of philosophy.
Philosophers were known as ‘lovers of wisdom’.
• It is also defined as the science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest
principles of all things.

philosophy is a search for meaning.

philosophy is a search for an understanding on the importance of human life.
philosophy is understood as a search for understanding one’s live experience.

When the human person has already obtained happiness and fulfilment in his life, it is only then that he
will be able to realize that his life is a meaningful one. The search for the source of true happiness is what
philosophy is all about.

The Beginning of Philosophy

Philosophy began when human beings became aware of the things around them. Because of their sense
of wonder about the world, the early people started to reflect on their everyday experience; his curiosity on the
things around him, he began to ask questions: “What is the ultimate material of the universe?” and “How can
we explain the process of change in things?”

Miletus - the birthplace of philosophy, located across the Aegean Sea from Athens, on the western shores of the
Province of Ionia, in Asia Minor or the Anatolian Peninsula (the modern-day Turkey). Because of its origins,
the first philosophers were thereby called either Milesian or Ionians.

Urstoff, the primordial matter where all things came from.

Thales –according to him, everything must have come from water. (Thales of Miletus – the father of
philosophy).
Anaximander, a contemporary and student of Thales, held that everything must have come from the original
stuff which he called the aperion or the indeterminate boundless. Whereas actual things are specific, their
source must be indeterminate, and whereas things are finite, this orginal stuff must be infinite or boundless.
Anaximenes, young associate of Anaximander, and the third and the last of the Milesian philosophers, -
designating air as the primary substance from which all things have originated.
Pythagoras. He promulgated the belief that everything must have come from numbers.
Heraclitus of Ephesus, held that everything must have come from fire.
Parmenides of Elea, held that everything in this world is permanent because the world is only made up of one
invisible thing. This One is motionless and in perfect sphere.
Empedocles, from Sicily, - change and motion are made possible because objects are composed of many
particles, which are in themselves changeless. These four changeless elements out of which everything was
made and everything came from are earth, air, fire and water.
Leucippus, the founder of the Atomist school, and Democritus of Abdera, who supplied an elaboration of the
idea of Leucippus, held that everything is made up of atoms moving in empty space

Expanding our Philosophical Frames: Western and EasternTraditions

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 The following are among the most notable ancient Greek philosophers:
Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE) – a mathematician and scientist, he was credited with the formulation of
the Pythagorean theorem. His work earned him many followers, and he established a community of learners
who were devoted to the study of religion and philosophy.
Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE) – he proposed that everything that exists is based on a higher order or plan
which he called logos. For him, change is a permanent aspect of the human condition and he was credited with
the saying “No man steps on the same river twice”.
Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE) – he devoted himself to studying the causes of natural phenomena. He was
among the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE) – he was a known advocate of a simple and virtuous life. For
Diogenes, one should not only talk of virtue but should show it in words and actions. His emphasis on austerity
and simplicity often went to the extreme, and he was said to have lived like a beggar. He was also known to be
a vocal critic of well-known philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. His teachings and views were later
developed by his followers and influenced the development of several schools of philosophy such as Cynicism
and Stoicism.
Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE) – he believed that philosophy could enable man to live a life of happiness.
His views gave rise to Epicureanism – a school of philosophy which believes that wisdom and simple living
will result to a life free from fear and pain.
Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE) – he was considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times. He made
great contributions to the field of ethics. Socrates was a known critic of intellectuals during his time, but he
himself did not claim to be wise and merely considered himself a midwife that helped inquiring minds achieve
wisdom. He also believed that philosophy could enable a man to live a life of virtue. He was credited with
formulating the Socratic Method – a means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that let the
learner examine and analyze his knowledge and views regarding the topic.
Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE) – a student of Socrates, he wrote down his teacher’s writings and incorporated
some of his own ideas into them. His teachings and writings were considered the foundation of Western
philosophy. Plato’s most significant ideas included his Theory of Forms, which proposes that everything that
exists is based on an idea or template that can only be perceived in the mind; these nonphysical ideas are eternal
and unchanging. He also focused his studies on the ideal society and proposed an ideal model of government
and society which is ruled by wisdom and reason. Plato is also known for his dialectic – method of inquiry
where two opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to arrive at new knowledge. Plato’s lasting contribution to
learning was his founding of the Academy, an institution of higher learning which was the first of its kind in the
West.
Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE) – he attended the Academy, and was a prominent student of Plato. Aristotle,
however, disagreed with Plato’s theory of forms and took a different view in interpreting reality. For him, all
ideas and views are based on perception and our reality is based on what we can sense and perceive. This view
greatly influenced the study of the physical sciences. Aristotle was involved in a great variety of disciplines
such as zoology, psychology, ethics and politics. He also proposed a system for the classification of plants and
animals. His studies in logic led to the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which gave rise
to deductive reasoning – the process by which specific statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or
generalization.
Archimedes (287 BCE to 212 BCE) – he gained renown for the practical aspects of his philosophical inquiries
and was considered a leading scientist in ancient times. A mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor and
astronomer, Archimedes’ inquiries into mathematics led to earlier developments which gave rise to modern
calculus. He pioneered the use of mathematics to analyze natural phenomena. He is credited for several
inventions such as the Archimedes screw, a devise for raising water, and a method for determining volume
using displacement.

