GDT Reference Book Engl 2 0f PDF

Geometric
Dimensioning
and Tolerancing (GD&T)
Reference Book
Version 2.0 written by:

Due to increased complexity of products, and based on new function and process
technologies, enhanced sensitivity is required at the dimensional management work for cost-
effective implementation of qualitative specifics in parts and systems.
The company’s specific orientation to methods like “Best Practice” and “Lessons Learned” in
respect of required values will not only prevent losses but also avoid increases on costs on
account of unnecessary additional alignment work in the manufacturing process.
Target conflicts arising from the well-known cross-effects between a wish and its feasibility
and cost-efficiency can be changed by this.
Resume:
⇒ Tolerances play a critical role in the part and assembly group manufacturing and
assembling as they bear on both function and costs.
Recommendation for implementation at Johnson Controls
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction: Tolerances ............................................................................. 13
1.1 What is Tolerance? ...............................................................................................13
1.1.1 Dimensional Tolerance .......................................................................................15
1.1.1.1 Different dimension groups ......................................................................16
1.1.2 Form and Position (Geometric) Tolerances.........................................................16
1.1.3 Design Deviations ...............................................................................................17
1.1.4 Tolerance Zones .................................................................................................18
1.2 Why Do We Need Tolerances? .............................................................................19
1.3 What Types of Tolerance Deviations Do Exist?.....................................................20
1.4 What is “Right” Tolerance?....................................................................................21
2 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) .................................. 22
2.1 Historical Background ...........................................................................................22
2.2 Norms and Standards ...........................................................................................24
2.2.1 What is a Norm/Standard? ..................................................................................24
2.2.2 Organizations .....................................................................................................25
2.2.3 Summary of Relevant DIN Standards .................................................................26
2.2.4 General Manufacturing Tolerances .....................................................................27
2.2.5 Legislative Framework for Standards ..................................................................28
2.2.6 OEM related overview for GD&T Standards........................................................28
2.3 Benefits of GD&T ..................................................................................................29
3 Types of Tolerances .................................................................................... 30
3.1 Tolerances of Form ...............................................................................................30
3.2 Tolerances of Profile .............................................................................................31
3.3 Tolerances of Orientation ......................................................................................32
3.4 Tolerances of Location ..........................................................................................33
3.5 Runout Tolerances ................................................................................................34
4 Representation of Tolerances..................................................................... 36
4.1 Summary: Standard Drawing Layout .....................................................................36
4.2 Baseline Dimensioning ..........................................................................................37
4.2.1 Tolerance/Datum Arrow ......................................................................................37
4.2.2 Ideal/Theoretically Precise Dimension ................................................................39
4.2.3 Controlled Dimension..........................................................................................40
4.2.4 Datums ...............................................................................................................40
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4.3 Feature Control Frame ..........................................................................................41
4.3.1 Controlled Properties ..........................................................................................43
4.3.2 Diameter .............................................................................................................45
4.3.3 Tolerance Values ................................................................................................45
4.3.4 Material Conditions .............................................................................................46
4.3.5 Datums ...............................................................................................................46
4.3.6 Additional Textual Data .......................................................................................47
4.3.7 Single and Combined Feature Control Frames ...................................................48
4.3.7.1 Single Feature Control Frame ..................................................................48
4.3.7.2 Combined Feature Control Frame ............................................................48
4.3.7.3 Example: Position Tolerance ....................................................................49
4.3.7.3.1 Single Feature Position Control Frame ................................................49
4.3.7.3.2 Combined Feature Position Control Frame ..........................................50
4.3.7.4 Example: Profile Tolerance ......................................................................50
4.3.7.4.1 Single Feature Profile Control Frame ...................................................51
4.3.7.4.2 Combined Feature Tolerance Frame with Directional Limit ..................51
4.3.7.4.3 Combined Feature Control Frame with Form Variation Ratio ...............52
4.3.7.5 Composite Feature Control Frame ...........................................................53
4.3.7.5.1 Example: Composite Position Tolerance..............................................53
4.4 Additional Symbols ...............................................................................................54
4.5 General Table of Tolerances .................................................................................55
5 Datums .......................................................................................................... 56
5.1 What are Datums good for? ..................................................................................57
5.2 Datum References in Drawings .............................................................................58
5.2.1 Datum Triangle ...................................................................................................58
5.2.2 Datum Locations / Datum Features.....................................................................58
5.2.3 Sequential Order of Datum Indications According to MBN 11011 .......................61
5.2.4 Axis / Plane as Datum.........................................................................................62
5.2.5 Coplanar Surface as Datum ................................................................................64
5.2.6 Unfolded State as Datum ....................................................................................64
5.2.7 Difference Between Datum Plane and Datum Location.......................................65
5.2.8 Sequence of Datums related to Datum Reference Frame ...................................66
5.3 Datum System ......................................................................................................68
5.3.1 6 Degrees of Freedom ........................................................................................68
5.3.2 The 3-2-1 Rule ....................................................................................................69
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5.3.3 Determination of Datum System .........................................................................75
5.3.4 Datum System Requirements .............................................................................76
5.3.5 Datum System Arrangement ...............................................................................76
5.3.6 Determination of Datum/Locating Distance (Effective Distance) .........................77
5.3.7 Determination of Unilateral Surface Tolerances ..................................................79
5.3.8 Definition of Datums through Coordinate Data ....................................................81
5.4 Locator Selection Strategy ....................................................................................82
5.4.1 Hole/Oblong Hole Principle .................................................................................82
5.4.2 Opening ..............................................................................................................83
5.4.3 Distance between Locators .................................................................................84
5.4.4 Low Strain Arrangement with Locators ...............................................................84
5.4.5 Curvilinear Surfaces as Locator ..........................................................................85
5.4.6 Pressing Tools and Locators...............................................................................85
5.4.7 Locators on Vertical Surfaces .............................................................................85
5.4.8 Locator Block and Pin Layout .............................................................................86
5.4.9 Locator Pins on Plastic Parts ..............................................................................86
6 Material Conditions...................................................................................... 87
6.1 Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) Material Conditions .........................................87
6.2 Maximum Material Condition (MMC) .....................................................................87
6.3 Least Material Condition (LMC) .............................................................................88
6.4 Bonus Tolerance ...................................................................................................88
6.5 Comparison between MMC and RFS ....................................................................89
6.6 Comparison of MMC and LMC ..............................................................................91
6.7 Hole-Piston Interplay .............................................................................................92
6.7.1 Example of MMC ................................................................................................92
6.8 Effective Condition ................................................................................................93
6.8.1 Example: Effective condition ...............................................................................94
7 Tolerance Principles .................................................................................... 96
7.1 Tolerance Principle ...............................................................................................97
7.1.1 Basics of Envelope Principle ...............................................................................97
7.1.2 Tolerance by Envelope Principle .........................................................................98
7.1.3 Basics of Independence Principle .....................................................................100
7.1.4 Tolerance by Independence Principle ...............................................................100
8 Differences between ASME and ISO Standard ........................................ 104
9 Specifics of Use of MBN 11011 ................................................................. 112
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9.1 Surface Lines as Datums ....................................................................................112
9.2 Angular Measure Tolerances (± Tolerances).......................................................112
9.3 Stepped Measures ..............................................................................................113
9.4 Surface Profile Outline Symbols ..........................................................................113
9.5 Concentricity / Coaxiality, Symmetry ...................................................................114
9.6 Combined Feature Control Frame for Position and Surface Tolerances ..............114
10 Best Business Practice (Simplified GD&T) .............................................. 116
10.1 Position vs. Concentricity ....................................................................................116
10.2 PROFILE VS. PERPENDICULARITY .................................................................117
10.3 PROFILE VS. PARALLELISM.............................................................................118
10.4 PROFILE VS. ANGULARITY ..............................................................................119
10.5 PROFILE VS. POSITION ....................................................................................120
11 Measurement Uncertainty and Tolerances .............................................. 121
11.1 Measuring and Manufacturing Process Capability ...............................................122
11.2 Determination of Measurement Uncertainty ........................................................123
11.3 Measurement Uncertainty Considerations...........................................................125
11.4 Measurement Uncertainty Implications................................................................126
12 Tolerancing Processes and Concepts ..................................................... 127
12.1 Product Definition ................................................................................................127
12.2 Illustration of Tolerancing Process by Means of General Car Development Process
127
12.3 Tolerance Assessment in FMEA .........................................................................131
12.3.1 Example for Assignment of FMEA Ratings to Characteristic Classes ............132
12.4 Process Prerequisites for Functional Dimensioning Concept ..............................133
12.4.1 Required Data and Information .....................................................................133
12.5 VDA Standardized Tolerancing Process Draft .....................................................136
13 Tolerance Analysis and Tolerance Simulation ........................................ 137
13.1 What Is Tolerance Analysis? ...............................................................................137
13.2 What Do We Need Tolerance Analysis for? ........................................................137
13.3 Prerequisites for Effective Tolerance Analysis.....................................................138
13.3.1 Requirements Placed on Drawings ...............................................................139
13.4 Tolerance Simulation ..........................................................................................140
13.4.1 One-dimensional Simulation / Calculation .....................................................142
13.4.1.1 Example of One-dimensional Simulation / Calculation............................143
13.4.1.2 Excel Spreadsheet for One-dimensional Simulation / Calculation ..........143
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13.4.2 3D Analysis Process .....................................................................................144
13.4.2.1 Monte Carlo Simulation and Sensitivity Analysis ( HLM Analysis) ..........146
13.4.2.1.1 Monte Carlo Simulation....................................................................148
13.4.2.1.2 Sensitivity Analysis (HLM Analysis) .................................................149
13.4.3 Characteristic Values of Process Capabilities Cp and Cpk ............................150
13.4.3.1 Tolerance and Manufacturability Calculation ..........................................152
13.4.3.2 Examples of Manufacturability for cp and cpk ........................................152
13.5 Example: 3D / 1D Method Workflow for Interiors .................................................153
14 Tolerance Management at JC: Dimensional Management ..................... 154
14.1 Dimensional Management Objectives .................................................................154
14.2 General Tolerance Analysis Process at JC .........................................................157
14.2.1 Relevant GD&T Reports According to PLUS Action Plan ..............................158
14.2.2 Support Options for Individual PLUS Stages .................................................159
14.2.3 Tolerancing Communication Platform: Workgroup on Tolerancing ................160
14.3 Quality Objectives at Johnson Controls ...............................................................161
15 Annex .......................................................................................................... 162
15.1 Guidance for Practice..........................................................................................162
15.2 Wikipedia Page on Dimensional Management ....................................................164
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Table of Figures
Figure 1:Comparison of a geometrically ideal shape, tolerance zone and true profile ...........14
Figure 2:Dimensional tolerance ............................................................................................15
Figure 3:dimension groups ...................................................................................................16
Figure 4: Zones of tolerance .................................................................................................18
Figure 5:Qualitative characteristics .......................................................................................19
Figure 6: Hole series alignment precision .............................................................................19
Figure 7: Gap & Flush focus .................................................................................................19
Figure 8: Possible errors if tolerance specifications are absent ............................................20
Figure 9: Deviation ratios......................................................................................................21
Figure 10: Representation of a standard drawing layout .......................................................36
Figure 11: Representation of a tolerated feature...................................................................37
Figure 12: Representation of a tolerated feature (2) .............................................................38
Figure 13: Representation of a tolerance arrow (datum arrow) .............................................38
Figure 14: Representation of a tolerance arrow (datum arrow) (2) ........................................38
Figure 15: Representation of a tolerance arrow (datum arrow) (3) ........................................39
Figure 16: Representation of the ideal/theoretically precise dimension.................................39
Figure 17: Representation of a controlled dimension ............................................................40
Figure 18: Representation of datums....................................................................................40
Figure 19: Representation of a feature control frame ............................................................42
Figure 20: Representation of descriptions in a feature control frame ....................................42
Figure 21: Representation of symbols of controlled properties .............................................43
Figure 22: Diameter symbol..................................................................................................45
Figure 23: Indication of tolerance values ..............................................................................45
Figure 24: Datum reference letter indications in a feature control frame ...............................46
Figure 25: Datum indication according to coordinates ..........................................................46
Figure 26: XYZ coordinate system........................................................................................47
Figure 27: Additional textual data .........................................................................................47
Figure 28: Additional textual data (2) ....................................................................................47
Figure 29: Example – additional textual data ........................................................................48
Figure 30: Single feature control frame .................................................................................48
Figure 31: Combined feature control frame ..........................................................................48
Figure 32: Single/combined feature control frame with a position tolerance example ...........49
Figure 33: Single feature position control frame....................................................................49
Figure 34: Combined feature position control frame .............................................................50
Figure 35: Single/combined feature control frame with a profile tolerance example ..............50
Figure 36: Single feature control frame .................................................................................51
Figure 37: Combined feature profile tolerance frame with a directional limit .........................51
Figure 38: Combined feature control frame with a form deviation ratio .................................52
Figure 39: Composite feature control frame..........................................................................53
Figure 40: Composite position tolerance ..............................................................................53
Figure 41: Datum feature......................................................................................................56
Figure 42: Datum – datum feature relationship .....................................................................56
Figure 43: Sequential order of datums..................................................................................57
Figure 44: Representation options for datum triangles relating to different datum features ...58
Figure 45: Types of datum features/datum locations ............................................................59
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Figure 46: Surface datum locations ......................................................................................59
Figure 47: Line datum locations............................................................................................60
Figure 48: Point datum locations ..........................................................................................60
Figure 49: Off-frame indication of a datum............................................................................61
Figure 50: Datum referencing sequence ...............................................................................61
Figure 51: Sequential order of datums..................................................................................62
Figure 52: Central plane of outer datum features..................................................................62
Figure 53:Central plane of an inner datum feature................................................................62
Figure 54: A datum axis of an outer dimensioned feature (shaft) ..........................................63
Figure 55: Datum axis of an inner dimensioned feature (hole) ..............................................63
Figure 56: A datum plane with a flatness tolerance ..............................................................63
Figure 57: Coplanar plane as datum.....................................................................................64
Figure 58: Unfolded state as datum ......................................................................................64
Figure 59: Difference between a datum plane and a datum location.....................................65
Figure 60: Effects related to different datum sequences .......................................................67
Figure 61: 6 degrees of freedom .........................................................................................68
Figure 62: 6 degrees of freedom (2) .....................................................................................68
Figure 63: 3-2-1 rule .............................................................................................................69
Figure 64: 3-2-1 rule (2).......................................................................................................70
Figure 65: Example 1 for the 3-2-1 rule (1) ...........................................................................70
Figure 66: Example 1 for the 3-2-1 rule(2) ............................................................................71
Figure 67: Example 2 for the 3-2-1 rule ................................................................................71
Figure 68: Example2 for the 3-2-1 rule (2) ............................................................................72
Figure 71: Example 4 for the 3-2-1 rule (2) ...........................................................................73
Figure 73: Determination of a datum system ........................................................................75
Figure 74: Determination of a datum system influencing measurement results ....................75
Figure 75: Datum system arrangement – part defect ............................................................76
Figure 76: A part with a defined tolerance in different systems .............................................77
Figure 77.Determination of an effective/locating distance .....................................................77
Figure 78. Determination of the datum/locating distance (2) .................................................78
Figure 79. Determination of the datum (locating) distance (critical area) ..............................78
Figure 80. Determination of unilateral surface tolerances .....................................................79
Figure 81: Determination of unilateral surface tolerances (Example 1) .................................79
Figure 84: Definition of datums through coordinate data.......................................................81
Figure 85: The hole/oblong hole principle .............................................................................82
Figure 86: The hole/oblong hole principle (2)........................................................................83
Figure 87: Locator selection strategy ....................................................................................83
Figure 88: Distance between locators...................................................................................84
Figure 89: Locator pins on plastic parts ................................................................................86
Figure 90: Representation of bonus tolerances ....................................................................88
Figure 91: Representation of tolerance array........................................................................89
Figure 92:Example of MMC ..................................................................................................92
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Figure 93:Comparison between MMC and LMC for an outer feature ....................................93
Figure 94: Tolerance principles ............................................................................................96
Figure 95: Tolerance principles (2) .......................................................................................97
Figure 96: Examples of applications where the envelope principle cannot be used ..............99
Figure 97: DIN 7167 Tolerance ............................................................................................99
Figure 98: DIN 7167 Tolerance (2) .....................................................................................100
Figure 99: ISO 8015 Tolerancing ........................................................................................101
Figure 100: Taylor testing principle .....................................................................................102
Figure 101: Taylor testing principle (2) ...............................................................................103
Figure 102: Drawing representations ..................................................................................105
Figure 103: Geometric tolerance notations .........................................................................106
Figure 104: Fig. 104: Special tolerancing............................................................................107
Figure 105: Special location tolerances ..............................................................................108
Figure 106: Special feature control frames .........................................................................109
Figure 107: Profile tolerancing ............................................................................................110
Figure 108: Boundary control .............................................................................................111
Figure 109: Surface line as datum ......................................................................................112
Figure 110: Angular measure tolerances ............................................................................112
Figure 111: Stepped measures ..........................................................................................113
Figure 112: Surface profile outline symbols ........................................................................113
Figure 113: Concentricity / coaxiality and symmetry ...........................................................114
Figure 114: Combined feature control frame for position and surface tolerances................114
Figure 115: Best Practice: Positon vs. Concentricity ...........................................................116
Figure 116: Not preferred: Position vs. Concentricity ..........................................................116
Figure 117: Best Practice: Profile vs Perpendicularity.........................................................117
Figure 118: Not preferred: Position vs. Perpendicularity .....................................................117
Figure 119: Best Practice: Profile vs. Parallelism................................................................118
Figure 120: Non-Preferred: Profile. vs Parallelism ..............................................................118
Figure 121: Best Pracice: Profile vs. Angularity ..................................................................119
Figure 122: Non-Preferred: Profile vs. Angularity...............................................................119
Figure 123: Best Practice: Profile vs. Position ....................................................................120
Figure 124: Non-Preferred: Profile vs. Position ...................................................................120
Figure 125: Measurement result and measurement uncertainty .........................................121
Figure 126: Overlay of manufacturing process and measuring process variances..............122
Figure 127: Effect of %GRR on the characteristic quality process capability variable Cp....123
Figure 128: extended area on uncertainty, area of conformity, area of nonconformity ........125
Figure 129: Areaof tolerance (USG – OSG) .......................................................................126
Figure 130: System boundaries of a complete vehicle ........................................................128
Figure 131: A part and a component in a complete vehicle ................................................129
Figure 132: Dimensional quality implementation process ...................................................133
Figure 133: Concept stage ................................................................................................134
Figure 134: Development ...................................................................................................135
Figure 135 Representation of results (quality- and function-related customer requirements)
...........................................................................................................................................137
Figure 136: Product requirements for the tolerance analysis ..............................................138
Figure 137: : Requirements placed on drawings .................................................................139
Figure 138: Requirements placed on drawings (2) .............................................................139
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Figure 139: 1D and 3D simulation ......................................................................................140
Figure 140: Execution of 1D Studies ..................................................................................143
Figure 141: 1D Excel spreadsheet......................................................................................143
Figure 142: 3D analysis overview .......................................................................................144
Figure 143: Development process assessment ..................................................................145
Figure 144: Comparison between the Monte Carlo simulation and the sensitivity analysis .147
Figure 145: Monte Carlo simulation procedure ...................................................................148
Figure 146: Normal distribution...........................................................................................148
Figure 147: Sensitivity analysis procedure..........................................................................149
Figure 148: HLM Report .....................................................................................................149
Figure 149: Six Sigma region in a HLM Report ...................................................................150
Figure 150: Tolerance and manufacturability calculation ....................................................152
Figure 151: Example of a garage for cp and Cpk................................................................152
Figure 152: Example of 1D and 3D workflow for interiors ...................................................153
Figure 153: Costs needed for manufacturability..................................................................155
Figure 154: Cost reduction through preventive action by DM..............................................156
Figure 155: General tolerance analysis process at JC ........................................................157
Figure 156: GD&T reports in the PLUS plan .......................................................................158
Figure 157: Support options in the PLUS plan ....................................................................159
Figure 158: Workgroup on tolerancing ................................................................................160
Figure 159: Quality objectives at JC ...................................................................................161
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Table Overview
Table 1: Design deviations ...................................................................................................17
Table 2: Summary of relevant DIN standards .......................................................................26
Table 3: General manufacturing tolerances ..........................................................................27
Table 4: OEM related GD&T Standard .................................................................................28
Table 5: Tolerances of form ..................................................................................................30
Table 6: Tolerances of profile ...............................................................................................31
Table 7: Tolerances of orientation ........................................................................................32
Table 8: Tolerances of location (position) .............................................................................33
Table 9: Runout tolerances ..................................................................................................35
Table 10: Symbols for form tolerance indications .................................................................43
Table 11: Symbols for profile tolerance indications ...............................................................44
Table 12: Symbols for orientation tolerance indications ........................................................44
Table 13: Symbols for location tolerance indications ............................................................44
Table 14: Symbols for runout tolerance indications ..............................................................45
Table 15: Material conditions ................................................................................................46
Table 16: Additional symbols ................................................................................................54
Table 17: General table of tolerances ...................................................................................55
Table 18: Comparison between MMC and RFS....................................................................90
Table 19: Comparison between MMC and LMC ...................................................................91
Table 20: Comparison between MMC and LMC for an inner feature: ...................................92
Table 21: Comparison between MMC and LMC for an outer feature ...................................93
Table 22: Effective condition with an inner feature ( MMC) ...................................................94
Table 23: Effective condition table of an outer feature (MMC) ..............................................94
Table 24: Effective condition table of an inner feature (LMC)................................................95
Table 25: Effective condition table of an outer feature ( LMC) ..............................................95
Table 26: Form deviations and envelopes of simple geometric features ............................102
Table 27:Use of unilateral surface tolerances .....................................................................115
Table 28: Overview of uncertainty components ..................................................................124
Table 29: Measurement uncertainty considerations for limit values (tolerance zone
boundaries) ........................................................................................................................125
Table 30: Assignment of FMEA ratings to characteristic classes ........................................132
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1 Introduction: Tolerances
1.1 What is Tolerance?
A part basically comprises individual geometric-shape features. Though a design engineer

indicates the geometrically ideal shape of a product in its drawing, due to manufacturing
inaccuracies and measurement uncertainties real values vary to some extent around the
desired ideal value. The maximum permissible deviation of actual values from the desired
value is set by the engineer by means of tolerance data.
In addition to functionality of a part, the aim behind such tolerance data definition is the
fundamental interchangeability principle. Independently manufactured parts should be
matchable within predefined limits without selection or modification, and able of performing
the required function.
‘Tolerance’ refers to the entire range over which a specific dimension may vary; the following
types of tolerances are distinguished:
• dimensional tolerance
• form tolerance
• position tolerance
Dimensional tolerance refers to the dimension range within which a dimension may
vary with regard to its geometrically ideal measure (e.g. a hole may not be smaller than
a minimum measure).
Form tolerance refers to the dimension range within which a geometric feature may
vary with regard to its geometrically ideal shape (e.g. the hole jacket surface must not
be excessively curved).
Position tolerance refers to the dimension range within which a geometric feature may
vary with regard to its geometrically ideal position relative to other geometric features.
Two tolerances are distinguished here: orientation tolerance (e.g. a hole must not be
excessively skewed) and location tolerance (e.g. a hole must not be positioned in a
wrong location).
13
The following are representations of the difference between a geometrically ideal shape,
tolerance zone and the true profile for a line profile.
required geometrically ideal shape
The engineer has assigned a geometrically ideal

shape to the part.
tolerance
tolerance zone
The part has been assigned a tolerance of 0.04

mm. Such value may be dragged as a kind of
“frame” around the geometrically ideal shape,
which is then referred to as ‘tolerance zone’.
True profile
The true profile is the resulting feature of the real

part and it shows whether the tolerance has been
respected.
Figure 1:Comparison of a geometrically ideal shape, tolerance zone and true profile
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1.1.1 Dimensional Tolerance
The standards system of ISO (International Standards Organization) lays down that a
dimensional tolerance demarcates, using only two-point measurement, the established
actual local dimension of a geometric feature. A dimensional tolerance is defined by means
limit dimensions or tolerance symbols, without setting any limitations as to shape or position.
The figure shows the required outline of a hole.
The dimensional tolerance defines the hole

diameter.
Where only a dimensional tolerance is stated,

different hole alternatives are possible and all of
them will comply with the dimensional tolerance
set. The figure illustrates, however, how the
actual outline may deviate from that desired.
Figure 2:Dimensional tolerance
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1.1.1.1 Different dimension groups
Related to distance dimensions we distinguish between four dimension groups.
Figure 3:dimension groups
a) Outer dimension (e.g. bolt diameter or sheet-metal thickness)

b) Inner dimension (e.g. hole diameter or groove width): This two groups connect
alternate surfaces or elements of the same surface (at lateral area)
c) Fan dimension (e.g. step length or groove depth): They are used between equal
orientated surfaces. A fan dimension can only measured with a auxiliary tool. (e.g.
with a docked ruler.) This kind of dimension should be defined with a clear drawing
enrollment.
d) Distance dimension (e.g. Hole center distance or pitch dimension): They have a
extraordinary status, because it is no real dimensional tolerance, but rather a position
tolerance.
1.1.2 Form and Position (Geometric) Tolerances
As described earlier in this section, every workpiece deviates to some extent from the
geometrically ideal appearance. However, the critical factors affecting functionality of a
mechanically manufactured workpiece are shape and position parameters.
In line with that, shape and position parameters are indicated in a drawing only if they are
necessary for operability and/or production cost-efficiency of the workpiece.
The procedure for determining shape and position tolerances relies on the tolerance zone
definition principle, meaning that a zone within which the element concerned (plane, axis or
central plane) must fall needs to be defined.
16
1.1.3 Design Deviations
Design deviations True deviation
Geometrically ideal (required) Nominal design
nominal design
Dimensional deviation Dimensional deviation
Shape deviation Shape deviation
Position deviations Location deviation
Orientation deviation
Surface Surface deviation
Table 1: Design deviations
17
1.1.4 Tolerance Zones
Geometric features with indicated tolerances must be always within the tolerance zone.
Basically, tolerance zones can be defined using either of the following methods:
- as area between two equidistant lines or two parallel straight lines
- as space between two parallel planes
- as space within a cylinder
- as space within a rectangular prism or a sphere
- as circle area
- as area between two concentric circles
- as space between two coaxial cylinders
Area between two Space between two Space inside
parallel straight lines parallel planes a cylinder
Space inside Area between two Space between two
a rectangular prism concentrically circles coaxial cylinders
Figure 4: Zones of tolerance
A tolerance zone is demarcated by means of two border lines or border planes or border
circles that correspond to the ideal shape of the geometric feature.
The tolerated feature may have any direction within the tolerance zone, unless other limiting
data are provided.
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1.2 Why Do We Need Tolerances?
Tolerances
Principally, a product is subject to certain quality requirements that must be met to ensure
the required
quality characteristics –
qualitative requirements placed on the product
function-oriented customer-oriented
Figure 5:Qualitative characteristics
function of the part/assembly group.

group For example, hole series alignment precision requires a
function-oriented focus.
Figure 6: Hole series alignment precision
A customer-oriented
oriented focus, in turn, is driven by optical requirements. Good
ood gap & flush with
design-oriented
oriented consideration is required here.
Flush
Gap
Figure 7: Gap & Flush focus
19
Q1P = D + M
Quality product = design engineering activities + manufacturing activities
The definition of a tolerance related to geometry should cause the effect, that the geometry
part deviates from the notional ideal shape only within this tolerance zone. In practice, for
example, a sheet-metal edge serving as endstop must be sufficiently flat; or a rolling-element
bearing seat must have sufficient cylindricity.
Smart engineering concepts using geometric tolerancing will ensure that specified
quality targets of the final product be met.
Where no tolerances are defined, the following consequences may emerge:
The pin wouldn’t enter the hole (shape error)
The pin’s position in the hole would be skewed (position

error)
Figure 8: Possible errors if tolerance specifications are absent
Conclusion: Form and position tolerances are required to ensure trouble-free

interchangeability of parts and assembly groups!
1.3 What Types of Tolerance Deviations Do Exist?
Basically, three different tolerance deviations are distinguished:
- part/material-specific deviations
- process deviations
- individual part deviations
The following figure shows the ratios of the three deviation types:
20
part/material-specific
deviations
process deviations
individual part deviations
Figure 9: Deviation ratios
Process deviations result from the part assembling sequence, assembly clearances,
directional orientation of parts and the tool design.
1.4 What is “Right” Tolerance?
The following points should be considered at the use of tolerances:
if a specified tolerance is two narrow, manufacturing problems arise and the product
costs excessively increases
if a specified tolerance is to broad, process problems are encountered and the

attainment of quality (functionality) objectives becomes more difficult.
A “right” tolerance is as large as possible and as small as necessary!
21
2 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T)
GD&T (Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing) is an international symbol-based language

that is used on engineering drawings to accurately describe or determine the function of a
part or a certain assembly and the intrinsic objective of the drawing.
It complements the traditional “plus-minus” or coordinate methods.
The main purpose of GD&T is to describe part/assembly geometric requirements so as to

ensure that the part/assembly will have the required shape, alignment precision and function.
The GD&T symbol language defines the:
• size
• shape
• orientation/direction
• component position/location
The strictly defined, symbol-based GD&T language aims at preventing erroneous

interpretations of comments and/or notes. The symbols clarify how a certain feature should
be made and controlled as GD&T precisely defines the part testing principle (gage check or
measurement).
2.1 Historical Background
The first use of technical drawings with tolerances dates back to the turn of the 19th and 20th
centuries. Before that, only small or dimension-less specifications were used, thus leaving a
large room for decision-making and manufacturing deliberations.
Along with growing requirements on products and the emergence of measurement methods
with increasingly improved efficiency, the number and types of tolerance specifications have
increased. The following types of tolerances have been defined:
• form tolerances
• profile tolerances
• orientation tolerances
• position tolerances
• runout tolerances
The GD&T theory was developed by Stanley Parker at the Torpedo royal factory in
Alexandria (Scotland) in the late 1930’s, and it was first accepted as British “standard” by the
22
British Navy. Different publications on tolerances of both British and US origins triggered
interest also on the part of the International Standards Organization (ISO).
The major contributors to the development of the GD&T system were the aviation and
military industries. During the World War II, the exchange of arms between the USA and
Great Britain revealed the need for universal interchangeability of different product parts.
1920: The first GD&T applications in the USA were measuring systems using specialist
measurement requirement terms as opposed to formal tolerance systems. Earl
Buckingham’s work can be considered as an example of the new system.
1940: One example of industrial standards comes from Chevrolet Division of General Motors
Corporation
1945: The first army-related work was published, entitled “The U.S. Army Ordnance Manual
on Dimensioning and Tolerancing“.
The G.A Gladmann’s “Drawing Office Practice in Relation to Interchangeable Components”

was presented at an annual meeting of SAE military engineers in Detroit and led to an
extensive discussion.
1949: MIL-STD-8 was the first standard to find its firm place in all military sectors. Though no
dimensioning symbols were used in it, it contained basic dimensioning specifications as well
as definitions for datums (or RPS/MLP points), as well as tolerance descriptions comparable
to the today’s Y14.5 standards.
1953: MIL-STD-8A was the first US concept to determine the future development, containing
the first examples of geometric symbols for datum (reference) points, flatness, straightness,
perpendicularity, parallelism, concentricity and proper positioning.
1959: MIL-STD-8B is a follow-up to MIL-STD-8A, adding to it right-angle tolerance zones,

perfect shapes with the maximum material condition, M- and S-adjustments and zero
tolerances with the M-adjustment.
1963: MIL-STD-8C was another follow-up to the preceding standards, though featuring a
greater focus placed on the illustration of different terms. Moreover, projected tolerances
were incorporated.
1973: ANSI Y14.5 standard contains the diameter symbol, composite position tolerances,
datum references, projected tolerance symbols and dual dimensioning systems.
1982: 1982 ANSI Y14.5 standard provides more in-depth details as compared to its
predecessor of 1973. Some further symbols were added and dimensioning attributes further
elaborated.
1994: 1984 ANSI Y14.5 standard contains positioning of 2 individual parts, profile
assembling, controlled radius and some new symbols. The dual dimensioning system was
deleted.
23
2.2 Norms and Standards
The purpose of standardization is reproducibility of production outputs and comparable

quality standards through application of operation-specific norms.
2.2.1 What is a Norm/Standard?
Standard is a document that has been proposed, upon agreement with the stakeholders
involved, for a particular process or a service. Stakeholders may include manufacturers,
sellers, buyers, consumers and production certification bodies.
Such a document contains technical marks or other specific criteria to ensure its uniform
application in form of rules, guidelines or definitions.
The application of standards guarantees to all operators an unambiguous reference in terms

of technical marking, quality, feasibility and safety. Products and services should be
designed with a focus on the objective and be both comparable and compatible.
Standards present a summary of best practices. They represent the outcome derived from
experience and knowledge of all stakeholders and have been developed with a view to
satisfying the demand from the society and the technology.
Special standard means:
● a generally accepted standard determined by certain processes
● a recognized engineering rule that has been developed during a standardization

process and exists in a paper form as standard sheet
24
2.2.2 Organizations
DIN means “Deutsches Institut für Normung” – German Standardization Institution, which is
the national standardization organization of the Federal Republic of Germany. It pursues the
role of the German member of European and international standardization organizations for
relevant tasks.
The “International Standardization Organization” (ISO) is an international association of

standardization organizations. It prepares international standards and planned
standardization procedures and activities for development and implementation of rules to
unify tangible and intangible objects.
DIN-ISO then refers to German unmodified transposition of an ISO standard.
EN is the acronym of “European Norm”, referring to rules that have been ratified by one of
the three European Standardization Committees.
DIN EN ISO: standards developed under the auspices of ISO or the “European Committee
for Standardization” that are then published by both organizations.
ASME (“American Society of Mechanical Engineers”) is a professional association of

mechanical engineers in the USA. One of principal functions of the Association is
development of technical guidelines and standards. ASME Standards are applied worldwide.
In the dimension, geometry and surface standardization sector, it applies to those German
businesses that are manufacturing in the USA, or in Germany according to US drawings. The
current US standard applying to the entire Dimensioning and Tolerancing complex is ASME
Y14.5M – 1994. Dimensioning and Tolerancing
The structure and scope of the ASME standard differs to some extent from its DIN-ISO
counterparts, and there are also some differences in the content in certain points.
25
2.2.3 Summary of Relevant DIN Standards
Standard Title
DIN 7167 Relationship between tolerances of size, form, and parallelism; envelope
requirement without individual indication on a drawing
DIN 7185 Statistical tolerancing: terms, application guidelines and drawing data
DIN 16901 Plastic moldings - Tolerances and acceptance conditions for linear
dimensions
DIN ISO 286 - Part 1 ISO system of limits and fits - Bases of tolerances, deviations and fits
DIN ISO 286 - Part 2 ISO system of limits and fits- Tables of standard tolerance grades and limit
deviations for holes and shafts
DIN ISO 1101 Technical drawings - Tolerancing of form, orientation, location and run-out -
Generalities, definitions, symbols, indications on drawings
DIN ISO 1660 Technical drawings - Dimensioning and tolerancing of profiles
DIN ISO 2692 Geometrical product specifications - Geometrical tolerancing - Maximum

material condition
DIN ISO 2768 - Part 1 General tolerances - Tolerances for linear and angular dimensions without
individual tolerance indications
DIN ISO 2768 - Part 2 General tolerances - Geometrical tolerances for features without individual
tolerance indications
DIN ISO 3040 Technical drawings - Dimensioning and tolerancing - Cones
DIN ISO 5459 Technical drawings – Geometrical tolerancing - Datums and datum-systems
for geometrical tolerances
DIN ISO 8015 Technical drawings - Fundamental tolerancing principle
DIN ISO 10578 Technical drawings - Tolerancing of orientation and location - Projected
tolerance zone
DIN ISO 10579 Technical drawings – Dimensioning and tolerancing - Non-rigid parts
DIN EN ISO 5458 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) - Geometrical tolerance -