How did Western Philosophy develop into modern science?

The development of Western Philosophy is defined by the emergence of various schools of thought in
various periods in history.

WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
HISTORICAL SCHOOL OF MAIN FEATURES, NOTABLE
PERIOD THOUGHT BELIEFS PHILOSOPHERS
Ancient Rome (1st Stoicism Emphasis on morality, Seneca
century BCE to 5th virtue, calm, and Epictetus
century BCE) emotional fortitude Marcus Aurelius
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 Medieval Period (5th to Scholasticism Application of St. Thomas Aquinas
15th centuries) philosophy to define and St. Augustine
explain religious
doctrines
Renaissance (14th – 17th Humanism Emphasis on the human Petrarch
centuries) person; use of Desiderius Erasmus
philosophy to Niccolo Machiavelli
understand society, Francois Rabelais
nature and humanity
The Enlightenment (17th Rationalism Reason and logic Rene Descartes
– 18th centuries) considered the basis of Immanuel Kant
knowledge and belief; Gottfried Leibniz
man has innate
knowledge that can be
accessed through
intuition or deduction

Empiricism Knowledge is gained David Hume

through the senses and Francis Bacon
experience; reliance on John Locke
inductive reasoning to
arrive at generalizations

Social and Political Discussions on the ideal Voltaire

Philosophy human situation and Jean Jacques Rousseau
society; emphasis on Thomas Hobbes
individual rights and John Stuart Mill
liberties
Modern Period Existentialism Human experience is Soren Kierkegaard
(19th – 20th centuries) defined by the views, Friedrich Nietzsche
emotions and actions of Martin Heidegger
the individual Jean Paul Sartre
Simone de Beauvoir

Pragmatism Emphasis on the Charles Peirce

practical use of William James
knowledge and ideas John Dewey

Phenomenology Experience is studied Edmund Husserl

based on the subjective
viewpoint of the
individual

Absurdism Man will never Albert Camus

understand the human
condition and the
meaning of life

Postmodernism, Analysis on how Jacques Derrida

Post-structuralism knowledge, ideas and Michel Foucault
power relations are
defined

What developments and characteristics define Eastern Philosophy?

As the ancient Greeks were laying the foundation of Western philosophy in Europe, several belief
systems and philosophies were already prevalent in many communities in Asia. Eastern Philosophy consists of
schools of thought which are often closely tied with religious beliefs. Eastern philosophies are often described
as “wisdom” literature, where stories, sayings and texts encourage people to adopt an ethical and harmonious
way of life. There is great emphasis on social relations, and the family and community are considered a central
aspect of life. The goal of philosophy is to achieve a balanced life and find one’s role in society.

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 Eastern philosophies are classified according to theistic (belief in a Supreme Being or deities) and
nontheistic philosophies. There are also a variety of indigenous philosophies or belief systems among small
indigenous communities throughout Asia.