Positional tolerance
Table 2: Summary of relevant DIN standards
26
2.2.4 General Manufacturing Tolerances
Manufacturing Standard Indication Existing tolerances/comments

process example
Molding DIN 6930 DIN 6930- Dimension, coaxiality, symmetry (partially),

m straightness, flatness (only for sections)
Bending/molding DIN 6930 DIN 6930- Dimensions, radiuses, angles, coaxiality,

m s DIN symmetry (partially)
DIN 6935 6935
Straightness, flatness (only for sections)
Plastic moldings DIN 16901 DIN 16901- For longitudinal dimensions

120
Deep drawing none DIN ISO Straightness, flatness, circularity, parallelism,

2768-mH perpendicularity, symmetry, runout
Pipe bending none DIN ISO Straightness, flatness, circularity, parallelism,

2768-mH perpendicularity, symmetry, runout
(pipe as semi- DIN 2393
product)
DIN 2394
DIN 2395
Welding DIN 8570 DIN ISO Dimension, angle, flatness, parallelism

13920-AE
Chip machining, DIN ISO DIN ISO Straightness, flatness, circularity, parallelism,
turning 2768 2768-mH perpendicularity, symmetry, runout
Disc springs DIN 2093 DIN 2093 –

see DIN
Cylindrical screws, DIN 2095 DIN 2095 – Pressure springs cold-molded from round bars
see DIN
pressure springs
Cylindrical screws, DIN 2096 DIN 2096 – Heat-treated pressure springs from round steel
see DIN sections
pressure springs
Pressure springs DIN 2097 DIN 2097 – Draw springs cold-molded from round wires
see DIN
Cylindrical screws, DIN 2098 DIN 2098 – Pressure springs below 0.5mm cold-molded
see DIN from round wires
pressure springs
Table 3: General manufacturing tolerances
27
2.2.5 Legislative Framework for Standards
DIN and ASME standards are the benchmarks for the engineering behavior, having certain
legal relevance within a jurisdiction.
Basically, they are recommendations the application of which is discretionary, which means
that they may and may not be applied.
Standards become binding only when references to them are incorporated in private
contracts or laws and regulations, providing for their application. As specifications in
standards are unambiguous, a specific agreement may be made on their binding effect in
order to prevent litigations. References to standards in laws and regulations disburden
governments and citizens from necessity of detailed legislations.
Even in cases where parties have not incorporated standards into their agreement, if a
dispute arises, such standards serve as guidance for rulings in respect of defects of
substance in agreements or contracts.
The basis here is the assumption that standards correspond to the current recognized
development level of technology.
Such assumption may be challenged (for example if a new draft standard is being prepared)
or denied by a chartered expert’s specialist opinion.
2.2.6 OEM related overview for GD&T Standards

Daimler ISO
BMW ISO
VW ISO
AUDI ISO
FIAT ISO
Peugeot ISO
Porsche ISO
GM / Opel ASME
Chrysler ASME
Ford ASME
KIA ISO
Hyundai ISO
Toyota ISO
Renault ISO
Volvo ASME
Table 4: OEM related GD&T Standard
28
2.3 Benefits of GD&T
GD&T improves communication:
1) It facilitates more accurate definition of the “project intent”.

2) Drawings are more easy-to-read.
3) Mistaken interpretations arising from different technical backgrounds are minimized.
4) After training in GD&T, this area is understandable to all of design engineers,
production, quality control, inspection, buyers and all personnel engaged in a project.
5) GD&T is internationally comprehensible.
6) It protects suppliers against customers that are excessively critical and asking
questions about missing drawing data.
7) A supplier is able to present a more accurate quotation as GD&T is very precise.
8) It gives a business extended legal protection in respect of, inter alia, wrong drawing
interpretations.
GD&T raises business profits
1) GD&T increases productivity.

2) GD&T minimizes returns, reworking and product and part defect rates.
3) GD&T has higher CAD/CAM/CAM compatibility.
4) GD&T helps to adhere to time plans.
5) With bonus tolerances, lower cost levels can be maintained.
6) GD&T guarantees interchangeability of parts.
GD&T enhances competitiveness
1) GD&T complies with ISO 9000 requirements.

2) Suppliers are able to reduce their quoted prices. “I had a supplier say to me at the
end of my GD&T Seminar, that because of the bonus tolerance he would now be able
to win bids from competitors that didn’t understand GD&T”.
3) GD&T reduces production costs.
It can be summed up under the line that with GD&T, drawings are read
correctly and free interpretation is eliminated. Only with the precision and
unambiguity of GD&T symbols correct “reading” of a drawing is really
possible.
29
3 Types of Tolerances
3.1 Tolerances of Form
Symbol Designation Explanation Tolerance Tolerance/ Datum

Deviation
Zone =
Sign
Point Space
Tol. Var.
Straightness Line straightness tolerances between two Tg Fg no

planes/straight
lines within a
cylinder
The tolerated cylinder axis lies within

a cylindrical tolerance zone with a
diameter of 0.04.
Flatness Flatness tolerances between two Te Fe no

planes
The area lies between two parallel

planes with a distance of 0.04.
Circularity Circularity tolerances between two Tk Fk no

concentric
circles
The circumferential line of every

cross-section lies between two
concentric circles with a pitch of 0.06.
Cylindricity Cylindricity tolerances between two Tz Fz no

concentric
cylinders
The tolerated surface area of the

cylinder lies between two coaxial
cylinders with a pitch of 0.1.
Table 5: Tolerances of form
30
3.2 Tolerances of Profile
Symbol Designation Explanation Tolerance Zone = Tolerance/ Datum

Deviation
Point Space Sign
Tol. Var.
Line profile Profile tolerance of any line profile between two perfectly ideal TIp FIp No
shape equidistant curves or
yes
The tolerated profile lies in any

parallel cross-section relative to
the projection plane between two
lines enclosing circles with a
diameter of 0.06.
Surface Profile tolerance of any surface space demarcated by a right- Tfn Ffn No
profile profile shape angled frame or
yes
The tolerated plane lies between

two parallel planes enwrapping
spheres with a diameter of 0.04.
Table 6: Tolerances of profile
31
3.3 Tolerances of Orientation

Deviation
Point Space Sign
Tol. Va
r.
Gradient Gradient tolerance, e.g. of a line relative within a cylinder Tn Fn yes

to a datum plane
The tolerated hole axis lies between two

parallel planes with a distance of 0.08,
inclined against the datum plane A with
a gradient of 60° .
Perpendicularly Perpendicularity tolerance of e.g. a line within a cylinder Tr Fr yes

relative to a datum plane.
The tolerated cylinder axis lies between

two parallel planes with a distance of 0.1
that are perpendicular to the datum
plane and the arrow-line’s direction
Parallelism Parallelism tolerance of e.g. a line between two Tp Fp yes

relative to a datum line parallel
lines/planes
The tolerated axis lies within a cylinder

with a diameter of 0.04, which is parallel
with the datum axis A.
Table 7: Tolerances of orientation
32
3.4 Tolerances of Location

Deviation
Point Space Sign
Tol very
Position Position tolerance of .e.g. a certain symmetrical in a Tps Fps yes

point theoretically
accurate location
on a circular part
relative to the
diameter
An actual point (intersection) is placed

within a circle with a diameter of 0.2
the centre of which is identical to the
theoretically precise position of the
controlled point.
Concentricity Coaxiality tolerance of an axis symmetrical in a TCU Fko yes

theoretically
accurate location
on a circular part
relative to the
diameter
The tolerated cylinder axis lies within a

cylinder with a diameter of 0.06 which
is coaxial relative to the datum axis A-
B.
Symmetry Symmetry tolerance of e.g. a central symmetrical in a Ts Fs yes

plane theoretically
accurate location
on a circular part
relative to the
diameter
The tolerated center plane of a slot is

placed between two parallel planes
with a distance of 0.04 that lie
symmetrically relative to the centerline
of the datum feature A.
Table 8: Tolerances of location (position)
33
3.5 Runout Tolerances

Deviation
Point Space Sign
Tol. Var.
Runout Circular runout tolerance on a circular part TI FI yes

relative to the
plane of measurement diameter
For one rotation around the datum axis

A-B the circular runout deviation must
not exceed 0.1 in any plane of
measurement.
Axial runout tolerance
For one rotation around the axis D, the

axial plane deviation must not exceed
0.1 in any point of measurement.
Total Total circular runout tolerance on a circular part TIg FIg yes
runout relative to the
diameter
For multiple rotations around the datum

axis A-B and an axial shift of the part
and the measuring device, all points of
the tolerated feature’s surface must be
within the total circular runout tolerance
t=0.1.
34
Total axial runout tolerance
For multiple rotations around the datum

axis d and a radial shift of the part and
the measuring device, all points of the
tolerated feature’s surface must be within
the total axial runout tolerance t=0,1.
Table 9: Runout tolerances
35
4 Representation of Tolerances
4.1 Summary: Standard Drawing Layout
Figure 10: Representation of a standard drawing layout
1) Datum triangle
2) Datum reference letter
3) Datum reference frame
4) Tolerated geometric feature
5) Datum/tolerance arrow
6) Information line
7) Feature Control Frame
8) Tolerance type symbol
9) Tolerance value in mm
10) Datum reference letter
36
4.2 Baseline Dimensioning
Dimensional data and tolerances of a part are principally represented independently from
each other. Baseline dimensioning is used to determine the:
- theoretically precise dimension
- profile
- orientation
- position
- references
Normally, the dimensioning unit is millimeter.
4.2.1 Tolerance/Datum Arrow
Depending on functional requirements placed on a workpiece, the following rules concerning

tolerated features / datums have been defined:
● where the auxiliary dimension line is terminated by an arrowhead, it relates to a

tolerated feature
● where the auxiliary dimension line is terminated by a triangle, it relates to a datum

feature
relates to
relates to a datum a tolerated feature relates to a datum
feature feature
Figure 11: Representation of a tolerated feature
● a datum arrow/triangle arrow must be indicated using an extension line in each

instance where the tolerated element or the datum feature is an axis or a centerline.
37
The toleranced
The toleranced The toleranced feature
feature is the
feature is the is the central plane central axis of
centreline of a or the centerline of a rotiational
groove a rectangular prism part
Figure 12: Representation of a tolerated feature (2)
• A tolerance/datum dimension line indicates which geometric feature is being

tolerated.
• A tolerance arrow is to be placed on the contour line of the feature, or on an auxiliary

dimension line in instances when the tolerance relates to the line or surface itself.
Figure 13: Representation of a tolerance arrow (datum arrow)
• A tolerance arrow is to be drawn using an extension line if the tolerance relates to an

axis or centerline of the dimensioned feature.
Figure 14: Representation of a tolerance arrow (datum arrow) (2)
38
• A tolerance arrow is to be placed on the axis or central plane if the tolerated feature is
a common axis or central plane of two or more features.
Figure 15: Representation of a tolerance arrow (datum arrow) (3)
A tolerance arrow is to be placed:
• always perpendicularly to the appropriate tolerated feature
• by way of exemption, for tolerated circularity of a cone surface, at an angle

when viewed from a side
4.2.2 Ideal/Theoretically Precise Dimension
A theoretically precise dimension, also referred to as ideal dimension, serves as indication of

the geometrically ideal position of the tolerance zone.
It is a numerical value used to describe the theoretically precise dimension, form, orientation
or location of a geometric feature, or a datum location.
It is the basis for determination of all permissible deviations.
Figure 16: Representation of the ideal/theoretically precise dimension
39
4.2.3 Controlled Dimension
The dimension being controlled is indicated by a circle (also referred to as bubble or

zeppelin). It indicates a measure that requires specific control for the quality assurance.
Figure 17: Representation of a controlled dimension
4.2.4 Datums
Practically every workpiece is in some relation to its adjacent parts. Datum references are
intended to provide information for precise fit of an assembly unit.
Datums are indicated in squared boxes.
Figure 18: Representation of datums
Where more than one letter are used, they indicate the order of precedence to ensure proper
working.
40
4.3 Feature Control Frame
Geometric tolerances are always indicated in a rectangular box referred to as feature control
frame, which is split into several compartments.
They are primarily information compartments which unambiguously define the requirements
placed on the feature concerned. Tolerance data are indicated in the left to right order.
Data are indicated in feature control frames that may be split into two or three parts:
• Simple feature control frames without a datum specify only the form tolerance, i.e.
they relate to a geometric tolerance. The following data must be provided as
minimum
• Any other tolerances principally require indication of at least one datum! A datum
provides an additional specification of the orientation and, where no orientation
tolerance is provided, the position.
41
So meaning:
must must must may may

be be be
A feature control frame is basically split into the following compartments:
dimensioning
Controlled characteristic diameter
position tolerance
material condition
Figure 19: Representation of a feature control frame
The next figure shows a description of the left hole on the below metal plate.
dimensioning
Controlled characteristic diameter
position tolerance
material condition
datum datums
datums
Figure 20: Representation of descriptions in a feature control frame
42
4.3.1 Controlled Properties
The first compartment of a feature control frame shows the symbol of the controlled
properties of a part.
Figure 21: Representation of symbols of controlled properties
The following symbols of controlled properties are available:
Form tolerances:
Symbol Designation Tolerance Deviation

Sign Sign
Straightness Tg Fg
Flatness Te Fe
Circularity Tk Fk
Cylindricity Tz Fz
Table 10: Symbols for form tolerance indications
43
Profile tolerances:

Sign Sign
Line profile TIp FIp
Surface Tfn FIn

profile
Table 11: Symbols for profile tolerance indications
Orientation tolerances:

Sign Sign
Gradient Tn Fn
Perpendicularity Tr Fr
Parallelism Tp Fp
Table 12: Symbols for orientation tolerance indications
Location tolerances:

Sign Sign
Position Tps Fps
Concentricity Tko Fko
Symmetry Ts Fs
Table 13: Symbols for location tolerance indications
44
Runout tolerances:

Sign Sign
Runout TI FI
Total runout TIg FIg
Table 14: Symbols for runout tolerance indications
4.3.2 Diameter
The second compartment of a feature control frame shows whether the tolerance value
applies to a circular or a square part. Where the first is the case, a diameter symbol must be
used. It is normally not used in connection with flatness, circularity, cylindricity, profile of a
line or surface, gradient, runout or total runout.
Figure 22: Diameter symbol
4.3.3 Tolerance Values
The third compartment shows the permissible tolerance range as value. The indication uses
the same units as length. The unit typically used in Europe is millimeter.
The value 1,0 is equal to a tolerance zone of ± 0,5.
Figure 23: Indication of tolerance values
45
4.3.4 Material Conditions
The fourth compartment of a feature control frame describes the material conditions applying
to the given tolerance values. Any of the three material condition options may be used here:
Material condition ASME Y14.5 and DIN ISO 2692 symbol
Maximum material condition
Least material condition
Regardless of feature size NO symbol
Table 15: Material conditions
4.3.5 Datums
The last compartment of a feature control frame contains part orientation data. Where the
tolerated feature involves any datum, it is normally indicated by means of a datum reference
letter which appears in a feature control frame according to the order of precedence, starting
from capital A.
Figure 24: Datum reference letter indications in a feature control frame
For vehicle designs using coordinate systems, preferable use of appropriate X, Y, Z levels for
all parts is advisable. Also known as RPS-System. Reference Point System.
Figure 25: Datum indication according to coordinates
46
Figure 26: XYZ coordinate system
4.3.6 Additional Textual Data
Additional texts for which symbols are not available can be placed:
• above the feature control frame
6 holes 6x .... non-concave convex
Figure 27: Additional textual data
● next to the feature control frame
6 holes non-concave
Figure 28: Additional textual data (2)
47
Example:
Figure 29: Example – additional textual data
4.3.7 Single and Combined Feature Control Frames
Basically,, a feature control frame may be represented as a single feature control frame or a
combined feature control frame, or a composite feature control frame.
4.3.7.1 Single Feature Control Frame
The next figure shows a single feature control frame.

frame
Figure 30: Single feature control frame
4.3.7.2 Combined Feature

eature Control Frame
A symbolic illustration of a feature control frame with two spate segments is provided in the
figure below.
Figure 31: Combined feature control frame
48
4.3.7.3 Example: Position Tolerance
Single feature control frame Location/orientation tolerance
Combined feature control frame Location/orientation tolerance
with a combined datum (relative to another datum)
Figure 32: Single/combined feature control frame with a position tolerance example
4.3.7.3.1 Single Feature Position Control Frame
true axis
nominal zero
tolerance zone Ø 2.0
Figure 33: Single feature position control frame
With this position tolerance, a cylindrical tolerance zone is drawn for each hole, lying
symmetrically around the nominal central point of a hole and related to the datum system.
The tolerance zone may be applied to position, orientation and/or form deviations.
All points must lie within the tolerance zone. For the quality assurance/measuring, a part is
first orientated using the datum (reference) system, and then the hole to which the tolerance
applies is measured. If the deviation is within the cylindrical tolerance zone of 2.0mm, the
hole is considered to be within the tolerance.
49
4.3.7.3.2 Combined Feature Position Control Frame
true axis
Feature-related
tolerance zone
Figure 34: Combined feature position control frame
The lower position limit indicated in the feature control frame defines relative positions of
holes, and is therefore specified more narrowly.
By this, second cylindrical tolerance zones are drawn for each hole, lying centrically around
the holes’ nominal central points and interrelated. These interrelated cylindrical tolerance
zones may be shifted and rotated within a larger tolerance zone.
With the best fit approach to quality assurance/measuring, the required central point of a hole
is measured relatively to the nominal central point. If deviations with the best-fit approach are
within the tolerance (1.0mm), then the hole is positioned within the inner tolerance of the
group of holes.
4.3.7.4 Example: Profile Tolerance
Single feature control frame Location/orientation/form tolerance
Combined feature control frame Location/orientation/form tolerance
with a combined datum Location/orientation/form tolerance
(relative to another datum)
Figure 35: Single/combined feature control frame with a profile tolerance example
50
4.3.7.4.1 Single Feature Profile Control Frame
location/orientation/form tolerance
width tolerance zone 1.0mm,

even on both sides of the basic
profile
true profile
Figure 36: Single feature control frame
In this position tolerance a tolerance zone is drawn which lies symmetrically along both sides
of the nominal profile and is related to the datum system.
The tolerance zone may be applied to position, orientation and/or form deviations.
All profile points must lie within the tolerance zone. For the quality assurance/measuring, a
part is first orientated using the datum (reference) system, and then the profile to which the
tolerance applies is measured. If deviations are within the tolerance zone (1.0mm =
permissible deviation of +/- 0.5mm), the profile is considered to be within the tolerance.
4.3.7.4.2 Combined Feature Tolerance Frame with Directional Limit
Figure 37: Combined feature profile tolerance frame with a directional limit
51
The upper limit in the feature control frame controls the profile relative to its place within the
datum (reference) system. A tolerance zone identical to a single feature profile control frame
is created, lying along both sides, symmetrical relative to the nominal profile and aligned with
the datum system.
The lower limit further confines the profile orientation and form within the position tolerance.
A second tolerance zone is created against the reference system, which may be, however,
shifted within the large tolerance zone in parallel with the nominal profile.
For the quality assurance/measuring, a part is first orientated using the datum (reference)
system, and then the profile to which the tolerance applies is measured. If deviations are
within the tolerance zone of the upper limit (2.0mm = permissible deviations of +/- 1.0mm),
the profile is within the tolerance.
To assess the direction (orientation) of the form, the difference between the maximum and
minimum deviations is subsequently determined. If this range is within the tolerance of the
lower limit (1.0mm), then the direction (orientation)/form are within the tolerance.
4.3.7.4.3 Combined Feature Control Frame with Form Variation Ratio
location/orientation tolerance
form variation rate

true surface
basic profile tolerance
The difference between X and Y (50mm) must not exceed 0.5
Figure 38: Combined feature control frame with a form deviation ratio
52
4.3.7.5 Composite Feature Control Frame
A composite feature control frame contains a common beginning compartment with the
symbol of the property being controlled, followed by the individual tolerance and datum
requirements applying to both data.
It is an ASME-specific
specific feature, not implemented in ISO.
ISO
Figure 39:: Composite feature control frame
4.3.7.5.1 Example: Composite Position Tolerance
GD&T offers an application combining position tolerances for location of groups of geometric
features, and mutual relationships
relations (location and orientation) between geometric features
within a group.
This can be achieved by using a composite feature control frame.
Figure 40: Composite position tolerance
53
4.4 Additional Symbols
Descriptions Symbols
Toleranced feature reference direct
by a letter
Datum reference (only a letter)
Datum location reference ø2 = surface dimension of datum location
A1 = datum feature and datum location

number
Theoretically precise measure
Projected (predefined) tolerance zone
Maximum material condition
Dependence on dimensional and geometric tolerances
Least material condition
A measure describing the minimum material condition of a geometric feature
Free state condition (non-rigid parts)
Envelope condition: a geometrically ideal envelope must not be broken by the

maximum material measure
Table 16: Additional symbols
54
4.5 General Table of Tolerances
This standard table contains all tolerance data that have not been specifically defined in a
drawing. They are process-specific and constitute the basis of each drawing.
Table 17: General table of tolerances
Can be found at:
„/Johnson_Controls_Catalogs/Johnson_Controls_2D_Catalogs/Johnson_Controls_2D_Catalogs_MM
A_20APR2009.catalog/JC_Metal_Standards_Nov2007/Metal_Tables_Sep2008/JCGDT/JCGDT/JCGD
T_GREATER_3“.
55
5 Datums
A datum is the basis for the tolerancing and testing of geometric features. A datum provides
information on the exact orientation of an assembly group.
A datum represents an existing feature of a workpiece (e.g. edge, surface, hole wall, ...) to be
used as reference for the location of another feature.
A geometric feature to which a datum triangle with a datum leader is assigned in a drawing is
datum (reference) feature.
Both holes should be

orientated perpendicularly
to the workpiece’s upper
The upper surface of the workpiece represents the datum

for the location of holes
Figure 41: Datum feature
As described earlier in this paper, a datum is generally designated by a datum reference

letter. The same datum reference letter appears in the feature control frame.
This indication:
means the following:
datum A
datum A
geometrically precise
counterpart A geometrically precise
embodiment counterpart A
parallel planes with
the least distance parallel planes with the
Datum axis A Datum axis A
part part
Central plane of Central plane of
a geometrically embodiment a geometrically
precise precise
Figure 42: Datum – datum feature relationship
56
5.1 What are Datums good for?
The sequential order of datums has a major impact on the functionality.
Should the order fail to be respected in the part manufacturing or testing, parts may be
marked as defective though in fact they will be not.
An example of different sequential orders and meanings:
Figure 43: Sequential order of datums
For the proper fit, a part is first laid on the primary surface (datum A) and then aligned
according to the secondary feature (datum B).
57
5.2 Datum References in Drawings
5.2.1 Datum Triangle
A datum feature is designated by a datum triangle. A datum triangle may be represented as

either a filled frame or an empty frame. The datum reference letter assigned to a triangle is
placed in a squared frame or a circle. Datums may be differentiated as follows:
a) upper surface c) central axis b) front surface
as datum as datum as datum
d) rear surface e) different positions and data of

a datum leader
as datum
Figure 44: Representation options for datum triangles relating to different datum features
5.2.2 Datum Locations / Datum Features
There are three types of datum locations:
• surface datum locations: designated by a hatched area demarcated by a two dots -

one dash line.
• line datum locations: designated by a thin full line between two crosses
• point datum locations: designated by a cross
58
a) surface b) line c) point
Figure 45: Types of datum features/datum locations
Examples:
Surface datum locations
Figure 46: Surface datum locations
59
Line datum locations:
Figure 47: Line datum locations
Point datum locations:
Figure 48: Point datum locations
Datum locations are indicated in drawings by means of a circle with a horizontal dividing line.
60
The datum reference letter is indicated in the lower part and the datum location size is
defined in the upper part.
Where there is insufficient space for the datum location indication, it may be indicated off the
frame.
Figure 49: Off-frame indication of a datum
5.2.3 Sequential Order of Datum Indications According to MBN 11011
Datum location references should be indicated in a drawing using symbols according to the
DIN ISO 5459 standard
etc.
The following referencing order is proposed.
= primary datum
= secondary datum
= tertiary datum
= further datums
Figure 50: Datum referencing sequence
Where the tertiary datum should be the centre between two points, a or b will be added to the
datum reference letter (e.g. Ca6 and Cb6).
61
Then, the geometric central point between the two points will be interpreted as datum (C6).
Figure 51: Sequential order of datums
5.2.4 Axis / Plane as Datum
In addition to a rounded cylinder, a plane is another most frequent datum element.
A) Central plane of an outer datum feature
datum plane
simulated datum / least test gap
Figure 52: Central plane of outer datum features
B) Central plane of an internal datum feature
datum plane
simulated datum / least test cube
Figure 53:Central plane of an inner datum feature
62
C) Datum axis of an outer dimensioned feature (shaft)
Figure 54: A datum axis of an outer dimensioned feature (shaft)
D) Datum axis of an inner dimensioned feature (hole)
Figure 55: Datum axis of an inner dimensioned feature (hole)
In the following example, the longer arm will be chosen as datum as it bears locating holes.
Figure 56: A datum plane with a flatness tolerance
63
5.2.5 Coplanar Surface as Datum
Here, the common datum plane of the two coplanar surfaces is designated as Datum A.
Using a profile tolerance, which in this case represents a surface tolerance (since no datum
is provided) and the “2 SURFACES” note indicates that it is the common flatness tolerance of
the two surfaces.
Figure 57: Coplanar plane as datum
5.2.6 Unfolded State as Datum
Figure 58: Unfolded state as datum
This tolerancing approach is widely used for large sheet metals and for flexible parts where
tolerance values will be designated by “F”. The sequence of datums are not in the right
sequence related to the new best practice proposals.
64
5.2.7 Difference Between Datum Plane and Datum Location
When defining a complete plane as datum feature, there is a danger – especially in cases
when the plane involves relatively large form deviations – that it will be impossible to define
the datum plane unambiguously.
When creating a datum plane using a gage, the datum plane position will depend on which
points of the plane will be measured to create the datum plane.
Since a complete plane is defined as datum plane, but for economy reasons the complete
plane cannot be measured to obtain the datum, the points will be chosen on a random basis.
This may lead to a situation that different machine operators come to different datum planes,
and thus to different measurements.
part
datum feature
datum plane 1
datum plane 2
Measurement points to Measurement points to
create the datum planes create the datum planes
Figure 59: Difference between a datum plane and a datum location
Definition of individual datum locations instead of a complete plane will reduce the
susceptibility to inaccuracies of the created datum plane due to form deviations.
To determine the primary datum, three datum locations are required. Two datum locations
are needed or a secondary datum and one datum location for a tertiary datum.
Conformity exists where more than three datum locations are provided for a primary datum.
Such conformity is required for highly non-rigid workpieces (e.g. sheet metals).
Datum locations designate certain points, lines or surfaces on a workpiece that are used to
establish the datum system.
65
Examples may include rough or uneven surfaces resulting from casting, forging or molding,
weld surfaces and surfaces of thin parts that are subjected to bending or twisting, or other
existing or emerging distortions.
Datum locations and datum features may be combined to create a datum system. A datum
location is designated using a circle from which an arrow line is drawn to the datum location.
If the arrow line is dashed, the datum location lies on a plane that is not visible in the
drawing.
The position of a datum location will be determined by theoretically precise dimensions.
5.2.8 Sequence of Datums related to Datum Reference Frame
The datums of a workpiece should be normally defined with capital letters starting with A
It is helpful for avoid misunderstandings to keep it simple and use only a small number of
datums.
General this cases are possible:
• Single datum, e.g. defined by element A
• Multiple datum, e.g. defined by elements A,B,C
• Common datum, e.g. defined by elements A and B as axis
• Common datum, e.g. defined by elements A and B and C as surface
66
The sequence of the datums have a big effect related to efficiency of a workpiece and should
be considered for manufactoring and proofing. The following example shows two position
tolerances with different sequences for datums A and B. The following pictures show the
different proofing methods related to this sequences. The workpiece have different contact to
proofing fixture related to the defined primary datum and we will get also different measuring
results.
Figure 60: Effects related to different datum sequences
The pictures display in a clear kind of way the different proofing conditions related to the
sequence of datums for the hole position 10mm or 40mm.
67
5.3 Datum System
If we wish to unambiguously define geometric tolerances within a space, we need to define

several datums. A datum system comprises a group of one or more datums.
5.3.1 6 Degrees of Freedom

For locating a body in a 3D space, three turns (rotations) and 3 shifts (translations) must be
specified. Motions of solid bodies include shift motions along x-, y-, z-axes and rotational
motions around translation axes.
Shift motion along Z-axis
Rotation around Z-axis

Shift motion along Y-axis
Rotation around Y-axis
Shift motion along X-

axis
Figure 61: 6 degrees of freedom
datum axis
datum system beginning
measuring
direction
datum axis
datum planes
datum axis startig point for

mesuring
Figure 62: 6 degrees of freedom (2)
This is referred to as determination of 6 degrees of freedom, needed to define the complete

datum system to achieve the specified fastening of a body.
68
5.3.2 The 3-2-1 Rule
To determine 3 datum planes that should make up a right-angled datum system, the 6
degrees of freedom must be defined.
The datum planes will be created using a number of datum points.
They will be referred to as primary datum, secondary datum and tertiary datum in line with
their respective sequential positions.
To provide an unambiguous and non-redundant reference, the three datum planes require a
minimum number of datum points.
• ● primary datum: 3 datum points
• ● secondary datum: 2 datum points
• ● tertiary datum: 1 datum point
As shown in the figure, the following direction will be thus determined:
Figure 63: 3-2-1 rule
1st datum plane / primary datum ●
- translation in the Z-direction

- rotation around X-axis
- rotation around Y-axis
2nd datum plane / secondary datum

- translation in the X-direction
- rotation around Z-axis
3rd datum plane / tertiary datum
- translation in the Y-direction
69
Generally, datum locations are surface points or small surfaces areas, and they may be
substituted by datum features, such as holes or oblong holes.
Conventional application of the 3-2-1 rule to metal-sheets and boards looks like this:
Figure 64: 3-2-1 rule (2)
Spatial representation of examples of the 3-2-1 rule:
Example 1: Board
tertiary datum
plane
secondary
datum plane
primary datum plane
Figure 65: Example 1 for the 3-2-1 rule (1)
70
The figure shows three datum planes to which appropriate reference letters are assigned as
follows:
- primary datum plane (A)
- secondary datum plane (B)
- tertiary datum plane (C)
tertiary datum plane

C
secondary
datum plane primary datum plane A
Figure 66: Example 1 for the 3-2-1 rule(2)
There are three datums within the primary plane - A1, A2 and A3, and each of them is
represented by a single zone with a 5mm diameter. On the other side there are two datums
B1, B2 for the secondary plane and one datum for the tertiary plane.
Example 2: Rotational body
datum plane A
datum axis B
datum central plane B
Figure 67: Example 2 for the 3-2-1 rule
71
Housing
Seal
Cover
Aligned insertion
Figure 68: Example2 for the 3-2-1 rule (2)
Example 3: Point-defined datums
This data in the drawing

This data in the drawing
Means this Workpiece
Means this
Workpiece
Point contact
at the
theoretically
precise
location Locating pin Locating pin
72
Example 4: Datum locations on a bullhorn
Datum locations on the cover
Bullhorn tolerances derived from the cover fastening:
Figure 71: Example 4 for the 3-2-1 rule (2)
73
Example 5: Datum locations for a bent pipe
These data in the drawing
mean this:
Effective condition equaling to the

maximum material condition of
the geometric feature plus a 4mm
position tolerance diameter
Theoretically precise
counterpart relative to the
datum feature B
(effective locating pin

Theoretically precise condition at MMC)
counterpart relative to the
datum feature A
(effective locating pin

condition at MMC)
The workpiece must fit within confines corresponding to the maximum material condition of the outer
diameter, plus a 4mm tolerance zone
74
5.3.3 Determination of Datum System
Determination of a datum system will largely affect measurement results.
Oblong hole
Figure 73: Determination of a datum system
Measurement 1 Measurement 2
Datum points of a plane Datum points of a plane
points of measurement are ok points of measurement are not ok
Figure 74: Determination of a datum system influencing measurement results
Without defined and transient datums, workpieces cannot be unambiguously verified.
75
5.3.4 Datum System Requirements
Determination of datums or a datum system is subject to the following rules:
• Where possible, avoid any redundancies in the datum determination (3-2-1 rule).
• Datum points must be functional, i.e. datums should be the most important geometric
features of a workpiece.
• Appropriate geometric distribution of datum points should be ensured.
• Continuity of datum points should be ensured, starting from an individual part,

through assembly groups, to the final product.
• Standardized shaft (opening) diameters should be used.
• Instead of camber pin holes, oblong holes with cylindrical pins should be used.
5.3.5 Datum System Arrangement
Wherever possible, datum locations should be defined on network-parallel surfaces to

prevent a part defect from distribution over different vectors. Every datum location should
operate only in a single vector direction.
The advantage of selecting a network-parallel datum location lies in that a datum point within
the system may be changed without affecting the other directions. On the other hand, for
single- or double-inclined surfaces, two or three coordinates, respectively, will be changed.
part defect
Figure 75: Datum system arrangement – part defect
A part with a specified tolerance will be captured in two different systems: once in the
network-parallel manner shown in Representation 1 and once in the network-parallel manner
shown in Representation 1 .
76
Representation Representation
The part tolerance Deviation in X-

operates only in X- direction
direction When the part is
defective, an
additionl deviation
in Z-direction will
emerge here
The parts will be

captured in a network-
With a capture that is not network-parallel, inclination of
parallel manner
the defective part will occur..
Figure 76: A part with a defined tolerance in different systems
5.3.6 Determination of Datum/Locating Distance (Effective Distance)
With the hole/oblong hole principle, an important role is played by the locating (effective)
distance. The effective distance is always measured perpendicularly to the acting direction
within the vehicle’s coordinate system. Process-safe locating is ensured when the effect of
the effective distance is the largest and the locating point is within a stable area. The
absolute distance between a hole and a longitudinal hole is not always consistent with the
actual effective distance. The maximum process safety is achieved with the least difference
between the absolute distance and the actual effective distance
In an optimum case, the actual effective distance corresponds to the absolute distance.
Figure 77.Determination of an effective/locating distance
77
The oblong hole must be always reasonably orientated relatively to the vehicle’s coordination
system to ensure that on equipment adjustment parts/assembly groups will need to be
adjusted only in a single vector direction. The equipment should be designed in a manner
allowing for individual adjustment of each coordinate only in the direction corresponding to
the vehicle’s coordinates. When designing the combination of a hole and a oblong hole, care
should be taken to avoid a situation that their ratio falls within the critical area.
Pin/hole clearance
Acting direction
Larger pin/hole clearance
Figure 78. Determination of the datum/locating distance (2)
Due to the locating pin/oblong hole clearance, a threat emerges that further process
tolerancing within the critical area will be needed as the locating pin does not act
perpendicularly to the oblong hole’s cut edge any more.
Critical area
Figure 79. Determination of the datum (locating) distance (critical area)
78
5.3.7 Determination of Unilateral Surface Tolerances
Where unilateral surface tolerances are to be used, they should be designated by “U” as
shown below.
Figure 80. Determination of unilateral surface tolerances
This modifier (characteristic) is used for profile tolerances (of lines or surfaces) with a non-
symmetrical tolerance array.
The characteristic is followed by the off-material tolerance area value.
The tolerance array always extends in the direction of the material side, i.e. the value
following the characteristic U refers to the biggest measure of the part. If the biggest
measure is lesser than the nominal measure, the value is negative.
Example 1:
Tolerance symbol
Tolerance value
symbol
Off-material value
Datum (if necessary)
Meaning:
1.0 mm off the material
Figure 81: Determination of unilateral surface tolerances (Example 1)
79
Example 2:
Meaning:
1.0mm off the material