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
HISTORICAL SCHOOL OF MAIN FEATURES, PROPONENTS,
PERIOD THOUGHT, BELIEF BELIEFS MAJOR TEXTS
SYSTEM
(REGION OR AREA)
ca. 2000 BCE Judaism Belief in one God Abraham
(Israel, the Levant) (monotheism) who has a Moses
role in the ultimate Various prophets
destiny of mankind; the
Jewish people are God’s Tanakh
chosen people Torah
Various scriptures
The observance of God’s
commandments will
result in reward. A
deeper study and
understanding of God’s
laws as revealed in the
sacred scriptures will
lead to wisdom
ca. 1500 BCE Hinduism Belief in pantheon of The Vedas
(India, South Asia) gods, with three main
gods – Brahma, Shiva,
Vishnu

Belief in cycle of birth

and rebirth (samsara),
which is broken when a
person achieves ultimate
union with the Divine
(moksha)

Emphasis on dharma,
the fulfillment of duties
and behavior in
accordance with the
established order in the
world; individual actions
contribute to either a
good or bad effect
(karma) in a person’s life
ca. 600 BCE Shinto An animistic religion No distinct philosophers
(Japan) influenced by Japanese or sacred texts
myth and traditions

The material and

spiritual worlds are
closely connected;
rituals and tradition are a
way to connect with the
spiritual world

Mankind and the world

are essentially good and
pure.

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 Harmony and balance
are essential in
maintaining purity
ca. 600 – 500 BCE Jainism Rejects the idea of a Mahavira
(India) Creator and considers
the universe as eternal Jain Agamas
and unceasing; time is a
wheel which goes
through cycles of
prosperity and suffering

Wisdom is developed
through the practice of
the five main vows:
ahimsa (non-violence),
satya (truth) , asteya
(honesty),
brachmacharya
(chastity), aparigraha
(piety)

Meditation, discipline,
and respect for all life are
emphasized
ca. 400 BCE Buddhism Shares a number of main Siddharta Gautama
(South Asia, East Asia, beliefs (samsara, (Buddha)
Southeast Asia) dharma, moksha) with
Hinduism Tripitaka

The Four Noble Truths

describe worldly
existence as imperfect
and influenced by
earthly desires and
suffering (dukkha); to rid
oneself of desire and
achieve liberation from
suffering, one must
follow the Eight-fold
Path

Divided into two major

branches: Theravada
Buddhism and
Mahayana Buddhism
ca. 400 BCE Confucianism The contemplation of the Confucius
(East Asia) order of things can lead
to self-transformation. The Five Classics
Self-transformation can
lead to the betterment of
the family and society

Human relationships are

based on mutual
obligations; individuals
should perform their
intended roles and
contribute to social
order.
ca. 200 BCE Taoism Emphasis on the unity Lao Tzu
(East Asia) and harmony among
opposing elements (yin I Ching,
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 and yang); individuals Tao Te Ching
must seek to understand Zhuangzi
and act in accordance
with the natural order.
ca. 610 CE Islam Belief in one God Muhammad
(West Asia) (Allah); commitment to
faith is shown through Quran
the practice of The Five
Pillars: testament of
faith (shahada), daily
prayers (salat), alms
giving (zakat), fasting
during the month of
Ramadan (sawm), and
pilgrimage to the holy
city of Mecca (hajj).

Religion and society are

closely intertwined; all
Muslims are members of
a community (ummah)
bounded by faith

Divided into two major

branches: Sunni Islam
and Shia Islam
ca. 1440 CE Sikhism God is believed to have Guru Nanak
(India) created the universe and
is present everywhere Guru Granth Sahib
and in everything

Man communicates with

God through meditation,
and his ultimate destiny
is union with the Divine

Apart from meditation,

believers must devote
themselves to selfless
service and action

In the development of Philosophy, it is noticeable that different philosophers provided different views as
regards to the source of existence of all things. In this regard, it becomes necessary to ask: “Who holds the right
view?”