Nominal measure (TED)
Example 3:
Meaning:
1.0mm off the material
80
5.3.8 Definition of Datums through Coordinate Data
Unless determined otherwise, the geometric tolerances and the

datum features indicated in each individual frame apply to
a fastened workpiece . The drawing is intentionally incomplete.
Figure 84: Definition of datums through coordinate data
These datums are defined by means of coordinate data, as shown in Figure 86.
81
5.4 Locator Selection Strategy
5.4.1 Hole/Oblong Hole Principle
The hole/oblong hole principle is applied in the part
- fastening
- aligning
- locating
‘Oblong hole’ refers to an oblong opening or slot. Its narrow sides are enclosed by
semicircles with diameters corresponding to the oblong hole’s length. Longitudinal sides of
an oblong hole are mutually parallel. They may be linear or curvilinear- e.g. taking shape of a
circle arch. An oblong hole is thus one drawn along a defined track.
Hole/oblong hole principle

Hole/oblong hole principle
Figure 85: The hole/oblong hole principle
Locator selection strategy:
- unambiguous mounting, first by fastening through the hole and then through the
oblong hole, and then complemented by additional securing
- no additional hole boring or hole adjustment operations are necessary
- independency from the operator staff
82
Initial design
Consideration of deviations
Figure 86: The hole/oblong hole principle (2)
5.4.2 Opening
Locator selection strategy:
- no unambiguous tensioning order is visible; any of the tensioning locations may

be tensioned first
- boring and filing operations are likely; the last mounting element cannot be always
positioned
- dependence on the operator staff and their “daily condition”
Initial design
Consideration of deviations
Figure 87: Locator selection strategy
83
5.4.3 Distance between Locators
Principal rule: Whenever possible, locators must be placed as far from each other as
possible so that the part can be located with the utmost stability.
Hole – oblong hole principle Opening
Initial design Initial design
Consideration of deviations Consideration of deviations
Figure 88: Distance between locators
5.4.4 Low Strain Arrangement with Locators
The clear “3-2-1” locator concept will not induce any strain in a part or assembly group and
the positioning is always unambiguous.
A redundant locator concept will induce strains and lead to unforeseeable distortions.
Reproducible precision is not assured.
Advantages of the low strain arrangement:
- eliminates non-linear, unforeseeable deviations from the manufacturing process
- “springback” effects in parts are easier to localize and resolve
84
5.4.5 Curvilinear Surfaces as Locator
Where locators are needed on slant or curvilinear surfaces of a part, efforts should be made
to place them on offset surfaces that are orientated relative to the XYZ planes of the vehicle’s
main coordinate system.
Advantages:
- accentuation of the surface where the locator is placed

- improved reproducible precision
- simple and cheap design of tooling
5.4.6 Pressing Tools and Locators
Locator designs should be developed in parallel with the development of the pressing
process.
Locator principle: – a hole/oblong hole should be introduced into a part in a single operation
– as soon as possible. It can be thus used for later operations.
Functionally critical holes should be applied concurrently with the locators.
All holes should be applied to a surface at an angle of max. 7 degrees.
All determining surface locators should be introduced in a single working operation.
5.4.7 Locators on Vertical Surfaces
Principal rule: Locators on vertical surfaces should be avoided.
The “springback“ effect can be then prevented only by clamping means.
Also, do not use any:
- cut edges
- shears without guides
- crosscuts
- tapped holes
- interconnected holes
These are features with great deviations that are not suitable for process-safe fastening of a
part.
85
5.4.8 Locator Block and Pin Layout
Principal rule: Wherever possible, locator blocks and pins should be orientated relative to
the vehicle’s raster grid.
Locator pins must be always arranged on parallel axes.
Wherever possible, locator blocks should be arranged on parallel planes.
Benefits of these requirements:
- simple design of tooling
- easy adjustment of tooling
- improved reproducible precision
5.4.9 Locator Pins on Plastic Parts
Example :4-way locator Example :2-way locator
Figure 89: Locator pins on plastic parts
86
6 Material Conditions
Applicability of material conditions is confined to geometric features that are subject to

dimensional deviations.
They can be datum features or their geometric features whose axis or central plane is
determined by geometric tolerances.
6.1 Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) Material Conditions
Where any geometric tolerance is applied on the RFS basis, the tolerance is independent
from the actual size of the geometric feature concerned.
The tolerance is limited to the value indicated irrespective of the actual size of the geometric
feature.
In relation to a RFS-based datum feature it also means that alignment according to its axis or
central plane is required, irrespective of the actual size of the geometric feature.
In relation to a hole or a pin it means that the hole tolerance values are always the same,
regardless of whether the hole diameter is at the lower or upper limit.
6.2 Maximum Material Condition (MMC)
Where the MMC principle is applied in geometric tolerance, the permissible tolerance
depends on the actual matching rate of the geometric feature concerned.
A tolerance is limited to a specific value if the geometric feature is made at its MMC limit
value.
Where the actual matching rate of a geometric feature deviates from MMC, an increased
tolerance is permissible, depending on the amount of such deviation.
The total permissible deviation of a specific geometric characteristic is the maximum if the
geometric feature lies at LMC.
Identically, application of MMC to a datum feature means that for the MMC limit the datum is
the geometric feature’s axis or central plane.
Where the actual matching rate of a datum feature departs from MMC, a shift between its
axis or central plane and the datum axis or central plane is permissible.
87
⇒ A condition when a dimensional element contains the maximum possible
amount of material within defined dimensional limits.
6.3 Least Material Condition (LMC)
Where the LMC principle is applied in geometric tolerance, the permissible tolerance
depends on the actual matching rate of the geometric feature concerned.
A tolerance is limited to a specific value if the geometric feature is made at its LMC limit
value.
Where the actual matching rate of a geometric feature deviates from LMC, an increased
tolerance is permissible, depending on the amount of such deviation.
The total permissible deviation of a specific geometric characteristic is the maximum if the
geometric feature lies at MMC.
Identically, application of LMC to a datum feature means that for the LMC limit the datum is
the geometric feature’s axis or central plane.
Where the actual matching rate of a datum feature departs from LMC, a shift between its axis
or central plane and the datum axis or central plane is permissible.
⇒ A condition when a dimensional element contains the least possible amount of

material within defined dimensional limits.
6.4 Bonus Tolerance
For conventional drawings with +/- tolerances without application of GD&T, the position
tolerance of a borehole is indicated in form of a target frame.
Figure 90: Representation of bonus tolerances
88
The expected tolerance array then looks like this:
Figure 91: Representation of tolerance array
The MMC tolerance range is 57 % larger than the old +/- value and is referred to as bonus
tolerance.
6.5 Comparison between MMC and RFS
The hole has a diameter of 10, with a tolerance of +/-

0.5mm.
The position tolerance is 1.0mm.
89
⇒ The tolerance depends on the feature’s ⇒ The tolerance is independent from the feature’s
actual size actual size
nominal measure
lower size limit 9,5
upper size limit 10,5
actual geometric position tolerance actual geometric position tolerance

feature size feature size
(hole diameter) (hole diameter)
ø 9.5mm ø 1.0mm ø 9.5mm ø 1.0mm
ø 10.0mm ø 1.5mm ø 10.0mm ø 1.0mm
ø 10.5mm ø 2.0mm ø 10.5mm ø 1.0mm
The hole position tolerance vary depending on

The hole position size remains constant.
the hole size.
Table 18: Comparison between MMC and RFS
90
6.6 Comparison of MMC and LMC
⇒ The tolerance depends on the feature’s ⇒ The tolerance depends on the feature’s
actual size actual size
⇒ The tolerance applies to the ⇒ The tolerance applies to the geometrically
geometrically precise size of the least precise size of the maximum possible hole
possible hole (9.5) (10.5)
⇒ i.e. the maximum possible material ⇒ i.e. the least possible material
nominal measure
lower size limit 9,5
upper size limit 10,5
actual geometric position actual position

feature size tolerance geometric tolerance
feature size
(hole diameter)
(hole diameter)
MMC ø 9.5mm ø 1.0mm MMC ø 9.5mm ø 2.0mm
ø 10.0mm ø 1.5mm ø 10.0mm ø 1.5mm
LMC ø 10.5mm ø 2.0mm LMC ø 10.5mm ø 1.0mm
⇒ When the hole approaches its upper ⇒ When the hole approaches its lower size
size limit (10.5), the target area for the limit (9.5), the target area for the hole
hole position extends position shrinks
Table 19: Comparison between MMC and LMC
91
6.7 Hole-Piston Interplay
6.7.1 Example of MMC
An inner feature: e.g. a hole
A hole is to be made in the following example. The hole may have a diameter of 30.5 to 30.1.
The maximum material condition is set.
Figure 92:Example of MMC
actual geometric feature position tolerance

size
(hole diameter)
LCM 30.5 0.5
30.4 0.4
30.3 0.3
30.2 0.2
MMC 30.1 0.1
Table 20: Comparison between MMC and LMC for an inner feature:
The table shows that the tolerance applies to the theoretically precise size of the least hole.
With an outer feature it is just the opposite.
92
An outer feature: e.g. a pin
The pin may have a diameter of 29.5 to 29.9. Again,

MMC is set. It implies the following table.
actual position
geometric tolerance
feature size
(hole
diameter)
MMC 29.9 0.1
29.8 0.2
29.7 0.3
Figure 93:Comparison between MMC and
LMC for an outer feature
29.6 0.4
LMC 29.5 0.5

Table 21: Comparison between MMC and LMC for an outer feature
The table shows that the tolerance applies to the theoretically precise size of the largest pin.
With MMC, the hole and the pin in their common ideal position can be connected in any
tolerance situation.
It is just the same with LMC!
6.8 Effective Condition
Depending on its function, a geometric feature is defined by its size and the appropriate
geometric designation.
A MMC or LMC material condition may be also suitable.
To determine the dimensions of a functional gage, the aggregate effect of MMC and
applicable tolerances must be taken in account in order to properly define clearances
between the different parts.
To determine the dimensions, the aggregate effect of MMC and applicable tolerances must
be taken in account in order to correctly determine the guaranteed contact area to ensure
proper thin wall thicknesses and positioning of the hole.
93
6.8.1 Example: Effective condition
A reference is made to the preceding example: the same tables have been adopted and
extended to incorporate the effective condition.
Hole table:
actual geometric feature position tolerance effective condition

size
(hole diameter)
LCM 30.5 0.5
30.4 0.4
30.3 0.3 30
30.2 0.2
MMC 30.1 0.1
Table 22: Effective condition with an inner feature ( MMC)
Piston table:

size
(hole diameter)
MMC 29.9 0.1
29.8 0.2
29.7 0.3 30
29.6 0.4
LMC 29.5 0.5
Table 23: Effective condition table of an outer feature (MMC)
In simple words:
⇒ MMC for an inner feature: effective condition of an inner geometric feature is the
constant value of its MMC size minus its position tolerance.
94
⇒ MMC for an outer feature: effective condition of an outer geometric feature is the
constant value of its MMC size plus its position tolerance.
With LMC it is similar:
Hole table:

size
(hole diameter)
LCM 30.5 0.5
30.4 0.4
30.3 0.3 30.0
30.2 0.2
MMC 30.1 0.1
Table 24: Effective condition table of an inner feature (LMC)
Piston table:
actual geometric position tolerance effective condition

feature size
(hole diameter)
MMC 29.9 0.1
29.8 0.2
29.7 0.3 30.0
29.6 0.4
LMC 29.5 0.5
Table 25: Effective condition table of an outer feature ( LMC)
In simple words:
⇒ LMC for an inner feature: effective condition of an inner geometric feature is the
constant value of its LMC size minus its position tolerance.
⇒ LMC for an outer feature: effective condition of an outer geometric feature is the
constant value of its MMC size plus its position tolerance.
95
7 Tolerance Principles
Problem formulation:
Already long before the introduction of geometric tolerances it was broadly understood that
for part fitting adherence to dimensional tolerances was not sufficient; form deviations also
required limitation.
This will be explained using an example. Figure 94 represents a flat guide consisting of a
carrying plate and a guide block.
To ensure a minimum clearance of 0.1mm, the parts were tolerated as shown in the figure.
Figure 94: Tolerance principles
If both parts have such MMC that the guide block height is 25.2mm and the carrying plate
slot height is 25.3mm, the minimum clearance of 0.1mm is just maintained. But none of the
parts may have any other form deviations.
If the guide block features any other form deviations, to maintain the minimum clearance in
matching with the carrying plate at MMC, its total height must be lower than MMC.
In the figure below, the guide block has a height corresponding to its LMC (24.8). Since it
must not exceed its effective size (25.2) in order to meet the minimum clearance
requirement, the flatness deviation is limited to 25.2mm -24.8mm = 04.mm.
96
A carrying plate and a guide block with A carrying plate with the minimum material
maximum material sizes size and a guide block with the maximum
material size and the maximum form deviation
Figure 95: Tolerance principles (2)
In other words:
The guide block height may not be lesser than 24.8mm in any location, or otherwise the
dimensional tolerance would not be observed, and it must fit an envelope with a height of
25.2mm. This corresponds to the Taylor testing principle.
7.1 Tolerance Principle
A tolerance principle indicates whether the permissible form deviation of simple geometric
features (surface areas of a cylinder, pairs of planar areas) does or does not depend on
permissible dimensional deviations.
Two principles are distinguished: the envelope (envelope curve) principle and the
independence principle.
To prevent confusion, the tolerance principle should be always indicated in a drawing. Where
the drawing bears a “DIN 717 Tolerance“ indication, the envelope (envelope curve) principle
applies. If the indication is “ISO 8015 Tolerance”, the independence principle applies.
7.1.1 Basics of Envelope Principle
The envelope principle applies to all tolerated dimensions in all drawings that do not contain
any reference to DIN ISO 8015. For the sake of clarity, however, the “DIN 7167 Tolerance”
indication should be always provided.
97
The tolerance principle says that all geometric features will be bounded within envelopes
corresponding to their ideal design and have the Maximum Material Condition.
The effective actual size of a simple geometric feature must not exceed its Maximum
Material Condition.
Effective actual size ≤ Maximum Material Condition
Maximum permissible form deviations are thus limited by the envelope.
It means that a geometric feature with the “Maximum Material Condition” size must not have
any form deviation. In case its size is lesser than the “Maximum Material Condition” but not
lesser than the “Least Material Condition”, form deviations are permissible.
7.1.2 Tolerance by Envelope Principle
The following rules must be respected when the envelope principle of tolerancing is being
applied:
- The envelope principle may be applied only to simple geometric features (surface
areas of a cylinder, pairs of planar areas, in extreme cases also to circles or parallel
straight lines). The envelope principle must not be applied to complex features.
- The envelope principle puts limits only on form deviations (circularity, flatness,
straightness, cylindricity deviations). Generally, position deviations are not limited by
the envelope principle. The only exception is deviations from parallelism that are
directly limited by the envelope principle.
- The envelope principle applies only to geometric features that are directly
dimensioned using inner or outer dimensions and for which dimensional tolerances
are set. They may take form of general tolerance data. The envelope principle must
not be applied to geometric features whose dimensions are derived from a
calculation. Also, the envelope principle must not be applied to stepped dimensions
and distances as they determine a position, not a form.
98
The following are examples illustrating cases where the envelope principle cannot be
applied:
Straightness of a slant line or

The envelope principle
flatness of a slant plane
cannot be applied to the slot
cannot be determined by
because its width is not
means of the envelope
directly dimensioned
principle, because no
envelope is defined for these
Straightness and parallelism

Straightness and parallelism
of horizontal lines can be
of horizontal lines cannot be
determined by means of the
determined by means of the
envelope principle only within
envelope principle because
the overlapping area. This is,
they do not lie opposite
however, unsuitable for the
each other
practice
Perpendicularity deviations Coaxiality deviation swill not

will not be limited by the be limited by the envelope
envelope principle because principle because they are
they are position deviations position deviations
Figure 96: Examples of applications where the envelope principle cannot be used
In the figure below, a thickness tolerance of 0.1mm is prescribed for a board with a length of
1000mm. With application of the envelope principle, for the Maximum Material Condition of
8mm no flatness deviation would be permissible, and for the Least Material Condition of
7.9mm a flatness deviation of 0.1mm would be permissible. It is impossible to make this.
DIN 7167 Tolerancing
Figure 97: DIN 7167 Tolerance
⇒ The envelope principle may lead to tolerance specifications that cannot be met
In such cases, the DIN 7167 standard permits the use of the envelope principle for individual
geometric features. The board must have a larger form tolerance.
99
DIN 7167 Tolerancing
Figure 98: DIN 7167 Tolerance (2)
7.1.3 Basics of Independence Principle
The independence principle says that form tolerances and dimensional tolerances should be
considered independently from each other.
A geometric feature with the “Maximum Material Condition” may also have form deviations,
which is not permitted with the envelope principle.
Permissible form deviations must be indicated in a suitable manner, as either individual form
or position tolerance data, or general tolerances.
The independence principle is provided for in DIN ISO 8015; and it says that a tolerance
dimension is considered as observed if no actual local dimensions exceed the size limits
upward or downward.
Every tolerance of dimension, form or position must be independently complied with.
Thus, no matching testing is carried out. Where the independence principle is to be applied,
the “ISO 8015 Tolerance” indication must be provided in the drawing’s text filed, or otherwise
the envelope principle applies.
With application of the independence principle, a larger form tolerance may be achieved for
the “Maximum Material Condition”.
7.1.4 Tolerance by Independence Principle
The independence principle may be formulated as follows:
Every tolerance is subject to separate testing. A workpiece is ok if all tolerances have been
respected.
100
However, independence does not mean that any individual design deviation must be always
fully exhausted, as some types of tolerances are mutually excluded.
With the independence principle, all tolerances (i.e. all dimensional tolerances and all
geometric tolerances) must be always indicated – either explicitly or generally by means of
general tolerances.
Where such data are missing, the drawings is considered to be incomplete.
With the envelope principle, important form tolerances may be defined through dimensional
tolerances. In such case, however, it is impossible to determine whether the envelope
tolerancing automatically produces completely tolerated drawings.
ISO 8015 enables targeted application of the envelope principle to individual geometric
features.
This is effective because with the envelope principle the fitting functionality of such features
can be easily achieved. This is, however, referred to as ‘envelope condition’, rather than
‘envelope principle’.
Difference between the envelope condition and the envelope principle :
The “envelope principle” says that the principle can be generally applied to all simple
geometric features, unless the principle has been explicitly rescinded by indication of a form
tolerance.
The “envelope condition” says that the condition should be purposefully applied to the
geometric feature to which it relates.
The envelope condition is represented in a drawing by means of attaching letter “E” (as
envelope) enclosed in a circle to the fit value.
ISO 8015 Tolerancing
Figure 99: ISO 8015 Tolerancing
The figure below shows form deviations and envelopes for different geometric features. An
envelope limits not only individual effects, but also the resulting effect of multiple form
deviations.
101
deviation
simple geometric feature envelope
captured
Straightness,
Cylinder - circularity,
outside: shaft cylindricity,
parallelism
Straightness,
Cylinder – circularity,
inside: hole cylindricity,
parallelism
Parallel planes
Straightness,
– outside:
flatness,
rectangular
parallelism
prism
Straightness,
Parallel planes
flatness,
– inside: slot
parallelism
Table 26: Form deviations and envelopes of simple geometric features
The envelope condition compliance check is based on the Tylor testing principle:
• determine MMC of the geometric feature being checked
• create the envelope area (= the ideal design of the geometric feature with the MMC)
• check whether the geometric feature being checked matches the envelope without
any projections
• check whether the Least Material Condition has been complied with. For outer
dimensions, it must not be exceeded downward in any location, and for inner
dimensions it must not be exceeded upward in any location.
Figure 100: Taylor testing principle
102
The following figure shows a shaft with the Least Material Condition - LMC = 9.8mm. A form
deviation may exhaust the entire value of the dimensional tolerance of T=0.4mm, without any
projection off the envelope.
Figure b shows a shaft with a central dimension of 10mm. Since half of the dimensional
tolerance has been exhausted, only T/2 = 0.2mm is available for the form tolerance.
Figure c shows a shaft with the Maximum Material Condition - MMC = 10.2mm. Since the
dimensional tolerance has been fully exhausted, no form deviations are permissible.
Since in practice it is impossible to create a geometric feature without any form deviations,
compliance with the envelope conditions requires that it must never have MMC in all
locations.
Figure 101: Taylor testing principle (2)
103
8 Differences between ASME and ISO Standard
Standardization: In addition to the international standardization of geometric tolerances

according to ISO 1101 and other standards, the ANSI Y 14.5 standard had been in place in
the USA for decades, largely differing from ISO. In 1994, it was replaced by the ASME Y
14.5 standard and in many points harmonized with ISO (in line with the approximation of ISO
to ASME that had occurred in the meantime). Despite that, some differences still persist,
lying partially in that ASME offers some extended options as compared to ISO.
Meaning: ASME Y 14.5 – 1994 ([ASM 94], in the text shortly referred to as “ASME”) covers
on 133 pages the complete geometric tolerancing issues. In the meantime, a German
translation has become available ([ASM 98]. Since this standard is generally applied,
inter alia, across the automotive industry, the following text provides a concise
summary of major differences against ISO. However, exhaustive completeness is
impossible and we don’t pursue it. “p.” indications in the text refer to pages of the
ASME standard, or the page-identical German translation.
The following Figure clarifies
a) Representation of dimensions: dimension lines (p.5) are interrupted for the

dimension data. Dimension data (p.9) are normally read in the bottom-to-top direction.
Auxiliary dimension lines (p.7/8) feature gaps opposite to corresponding edges of
bodies and when crossing dimension lines.
b) Rising dimensioning sequence (p.19): dimension arrows are omitted
c) Size limits: instead of nominal sizes with limit dimensions (here ø 20 ± 1), size limits
are also directly indicated (in two different versions)
d) Simplified representation of a hole: (p.15/16). Meanings:
● ø 10 through hole
● ø 15 recess hole, depth of 20 to 20.8 from the workpiece surface
● ø 22 cylindrical recess, depth of 5 to 5.5 from the surface
e) Radius: (p. 28): the tolerance zone lies between the two tolerance limits.
f) Controlled radius (controlled radius, p.38): the tolerance zone is identical to (e),
except that the actual outline must be free of any flattened spots or waves (term of
curvature)
g) Statistical tolerance (p. 38,45): ST sign in a hexagonal box following the dimension
being tolerated indicates that the tolerance is subject to statistical tolerated.
104
Figure 102: Drawing representations
Tolerated geometric features: ASME partially limits the range of types of geometric
features than can be tolerated as compared to ISO:
- flatness applies only to actual geometric features. On the other hand, surprisingly, it
uses the straightness symbol for central planes (see under “Tolerance Principle”)
- position and symmetry are applied only to derived features. For actual features,
ASME resorts to surface profiles
Tolerance principle (p. 26/27): generally, the envelope principle is applied (here, it is
referred to as “Rule One”). Examples may include the following:
- the envelope condition does not apply to semi-finished products (sheet-metals,

timber, pipes etc.) and to corresponding unmachined workpiece surfaces
- where a straightness tolerance for an axis or a central plane is specified for a feature
of size (e.g. a circular cylinder or a pair of parallel planes, p.26), the envelope
condition is annulled by that (differently from ISO). Where a feature of size consist of
two parallel planes, then the straightness tolerance controls flatness of the central
plane.
However, where a straightness tolerance relates to actual lines (e.g. straight lines of a
circular cylinder surface), the envelope conditions remains effective.
In addition, the following notes can be provided (p.195): “Perfect form at MMC not required“ –
either for the entire drawing (this corresponds to the independence principle) or as addition to
an individual feature of size (then the envelope condition is locally annulled). MMC means
“Maximal Material Condition”. The material condition may be alternatively introduced by
means of a straightness tolerance of 0 M for the axis or the central plane.
105
Figure 103: Geometric tolerance notations
a) different ways of connecting a feature control frame; b) simplified hole tolerance and datum indication; c) datum
location: visible vs. hidden.
Tolerance leader line (p. 49): it is normally drawn from the right or left side of the feature
control frame at an angle relative to the tolerated feature (alike an informational arrow line).
However, if a position tolerance operates only in a certain direction (except a cylindrical
tolerance zone), it is drawn perpendicularly to the tolerance zone also in ASME.
The tolerance leader line may be entirely omitted; then, the feature control frame is hung
directly on the auxiliary line, or is placed under the dimension indication. For types of
tolerances that may relate to both actual and derived features (in ASME, these include only
straightness and orientation tolerances), it must be clearly distinguished (identically to ISO)
whether the tolerance leader line is connected with the appropriate dimension line or the
dimension indication (then a derived feature is being tolerated), or it is not (then an actual
feature is being tolerated). However, for other types of tolerances where no risk of mistake is
present, ASME’s approach to the positioning of tolerance leader lines is rather generous.
Datum triangle: for derived features (such as an axis), the datum triangle is placed on the
dimension line (alike ISO; it was different with ANSI in the past). Generally, it may be also
hung on the feature control frame pertaining to the datum feature (b). It applies as if the
datum triangle was placed at the end point of the tolerance leader line.
Datum locations (p. 72,74): the contact point of a straight line lying in parallel with the
projection plane is represented by a one dash – two dots line. The informational arrow line is
omitted. If the informational arrow line is dashed, the location in the drawing is hidden (it is in
the rear) – it is very synoptic.
Special tolerance data: the figure below explains the following cases
a) Bounded tolerance zone (p.162): a square test region with a size of 25 x 25mm may
be placed wherever within the tolerated surface.
b) Position tolerance without form tolerance (p.187):U this says that only the
tangentially aligned ideal feature rather than actual geometric features must lie within
he tolerance zone. In such case it is a flat plate designed on a least condition basis.
Form deviations of the actual surface are thus not captured.
106
Figure 104: Fig. 104: Special tolerancing
a) bounded tolerance zone; b) position tolerance without form tolerancing; c) tolerancing lines within an area; d) projected
tolerance zone
c) Projected tolerance zone (p. 48/134): the projected tolerance zone length is
indicated in a feature control frame in a box following Q. It applies from the
workpiece’s surface on the indicated side. Alternatively, a position and the (minimum)
length may be dimensioned using a thick dot-dash line.
Axes/central planes as tolerated features (p.152): unlike ISO, a derived feature is not created
from individual cross-sections but from the pertaining ideal counterpart, alike datum features,
e.g. for a hole by means of a pin without clearance (this is normally more simple and
consistent with the functionality). With this, form deviations are not covered by the position
tolerance. Only with the concentricity symbol a and the symmetry symbol d the derived
feature will be created either from individual cross-sections or point-by-point. Also, the M
symbol M is not used for these. Where M or any other measuring is required, the position
symbol I refers to both other location tolerances.
107
Special Location Tolerance Data
Figure 105: Special location tolerances
a) position in terms of coaxiality; b) conical tolerance zone; c) crescent-shaped tolerance zone
a) Coaxiality with the maximum material condition: recesses should be always

coaxial relative to their holes. The testing is carried out by means of a caliper (M).
Therefore, a notation is provided for the position rather than coaxiality.
b) Conical tolerance zone: the tolerance zone has ø 0,5mm at surface C, ø 1mm at
surface D (due to possible placement of a hole), and it is conical in between. The
testing is carried out by means of a caliper.
c) Crescent-shaped tolerance zone: it is located at +/-002mm relative to the ideal

radius R78 and +/-01mm from an arm of the ideal angle of 15°.
108
Edge-based position tolerance and floating position tolerance: ASME uses dozens of
examples of this hole series tolerance:
- Pattern-locating tolerance zone framework (PLTZF): the tolerance zone location is

determined using the edge-based system
- Feature-relating tolerance zone framework (FRTZF): the floating tolerance system

(“freely”) relates mutual positions of features. At least a primary relationship regularly
occurs here.
Figure 106: Special feature control frames
a) composite frame; b) bounded maximum material condition
This is accommodated by a composite feature control frame, fig. a. It has two lines with
the common first compartment containing the tolerance symbol. It is used only for tolerances
of position and profile. Both lines have the same datum system, but in the second line the
datums may be omitted, starting from the end. The first line is always PLTZF; the second line
is FRTZF and it has a lesser tolerance value than the first one. It determines the direction
between the datum feature and the tolerated feature. However, theoretical measures
determining the location do not apply here. It may even happen that both lines have the
same datums. Then, the FRTZF hole series can be only shifted but not rotated. (However,
where the first compartment of the frame does not extend, each line applies only to itself, as
is generally the case in ISO).
Bounded maximum material condition: in figure b, a perpendicularity deviation may be as

large as is the deviation of the actual measure from the maximum material limit ø, but not
larger than 0.1mm.
109
Figure 107: Profile tolerancing
a) different tolerance zone positions; b) bounded tolerance zone; c) position of an actual geometric feature; d) common
tolerance zone (coplanarity)
Profile tolerances: they are more versatile than with ISO, fig. 107
a) Non-centric tolerance zone: it may be unilaterally shifted internally or externally

(designated by a thin one dash – two dots line), or arbitrarily (with dimensioning). The
one dash – two dots line must not be mistaken with the thick one dash – two dots line
used by ISO for designation of a bounded tolerance zone.
b) Bounded tolerance zone: a profile tolerance is valid only between the points C and
D – this is a very effective representation, better than ISO
c) Position of an actual geometric feature: the common front surface is the actual
plane. However, in ASME, position tolerances are used only for derived geometric
features. Here, therefore, we will resort to a surface profile tolerance.
d) Common tolerance zone: unfortunately, this term and the “CZ” symbol do not exist
in ASME. For flat surfaces, a common tolerance zone is referred to as coplanarity.
Again, instead of flatness – which is applied only to individual geometric features –
surface profile will be used here. The tolerance arrow is seated on a one dash – two
dots line between the surfaces concerned. Moreover, the number of surfaces is
indicated – 2 surf(aces) in this illustration. For other types of tolerances, a “2 surf
sim.” (2 surfaces simultaneously) notice may be provided below the feature control
frame.
110
nominal profile
least break
boundary (outline)
Figure 108: Boundary control
a) drawing with an enclosed profile (break); b) boundary
Boundary control of an enclosed profile: Under both ASME and ISO, the maximum
material condition may be applied only to simple features of size (circular cylinders and pairs
of parallel planes). The boundary control extends the application to any shaped features. The
break outline in figure 108a is encircled by a surface profile tolerance zone with a width of
1.2mm. The outline is perpendicular to the primary datum A; or otherwise it is just form
tolerance. The break position must leave free the hatched boundary area in b. This will be
achieved as follows:
- The nominal profile of the break will take the nominal position defined by the datum
system A / B / C.
- The maximum material condition of the break (the least break) will be shifted all
around by the half profile tolerance, i.e. 0.6mm, inwards.
- This least break may be shifted at all sides by the half profile tolerance, i.e. +/- 0.25
mm, but it must not be turned.
With this, a hatched area will remain that must stay free. This may be checked by means of a
functional gage embodying the boundary area in its drawn position.
111
9 Specifics of Use of MBN 11011
9.1 Surface Lines as Datums
Surface lines must not be used as datums. Only axes of dimensioned geometric features or
datum locations may be used.
Figure 109: Surface line as datum
9.2 Angular Measure Tolerances (± Tolerances)
Plus/minus tolerances for angles should be avoided. Surface profile tolerances should be
used instead.
Figure 110: Angular measure tolerances
112
9.3 Stepped Measures
Stepped measures must be always aligned with surface profile tolerances with a datum.
Figure 111: Stepped measures
9.4 Surface Profile Outline Symbols
Pursuant to ASME Y 14.5M, a drawing may bear only an arrow symbol placed above the
feature control frame of the geometric feature, indicating that a certain specification should
be applied between the two points referenced by the letters. In 3D-Master the symbol must
not be used.
Figure 112: Surface profile outline symbols
113
9.5 Concentricity / Coaxiality, Symmetry
Concentricity, coaxiality and symmetry must not be used any more. Tolerances of position
should be used instead.
Figure 113: Concentricity / coaxiality and symmetry
9.6 Combined Feature Control Frame for Position and Surface

Tolerances
Where combined tolerance is required for a certain geometric feature, two or more individual
segments should be used. The lower tolerances set are independent from the upper
tolerances set and they may have different datums, or the same datums in a different order
of precedence.
Figure 114: Combined feature control frame for

position and surface tolerances
114
9.7 Use of Unilateral Surface Tolerances
Meaning
Data set
side
Data set
side
Data set
side
Data set
side
Data set
side
Data set
side
Table 27:Use of unilateral surface tolerances
115
10 Best Business Practice (Simplified GD&T)
10.1 Position vs. Concentricity
Best Practice:
Figure 115: Best Practice: Positon vs. Concentricity
In order to keep the two holes in the same axis,

axi a composite position should be used. Both
holes are held within 1-mm
mm back to datums A| B | C. In addition, each hole is held to within
0.3-mm
mm back to each other. Unlike the concentricity call-out,
call out, the composite position can be
checked using a simple gage.
Non-Preferred (IS NOT):
In a majority of applications, only 3 datums are required.

req
In this example, the D-datum
datum has been added so that
the opposite hole can be checked back to "D".
Position tolerance should be used in place of concentricity,

whenever possible. Concentricity call-outs
outs require CMM
checks and/or expensive gages.
Figure 116: Not preferred: Position vs.