Recognize Human Activities that Emanated from Deliberate Reflection

Philosophy and its Holistic Approach
A philosopher’s way of thinking can be described as “abstractive”.

Activity 1:
Blind Men and the Elephant – A Poem by John Godfrey Saxe

The Branches of Philosophy

In doing philosophy, there are five (5) questions that we should always be aware of:

A. What is there?
B. What can be known?
C. How could life be lived?
D. What is good reasoning?
E. What can life be like?

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 Metaphysics deals with the fundamental nature of reality and being. It seeks to answer what constitutes a
thing, its causes and effects, hence, what causes a cause.

epistemology – the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature and grounds of knowledge.

ethics. It is the area of philosophy that defines the principle of goodness of an act. Ethics is the branch of
philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions.

logic. A branch of philosophy that deals with the principles validating our reasoning. It is not enough that
our reasoning is correct, but most of all, it should also be valid.

aesthetics. A branch of philosophy that delves into art. The study includes what art is and the purpose
behind it. It aims to determine what is beautiful and what makes it a thing of beauty.

Why study philosophy?

 Enables us to think carefully and clearly about important issues
 Focuses on not what to believe but how to think
 Sharpens analytical abilities, enabling us to identify and evaluate strengths and weaknesses in any
position
 Develops our ability to work independently

The given reason make apparent that philosophy trains us to think and evaluate our thought
processes. Philosophy is about life. It is not just a subject you take in school.

A question is a conscious search for knowledge. Anyone who asks questions is philosophizing.
However, the act of questioning can only be considered authentic if it has these three fundamental conditions:
 It is for gaining knowledge
 It is to become aware of one’s ignorance
 It is for the awareness that there is more to be known

Socratic Method. This method is a series of questions intended to question ideas, topics, views, or
assumptions. It is a way to seek truth guided by your own light, so to speak. The goal of this method is to gain
deeper understanding of the topic. Ideally, the Socratic Method is to help you become more convincing or be
willing to admit that your initial belief was inaccurate.

Contemporary research on the Socratic Method identified six types of Socratic questions. These questions
serve as a guide in developing critical thinking skills. R.W. Paul identified six types of Socratic questions:
1. Clarification questions such as “Why do you say that?”
2. Probing questions that seek to verify or disprove an assumption “What are other assumptions about this
topic?”
3. Probing questions that seek to verify or disprove an evidence “Why does this evidence/example prove
that the idea is true/false?”
4. Probing questions that seek to verify or disprove viewpoints, perspectives, opinions “Why is it necessary
/ beneficial / best?”
5. Probing questions regarding implications or consequences “What are you implying?” “What are the
effects / consequences of the idea?” “How will this affect / apply to?”
6. Probing question about the question “What was the point of the question?” “Why was the question
asked?”

Activity 2
“If the question is more important than the answer, why bother studying??

Realize the value of doing philosophy in obtaining a broad perspective in life

It is important to study philosophy because its significance seeps into all aspects of human life. Socrates
said, “the unexamined life is not worth living”. This implies that philosophy, as an activity of reflection, gives

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rise to a wiser way of life, a more meaningful practice of a career, better financial management, healthier
handling of relationships and paves the way for improvement in every possible human activity.

Activity 3

Filipino Thinking: From Local to Global

It may sound presumptuous to speak of “Filipino Thought” for the reason that the Philippines could not
very well speak of a tradition such as that of China, India or Greco-Roman. Yet, for the Filipino, there has to be
a “Filipino Thought” or none at all. Like any other people, the Filipino must eventually take consciousness of
his own particular life and his world, his society and his gods in the light of Truth, and thereby realize his
proper being. However, the pioneering attempts to formulate a Filipino philosophy share the fate of most
pioneering works: the lack of refined tools and the lack of predecessors upon whom to stand.
Nevertheless, Filipinos do have their own philosophy. The three dimensions of Filipino thought are: Loob,
Filipino Philosophy of Time, and Bahala Na. These attitudes and values constitute the hidden springs of the
Filipino Mind.

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