Concentricity
116
10.2 PROFILE VS. PERPENDICULARITY
Best Practice:
Figure 117: Best Practice: Profile vs Perpendicularity
The profile control feature controls both orientation and location of the outer walls. The
respective surfaces must lie within (2) theoretical planes spaced 0.5-mm
0.5 mm apart a distance of
189.1-mm and 77.9-mm mm from datum-B.
datum
Perpendicularity call-outs
outs are not The perpendicularity control feature only controls
required on a majority of holes. Due to the orientation of the outer walls back to Datum
the fact our structures applications use surface A. It does not control location because
thin steel thicknesses, this application is there are no controls to Datum B. Therefore, the
not necessary.
essary. In addition, this call-out
call is basic dimensions (189.1 and 77.9-mm)
7 are not
very difficult to measure. applicable. To correct that, one would have to
have ± dimensions.
Figure 118: Not preferred: Position vs. Perpendicularity
117
10.3 PROFILE VS. PARALLELISM
Best Practice:
The profile control feature controls both orientation and location of the outer
walls. The right surface must lie within (2) theoretical planes spaced 0.2-mm
0.2
apart a distance of 4.4-mm.
4.4
Figure 119: Best Practice: Profile vs. Parallelism
As with perpendicularity, a parallelism feature only controls the orientation of a

surface relative to the datum. Therefore, the top surface must be parallel to
datum -A-,, but the location of the surface is not controlled. Since no distance
dimension is provided on the drawing, a measurement would have to be taken
from CAD. The tolerance for that dimension would default to the title block
tolerance.
Figure 120: Non-Preferred: Profile. vs Parallelism
118
10.4 PROFILE VS. ANGULARITY
Best Practice:
A profile call-out is
required to control both
orientation and location.
Figure 121: Best Pracice: Profile vs. Angularity
Angularity only controls

the orientation of the
surface
Figure 122: Non-Preferred: Profile vs. Angularity
119
10.5 PROFILE VS. POSITION
Best Practice:
In this example, the

hatched areas represent
weld zones to a back
frame tube. This weld
surface is critical to
ensure a proper welded
joint.
By using a profile
tolerance, the hatched
weld zones are controlled
for both orientation and
location.
The profile tolerance

applies to DIM R15.5;
therefore, that dimension
becomes a box
Figure 123: Best Practice: Profile vs. Position dimension.
Again, the primary

purpose of this drawing is
to ensure a repeatable
surface for welding.
However, the positional

control feature is only
controlling the location of
arc centerline, not the
weld zone surfaces.
Figure 124: Non-Preferred: Profile vs. Position
120
11 Measurement Uncertainty and Tolerances
International and national standards as well as associations’ regulations and some industrial
standards require knowledge of the measurement uncertainty attributed to a certain
measuring result, or verification of capability for a particular control process.
The determination of measurement uncertainties involves estimation of the limits – at a

defined confidence level – between which the true value of the measurement result lies.
Normally, before using a production control gage, its capacity for the appropriate measuring
operation is first verified to ensure that the measurement result uncertainty will be reasonably
related to the tolerance of the characteristic. Measurement results so obtained may be used
in the calculation of measurement uncertainty.
Both approaches, whether related or non-related to characteristic tolerances, eventually bear

on the tolerancing requirement compliance and testing. Therefore, their outcome should be
taken in account in the tolerancing exercise.
The figure below shows some implied measurements, represented by means of an Ishikawa
diagram. Depending on the objective of measuring and the process situation, the
measurement result may be influenced in many ways. With excessive measurement
uncertainty due to an unsuitable measuring process, unrealistic concepts of dimensions may
be arrived at and unnecessary costs incurred.
Figure 125: Measurement result and measurement uncertainty
121
11.1 Measuring and Manufacturing Process Capability
Capability of a certain measuring process used to measure parts of a certain selection

sample is related to a later review of the manufacturing process. This will be further clarified
in an example of simple statistical considerations based on simplified assumptions (normal
distribution, without systematic measurement deviations).
The measured variance σ2 of a certain characteristic of part is defined as the sum of the
“actual“ variance σ2F of the characteristic (manufacturing variance) and the measuring
process variance σ2F .
σ2 = σ2F + σ2M
Actual process
variance
Large measuring
Observed process process variance
variance
Figure 126: Overlay of manufacturing process and measuring process variances
Since in the standard formula of process capability Cp
the estimated value of the standard process variance σ is the denominator value, Cp will be
as lesser as bigger is the variance σ of the measuring process. The same applies to Cpk.
122
The following figure illustrates the value of Cp as function of the characteristic measurand
%GRR as measure for relative values of the measuring process variance (standard deviation
related to the tolerance of the characteristic) with consideration of additional influences (e.g.
from the machine operator).
The higher this value, the more “uncertain” the measurement.

Actual value of Cp
Observed value of Cp
Figure 127: Effect of %GRR on the characteristic quality process capability variable Cp
The illustration shows that the effect of the measuring process variance on the calculated
characteristic manufacturing process capability value is for %GRR < 10% non-critical, and for
10% ≤ %GRR ≤ 30% it may be still acceptable, depending on the application situation.
11.2 Determination of Measurement Uncertainty
A range of standards and regulations concerning measurement uncertainty have been

issued. VDA has stipulated for the German automotive industry and its suppliers that
substantial uncertainty components of a measuring process must be determined and
estimated using statistical means.
123
As an example, Volume VDA 5 [2] mentions concrete effects of influencing components of
the surrounding environment, operator staff and the measured object.
In addition, uncertainty of calibration and workpiece fastening may be of some significance,

as well as the type of the testing process and other uncertainty components. The different
uncertainty components are then aggregated into so called extended measurement
uncertainty U as follows:
Their meanings here:
k Extension factor (the value of k for a confidence level of 95% is approx. 2)
Standard uncertainty indicated in the calibration sheet

2
u c
Calibration uncertainty of a calibrated workpiece
2 Standard uncertainty from the measuring process, i.e. standard deviation of repeated
u p
measuring
2 Standard uncertainty from material and manufacturing variances (based on variances from the
u w
expansion coefficient, form deviations, roughness, elasticity and plasticity)
2 The systematic deviation between yi values and the calibration value of the calibrated
u b
workpiece XC, expressed as standard deviation
Table 28: Overview of uncertainty components
With deployment of a suitable software, these uncertainty components may be reported

individually, which will enhance visibility of the maximum “performance capacity” of the
measuring process. This will help to identify improvement potentials and optimize the
measuring process, where appropriate. Also, the measuring process may help to establish
the “minimum measurable tolerance”.
124
11.3 Measurement Uncertainty Considerations
unilateral bilateral
area of tolerance area of tolerance

a) area of conformity a) area of conformity

b) area of nonconformity b) area of nonconformity

c) area of uncertainty c) area of uncertainty
Table 29: Measurement uncertainty considerations for limit values (tolerance zone boundaries)
The figure below illustrates how an area of conformity, area of nonconformity and area of
uncertainty depend on the extended measurement uncertainty U.
extended measurement uncertainty
area of conformity
area of nonconformity
Figure 128: extended area on uncertainty, area of conformity, area of nonconformity
125
area of tolerance
Growing measurement
uncertainty (U)
rejection acceptance rejection
area of conformity area of area of uncertainty area of conformity area of

nonconformity nonconformity
Figure 129: Areaof tolerance (USG – OSG)
Significance of a sufficiently small measurement uncertainty, particularly with “small”

tolerances, is obvious. Any measurement uncertainty further constrains the manufacturing
tolerance.
On the other hand, specification of a too small tolerance necessarily leads to increased
requirements for the appropriate testing process and, accordingly, to higher costs of
production.
11.4 Measurement Uncertainty Implications
Consideration of measurement uncertainty at the upper and/or lower limit has different
implications for a customer and a supplier. A supplier must always constrain the tolerance
zone at the upper and lower limits to provide for the measurement uncertainty, while a
customer must always extend the tolerance zone by adding the measurement uncertainty at
both limits when accepting a product.
If measurement uncertainty was not taken in account, defective parts could be dispatched,
with justified rejection of products as a result.
126
12 Tolerancing Processes and Concepts
12.1 Product Definition
- The purpose and objective of product definition is complete and unambiguous

communication of the proposed intent.
- Product definition must be sufficiently unambiguous to be equally clear to all

stakeholders involved in the product development process. This path leads from the
designer, through the manufacturer and the inspector, up to the customer.
12.2 Illustration of Tolerancing Process by Means of General Car

Development Process
An important success factor of the continuous tolerancing work within the general car
development process is coordination of all stakeholders involved in the process and
interdisciplinary communication.
The common objective should be satisfaction of final customer’s requirements for the whole
vehicle product in terms of functionality, reliability and appearance, all that with due regard to
cost effectiveness.
This chapter provides an exemplary illustration of how the process of tolerancing geometric
features in the general vehicle development work could look like.
Step 1: Selection of qualitative characteristics
The research starts from the vehicle as a whole. Relevant geometric features having a
significant effect on functionality, reliability and appearance of the entire vehicle are
identified.
Those features will be then grouped under the umbrella term “qualitative characteristics”. In
addition to such functional aspects, also the testing process should be taken in account so
that a qualitative characteristic may be measured at a later time in the series manufacturing.
The qualitative characteristics so identified will be then documented in a suitable manner,

e.g. in a characteristic catalogue.
As soon as possible, ideally already at this stage, tolerance requirements for the qualitative
characteristics so chosen must be considered and documented, e.g. in the characteristic
catalogue or a gap and radius plan.
127
Step 2: Tolerance analysis of a complete vehicle
The complete vehicle will be decomposed into large system components – ideally such that
they correspond to assembly groups. For the complete car, this could be for instance the
rough design of the bodyworks, engine, chassis, lamps, driver compartments, doors, roofing
system of the front compartment, rear module, etc.
Using tolerance simulations at the complete vehicle level, tolerance specifications for
qualitative characteristics of individual components will be now fine-tuned. The components
as such will be further examined only as “black-boxes”.
To do that, we need the tolerance specifications identified in Step 1 on the one hand, and
components’ datum systems as well as information about assembling and coupling concepts
for the components in the complete vehicle on the other.
Already at this stage there is a significant potential for optimization through balanced fine-
tuning of tolerance specifications for qualitative characteristics of components, and through
possible improvement of the assembling and coupling concepts. Results, together with
appropriate tolerance simulations, and the underlying assembling and coupling concepts are
documented in a suitable form.
Schematic representation of system boundaries of a complete vehicle:
complete
vehicle
component
system
boundary
part
system
boundary
Figure 130: System boundaries of a complete vehicle
128
Example of a part and a component in a complete vehicle:
Figure 131: A part and a component in a complete vehicle
Step 3: Tolerance analysis at the component level
Step 3 will be carried out by different persons who are responsible for the relevant
components. They may be system suppliers.
The tolerance specifications identified in Step 2 for qualitative characteristics of components

must be verified through the tolerance simulation.
It often happens that tolerance specifications of a component characteristic cannot be met.
In such case, the first step is to look for optimization possibilities before the problem is
escalated to the complete vehicle level for resolution.
In addition to externally specified tolerances at system boundaries, there is, naturally, a

range of qualitative characteristics within a component that require a review by the person
responsible for the component.
129
Step 4: General dimensioning concept
The tolerancing process is closely interrelated with other processes involved in the general
car development.
They are particularly the following :
- Preparation and approval of a gap and radius plan
- Documentation of datum systems/reference point systems in drawings
- Documentation of geometric tolerances in drawings or CAD models
- Identification of special characteristics in drawings
- Designing manufacturing and assembling tools
- Planning prototype, pilot run ad series manufacturing tests
- Arrangement of the testing process
The objective of Step 4 is to ensure loss-free, insofar as possible, assessment of the

acquired learning for the purposes of the above development processes. It requires intensive
information sharing with relevant entities involved in the process.
Losses of information are as lesser as better are the entities participating in the development
engaged in the Simultaneous Engineering work. The objective of the tolerancing process
systems, which is pursued across all project stages, can be best attained with suitable team
structures and actively cooperating partners within the frame of Simultaneous Engineering.
Step 5: Evaluation of results for prototype and series manufacturing
Where conspicuous deviations of prototype and pilot series testing results from simulation
results occur, it is necessary to check whether the toleration simulations were not based on
wrong or adverse assumptions. Where appropriate, the assumption must be corrected so
that the derived experience may be applied to further projects.
Where appropriate, decisions concerning approval of geometric deviations of part measures

must be adopted within the frame of the manufacturing process and product approval
procedures (“Produktionsprozesse- und Produktfreigabe” (PPF)). The learning derived from
the tolerancing process may provide an important guidance here. Such knowledge may be
also used in the analysis of problems in the series manufacturing in relation to dimensional
deviations.
130
12.3 Tolerance Assessment in FMEA
In the Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) a potential failure is often described only
in qualitative terms, e.g. “the insulating coat thickness is too small”.
Particularly with a flat quality characteristic curve the potential consequence of a failure
strongly depends on the quantitative measure of the failure, e.g. “little significance if the
insulating coat thickness is 5% lesser, but great significance if the insulating coat thickness is
5o% lesser”.
Therefore, quantitative description of a failure should be preferred (e.g. “the coat thickness is
5% to 30% lesser”).
Determination of classes of characteristics is an integral component of the quality planning

process and it reflects the classification of failures related to a qualitative characteristics.
A general classification of failures is focused on the consequences of failures, and it

classifies failures into three classes: “critical failure”, “major failure” and “minor failure”, which
may be complemented by further sub-classification.
However, there is no supporting generally accepted or standardized text or interpretation on

which the classification of characteristic failures could be built.
Today, estimations of process or product risks for functional characteristics or other

qualitative characteristics are typically based on system FMEA ratings.
If the classification of characteristics has been completed, for the sake of expediency we will
further focus on the classification of risks.
If the classification by risk class has been already done as part of the system FMEA of a
product, tolerances of functional characteristics or qualitative characteristics will follow such
classification.
Logically, as the risk is reduced, tolerances will be set, with due regard to manufacturing
capacities, at such levels that decisive factors in the tolerance selection exercise are cost-
efficiency considerations and that small tolerances are set only in instances where the
existing risk is proportionally high.
131
12.3.1 Example for Assignment of FMEA Ratings to Characteristic
Classes
FMEA Rating Class of characteristics
Rating Critical characteristic
Severity/significance 9 -10 typical requirements
Cpk > 1.67

Probability of occurrence ---
No value of the characteristic

Probability of detection --- out of the area of tolerance is
permissible (0 ppm)
Rating Major characteristic
Severity/significance 5-8 typical requirements
Cpk > 1.33

Probability of occurrence ---
A rate of characteristic values

Probability of detection --- outside the area of tolerance of
up to 62 ppm is permissible
Rating Minor characteristic
Severity/significance 1-4 typical requirements
Probability of occurrence --- Cpk > 1.00
A rate of characteristic values

outside the area of tolerance of
Probability of detection --- up to 2700 ppm is permissible
Table 30: Assignment of FMEA ratings to characteristic classes
132
12.4 Process Prerequisites for Functional Dimensioning Concept
Concept stage Development Prototypes Manufacturings
Figure 132: Dimensional quality implementation process
Instructions for the implementation of dimensional quality:
- Concept stage: requirements placed on the product are clearly defined
- Development: design complies with the product requirements; the product

documentation has been prepared
- Prototypes: the proposed product design has been verified by means of planned
testing; manufacturing capacities enable series manufacturing
- Manufacturing: process data processing has been implemented and feedback

data flow from production to development is provided
12.4.1 Required Data and Information
Concept stage:
- work plan of functional dimensions, assembly plan
- reports and documentation
o ○ product-specific definition of measures
o ○ competitiveness targets
o ○ comparison of concepts - evaluation
- preparation of detailed task formulations
- existing measure data
133
Figure 133: Concept stage
Development:
- structural composition plan, assembly plan
- identification of part location points (locators)
- 3D summary tolerance analysis
o ○ optimized tolerancing and determination of assembling methods
o ○ design verification
o ○ weighted process control points
- measurement plan
- verified dimensioning and tolerancing documentation
134
product structure / assembly plan
geometry, datums and

tolerances
assembling
methods
Figure 134: Development
Prototypes:
- verification of the functional dimension plan, assembly plan
- prototype measurements
o simulation/process comparison
o fine-tuning on changes
o communication for problem resolution
- documentation of deviations between development specifications and the actual

prototype
Manufacturing:
o verification of calculation results
o targeted process optimization
o problem identification and resolution
- problem resolution database (expert system) as source of information for future

projects
135
12.5 VDA Standardized Tolerancing Process Draft
Tolerancing process –
1.Information gathering
▪ Drawings, sketches
▪ Bill of materials
▪ Assembly structure
▪ Catalogue of requirements
▪ Functional description
▪ ...
2. Definition of critical functional areas and identification of requirements
▪ Function
▪ Life cycle
▪ Optics
▪ Input from FMEA Produkt
▪ ...
3. Identification of datum systems
▪ Assembly/layout/arrangement concepts
▪ Measuring concepts
▪ ...
4. Execution of tolerance simulation
▪ Examination of the worst-case scenario
▪ Error propagation law
▪ CA-tools (3D simulation)
▪ Effects of forces and distortions
▪ ...
5. Confirmation of feasibility
Tolerancing process
▪ Manufacturing
▪ Measuring equipment
▪ ...
6. Plan/actual comparisons and corrective actions
▪ Optimization of assembly structure
▪ Provision of adjustment options
▪ Tolerance fine-tuning
▪ Reduction of tolerance sensitivity
▪ Tolerance narrowing
▪ ...
7. Documentation of outcome
▪ Datum system and tolerances in drawing
▪ Catalogue of functional measures
▪ Computation documentation
▪ ...
8. Product verification and validation
▪ Comparison of simulation results against prototype testing results
▪ Manufacturing process and product approval (PPF)
▪ ...
9. Process management and care in series manufacturing
▪ Problem analysis of lot in progress
▪ Documentation of capability
▪ Change management
▪ Lessons Learned review
▪ ...
10. Service
▪ Field monitoring
▪ Product management
▪ Supply chain processes
136
13 Tolerance Analysis and Tolerance Simulation
13.1 What Is Tolerance Analysis?
The term ‘analysis’ generally refers to systematic examination of a certain object or

substance with regard to all its determining individual components and factors.
Accordingly, tolerance analysis means an analysis of:
- geometry
- function
- material
- assembling sequence
13.2 What Do We Need Tolerance Analysis for?
⇒ To obtain results for verification of quality- and function-related customer

requirements.
Figure 135 Representation of results (quality- and function-related customer requirements)
137
13.3 Prerequisites for Effective Tolerance Analysis
Principal Rule: The basis of an effective tolerance analysis is always effective tolerancing.
Product requirements
Function Manufacture Testing
The tolerancing of a A workpiece must be able When testing of a

workpiece must be of manufacturing within the workpiece using
carried out in a manner tolerances, with due measuring and testing
assuring that its regard to cost-efficiency instruments is carried out,
specified function will be and process the testing work must be
complied with. Since arrangements. as easy and safe as
a product without possible. Critical factors in
functional requirements this are the chosen type of
is useless, this is the tolerance (e.g. form or
top-priority requirement position) and tolerancing
principle (envelope
Figure 136: Product requirements for the tolerance analysis
It is obvious that determination of a “proper” tolerance is a process in which a broad array of

different aspects needs to be taken in account. Tolerancing which is optimal in both
functionality and economy terms unconditionally requires close cooperation between the
Development, Engineering, Manufacturing and Quality units.
138
13.3.1 Requirements Placed on Drawings
Completeness and unambiguity
Technical drawings of individual parts must provide a complete and unambiguous product
description.
complete: unambiguous:
i.e. it must indicate all substantial i.e. it must not allow for any
properties differing interpretations
Figure 137: : Requirements placed on drawings
Further, a drawing must comply with all technical and economic requirements, i.e. it must
satisfy the same criteria as product requirements: it must be fit for the
FUNCTION MANUFACTURING TESTING
Figure 138: Requirements placed on drawings (2)
Functional fitness of a part:
⇒ Every structural part must be toleranced so that it is able to perform its intended
function throughout its life cycle.
This generally implies the following: a part must always be capable of being analyzed.
139
The following rules apply to this:
- A part must be geometrically described.
- Tolerances (degrees of freedom and arrangement) must be limited.
- All functional parameters of a part must be described.
- A part must be capable of being tested according to its description (specification of

points of measurement)
- To enable an optimum analysis, it must be possible to describe a part by means of

metrological procedures and their assessment within an assembly.
- This requires general assignment of datum points to a part for assembling.
- Metrological assessment of different parts and assembly units must provide an

outcome that clearly evidences quality and provides the basis for corrections.
(Position and deviations).
13.4 Tolerance Simulation
Basically, 1D and 3D simulators can be distinguished.
The difference
depends on the
method
Figure 139: 1D and 3D simulation
As part of statistical tolerancing, it is possible to simulate assembling of individual

components or a combination of individual characteristics in mathematical terms. This
140
involves observation of each characteristic of a dimensional chain as a random sequence
whose distribution is known, or at least it can be considered as known.
Mathematical “linking” of random variables eventually yields values for the fitting dimension,
or the gap/flush. Such linking may be a simple summation (taking regard of the appropriate
counting direction or spatial direction), but computation of complex functional relationships
between different measures is also feasible. Moreover, tolerance chains of multidimensional
characteristics (such as position within a plane or space) can be also simulated.
Such simulations are often undertaken as part of the development work to determine
whether, and with what multitude, a design may induce problems in a later manufacturing or
assembling process (e.g. difficulties with coupling two components).
The major problem in mathematical modeling of a tolerance chain typically lies in estimating
what the distribution of a characteristic in the future manufacturing process will be like.
Looking at SPC’s of real processes or histograms of such data we can see that normal
distribution is often not more than a rough approximation.
Particularly characteristics having zero limits (e.g. characteristics of form or position) may
have only values greater than zero, which may produce distributions that are inclined on the
right-hand side, with zero as lower limit.
Linking characteristics with normal distributions normally generates a “favorable” distribution

of the coupling dimension, i.e. the resulting distribution is “small” relative to the tolerance of
the coupling dimension. On the other hand, if we apply a rectangular distribution to individual
features, the resulting distributions will be significantly wider. A rectangular distribution is thus
a rather pessimistic assumption.
A user usually has no other choice than to adopt, in cooperation with the production planning
unit, assumptions regarding supposed manufacturing distributions that are as realistic as
possible.
This may be naturally aided by appropriate experience of similar ongoing processes.

However, examination of Cp and Cpk values is not sufficient as they do not show the
distribution of characteristics. Commercial summation programs offer a choice of model
distributions for different dimensions (triangle, trapezoidal or skew distribution) and enable for
example:
- representation of the resulting distribution of a coupling dimension as well as its

statistical parameters;
- representation of theoretical shares within and outside an area of tolerance;
- information on individual tolerance percentages of the overall coupling dimension

tolerance, i.e. the relative changes in this value if a tolerance is applied as zero.
141
13.4.1 One-dimensional Simulation / Calculation
One-dimensional (1D) tolerance simulation examines each (spatial) direction individually,

and is based on quite simple mathematical models.
In most cases, the basis is one of the three simple mathematical computation methods:
(direct summation of tolerances of individual parts T = t1 + t2 + t3 + ... = Σ ti
simple statistical calculation: Formel 6
Square root method : Formel 7
It should be taken in account that 1D simulation fails to consider certain important mutual
effects, because e.g. mutual effects of three spatial dimensions are a priori excluded.
The 1D simulation is sometimes used as pre-stage of the 3D simulation to obtain the first
rough estimate of the tolerance situation, and it may be carried out using simpler tools (e.g.
the standard MS-Excel software).
142
13.4.1.1 Example of One-dimensional Simulation / Calculation
Figure 140: Execution of 1D Studies
13.4.1.2 Excel Spreadsheet for One-dimensional Simulation / Calculation
Figure 141: 1D Excel spreadsheet
143
13.4.2 3D Analysis Process
As opposed to the above approaches, 3D analyses take account of the statistical nature of
tolerances.
We at JC currently use the VisVSA (VSA) 3D simulation software. During a simulation, VSA
alternates all tolerances within a defined statistical distribution. The simulation outcome thus
provides a picture of tolerance fluctuations and the casual nature of manufacturing
processes.
Figure 142: 3D analysis overview
Another advantage of a 3D analysis is in that the simulation may yield statements as to

process characteristic values (e.g. Cp/Cpk) and their appropriate originators or contributors.
The identification of originators/contributors, including percentages of their variance impacts,
is referred to as sensitivity analysis (HLM analysis).
The VSA simulation reflects both influence of individual part tolerances and process
tolerance implications (coupling sequence, layout concept). If a critical low-level assembly
group is assembled (coupled) in a too early point of time, the subsequent components and
assemblies will appear in the sensitivity analysis.
They will not appear if the critical component is assembled in a later point of the coupling
process. The VSA analysis further represents the effect of process-dependent contingent
tolerances. Such tolerances (such as clearance in pin/hole couplings) will also appear in the
list of originators, sorted by percentage weight.
144
This detailed analysis enables a target-oriented analysis of:
- assembling methods
- layout concepts
- functional testing of motion processes
- design of individual parts
Development process pursuing :
Quality enhancement
Cost reduction through through assessment of
preliminary tolerancing ensuing factors
Development process assessment:
Is the assembly
Can the parts be
group functional?
coupled?
How should parts be

mutually arranged ?
Which tolerance is critical with
regard to the entire assembly group?
Figure 143: Development process assessment
Optimization potentials implied by a 3D simulation can be integrated into an existing analysis

model.
With this, verification of effects of tolerance changes may be accomplished with lower time
intensity. Changes in coupling sequences, layout concepts and engineering improvements
require, depending on the type of change to be implemented, more time-intensive
adjustments of the simulation model. However, any modification of a model should be made
only within the area being changed. Verification of alternative options does not require
development of an entirely new simulation model. Only the affected parts need to be
modified.
Another important benefit of the VSA simulations, as compared to one-dimensional analysis

methods, is in that it captures geometric effects. Particularly in complex assemblies three-
dimensional geometric effects occur whose existence is difficult to prove without deployment
of simulation tools .
145
In addition to its direct benefit for the process of optimizing a particular design series, the
learning from simulation may be used as a knowledge base for future analyses.
Drawbacks of the VSA simulation include significant time intensity of the analysis model
development work and limitation to examination of ideally solid parts only.
The time intensity ensues from the fact that complete description of a manufacturing process
requires ex ante gathering of extensive amounts of data, which must be then compiled into a
computer simulation model.
One positive side effect of this approach is a very high degree of detail of examination
exercises. With this, problems like missing input parameters can be detected at a very early
stage.
Limitation to coupling methods that are free of any tension means that distortions emerging
in the part coupling process cannot be represented in a simulation model.
In practice such distortions appear when elastic distortion of parts occurs as result of the
action of clamping forces (tool, welding pliers). A detailed analysis of all coupling processes
and specialist experience of the simulation tool may help to significantly reduce any
uncertainties resulting from the limitation to solid parts.
When all relevant data have been entered into the computation model, VSA generates two
simulation outputs:
- Monte Carlo (MC) simulation with assumed dimensional values and process
indicators (capability, variance spread, repair percentage...)
- Sensitivity analysis (HLM rating) with percentages of impact of contributors as Pareto

diagram.
13.4.2.1 Monte Carlo Simulation and Sensitivity Analysis ( HLM Analysis)
The Monte Carlo analysis examines variance values of a particular qualitative characteristic,
defective part/repair percentages and the capability indices Cp and Cpk.
The sensitivity analysis provides an accurate analysis and optimization of a simulation

model. It generates a list of originators/contributors of the variance identified in the Monte
Carlo simulation, sorted by percentage weight. It is also referred to as High-Low-Median
(HLM) analysis.
146
Monte Carlo and High-Low-Median simulation results embody a significant optimization
potential. With application of targeted measures such as:
• change of the part coupling sequence
• change of datum systems
• optimization of the part and assembly group layout
• tolerance narrowing
• widening of “tolerances of concern”, etc.
a user is able to comply with applicable criteria and ensure safe, reproducible and cost-
effective processes.
Output diagram Graphical representation of

dimensional tolerance
Monte Carlo Simulation
(process capability,
variance width,
repair percentage)
Sensitivity analysis
Percentage weights
of identified process
Figure 144: Comparison between the Monte Carlo simulation and the sensitivity analysis
147
13.4.2.1.1 Monte Carlo Simulation
n-simulations
Aufteilung
von Block
nominal assembly und Winkel
n blocks n angle
nominal gap
random component
sampling, assembling and
Block measuring n-fold repetition
angle
disposal of used
components
Figure 145: Monte Carlo simulation procedure
Normal (Gaussian) distribution:
This is the basis of statistical research. This distribution describes the probability of
occurrence of a certain spread of variance for certain random configuration of events.
Process results are dispersed around their mean values and the variances have a certain
spread. The process spread is typically referred to as standard deviation.
Figure 146: Normal distribution
148
13.4.2.1.2 Sensitivity Analysis (HLM Analysis)
The sensitivity (High Low Median Simulation = HLM) analysis examines the question what
measures/tolerances bear on the process indicators determined through the Monte Carlo
simulation and lists these originators ordered by their respective percentage weight.
⇒ HLM determines the percentage of influence of each tolerance on the qualitative

characteristic and represents originators.
nominal value tolerance

nominal assembly
value
Qualitative characteristic
component
Figure 147: Sensitivity analysis procedure
Figure 148: HLM Report
149
13.4.3 Characteristic Values of Process Capabilities Cp and Cpk
For the sake of simplification, processes or distributions of process results are often
described using a number of characteristic values – indicators. One important indicator is
process capability.
Distributions of process results typically follow the Gaussian normal distribution.
The variance spread is then defined by the standard deviation - sigma. The process situation
is described by the distribution mean value.
Every process has its specification limits within which the results must fall to meet the
specification and be able of dispatch to a customer.
Process capability compares the spread and position of the process distribution to those of
the specification limits. In the automotive industry, the basic requirement is that the standard
deviation sigma must fall at least six times within the specification limits, and three times
between the lower specification limit and the mean value of the distribution and three times
between the upper specification limit and the mean value (+/- 3 sigma from the mean value).
This requirement describes the ideal condition when a process is in the middle between
specification limits.
6 sigma region
Six Sigma = 99.73 % of all parts is within this region
Figure 149: Six Sigma region in a HLM Report
150
Then the process capability Cp does not respect the position of the mean value of the
process, and it only describes the spread of the process distribution. When looking at the Cp
value, a process may seem to be appropriate as to the specification limit interval, but even
though it may be outside the specification limits. Where the distribution is narrow and
specification limits lie far from each other, Cp is always large regardless of where exactly the
distribution is positioned relative to the specification limits.
The calculation of Cp from the upper and lower specification limits (OSG (Obere
Spezifikationsgrenze) = upper specification limit; and USG – (Untere Spezifikationsgrenze) =
lower specification limit) and the standard deviation sigma uses the below formula:
The process capability indicator Cpk reflects the mean value position. In addition to the
requirement that the process distribution must be narrow and specification limits must be
wide, now it is important to have the mean value of distribution as close to the centre
between the specification limits as possible.
Only if the three requirements are met the Cpk value is high. Where the process is not
positioned close to the centre between the specification limits, the lesser distance between
the mean value of distribution and that of the specification limits will be applied in the
calculation of Cpk.
With this, Cpk will be in most cases lesser than the respective Cp.
Definition of Cpk using the mean value µ, the respective standard deviation σ and the
upper/lower specification limit(OSG; USG) will be as follows:
Or more simply:
• Xmin = 3, then Cpk = 1 (corresponds to the 3σ requirement, which is a standard in the

automotive industry)
• Xmin = 4, then Cpk = 1.33 (corresponds to 4σ)
• Xmin = 5, then Cpk = 1.67 (corresponds to 5σ)
151
13.4.3.1 Tolerance and Manufacturability Calculation
predefined tolerance
Process variance
The Sigma value describes
the number of parts with
sound quality”
arithmetical average
Meas. values
upper tolerance limit
lower tolerance limit
Tolerances in a drawing must be sufficiently large to achieve a reasonable cp / cpk value !

Figure 150: Tolerance and manufacturability calculation
13.4.3.2 Examples of Manufacturability for cp and cpk
capability indicators
Figure 151: Example of a garage for cp and Cpk
152
13.5 Example: 3D / 1D Method Workflow for Interiors
individual part data quality requirements in assembling
assembling work sequence
customer-defined points of measurement
calculation results
Figure 152: Example of 1D and 3D workflow for interiors
153
14 Tolerance Management at JC: Dimensional Management
14.1 Dimensional Management Objectives
“Product Development puts on a drawing anything they want....
...and then, Production makes it somehow .“
Dimensional Management provides support for the:
• definition of the tolerancing concept (GD&T)
• definition of, and compliance with, quality standards relating to GD&T
• definition of the part assembling sequence
• designing of concepts for tooling, gages and testing instruments, and reference point
systems
• preparation and updates of tolerance calculations
• integration of customer feedback, manufacturing and Quality Engineering
154
The Dimensional Management methodology and VSA-3D software are well suited to help
achieve dimensionally reproducible production solutions, provided that the methodology is
deployed in a new project at the right moment.
• ● Setup of a cross-functional team between the Planning, Development, Engineering,

Manufacturing, suppliers and the Dimensional Management team is one of keys to
success
• ● Unambiguous quality targets are irreplaceable
• ● Necessary changes and modification must be able of implementation with regard to

time and cost considerations, and recognized and initiated as soon as possible
Costs Required for Manufacturability
Figure 153: Costs needed for manufacturability
155
Costs /quality
quality
costs
time
Figure 154: Cost reduction through preventive action by DM
Quality improvement through optimization of process parameters (Robust Engineering)
Engagement of Dimensional Management at the kickoff of a project
Summary:
Tolerance calculations
• are possible only with a good drawing GD&T concept
• are needed for verification of all part drawings
• are needed for the “green” DSO Review report
• must be carried out together with the Engineering team, or alternatively with the
Dimensional Management team
156
14.2 General
neral Tolerance Analysis Process at JC
• ▪ Information gathering
• Definition of critical functional areas and identification of requirements
• Identification of datum systems
• Execution of tolerance simulation
• Confirmation of feasibility
• Plan/actual comparisons and corrective action
• Documentation of outcome
• Product verification and validation
• Process management and care in series manufacturig
• Service
Figure 155: General tolerance analysis process at JC
157
14.2.1 Relevant GD&T Reports According to PLUS Action Plan
Verify manufacturability
Activity planning and support through calculation of Verify calculations based on feedback from the
tolerances Manufacturing and/or suppliers
Define GD&T concepts and test interface Verify calculations based on part
positions (e.g. footprint study) prototypes
Figure 156: GD&T reports in the PLUS plan
13.2.2 Relevant GD&T Points in DSO Form Sheet
Every DSO audit at JC involves, inter alia, a check of the following GD&T points from
the DSO Form Sheet:
158
14.2.2 Support Options for Individual PLUS Stages
PLUS stage 0-1: Concept review using experience values for GD&T
Input: Output:
- part structure according to BOM - verification of the position within the vehicle
(BIW)
- experience value for part tolerances, tooling
concept, assembling sequence, BIW tolerances
PLUS stage 1-2: Definition of the tolerancing and tooling concept
Input: Output:
- part tolerances, tooling concepts - verification of tooling concepts from

the Engineering
- assembling sequence agreed with
the Engineering - verification of individual part tolerances and
drawing tolerances
- verification of the position within the vehicle

(BIW)
PLUS stage 2-3: Confirmation of the tolerancing and tooling concept
Input: Output:
- individual part and assembly group tolerances - verification of the supplier's tooling concept
approved by the customer
- verification of drawing tolerances of individual
- the tooling concept confirmed by the customer parts and assembly groups
- BIW tolerance confirmed by OEM - verification of the position within the vehicle
(BIW)
PLUS stage 3-5+: Support for the Engineering and the series manufacturing management
Figure 157: Support options in the PLUS plan
159
14.2.3 Tolerancing Communication Platform: Workgroup on
Tolerancing
The workgroup on tolerancing integrates all necessary units
- Engineering
- Product Manufacturing
- Dimensional Management
- Quality Department
to recognize and optimize different tolerance analysis aspects, issues and topics.
Figure 158: Workgroup on tolerancing
160
14.3 Quality Objectives at Johnson Controls
Figure 159: Quality objectives at JC
assembly drawing tolerances with SC / CC = +/- 5 sigma (cp / cpk = 1.67)
all other assembly drawing tolerances = +/- 4 sigma (cp / cpk = 1.33)
161
15 Annex
15.1 Guidance for Practice
Dimensional and geometric tolerances must be functional and fit for manufacturing and
testing. This aim is supported by respecting the following principles:
1) Tolerances – as few as possible and as many as necessary
2) General tolerances should encompass not only dimensions, but also the form and
position
3) Tolerance notations must be unambiguous
4) Tolerance notations must be faultless
5) Reasonable datum features/datum systems should be always used
6) The tolerancing principle applied should be always indicated in a drawing
7) Unambiguous measuring requirements for tolerance testing should be always laid

down
1. Tolerances - as few as possible and as many as necessary!
Redundancy of tolerances compromises clarity and comprehensibility of a drawing, and

gives raise to increased demands during the manufacturing and testing. Since position
tolerances also control the form, form tolerances for the same geometric feature may be
redundant.
2. General tolerances should encompass not only dimensions, but also the form and
position
A drawing should provide clear information about the general tolerances used. Since a
drawing missing geometric tolerances is normally incomplete, geometric tolerances should
be covered by at least general tolerances. As a rule, functionally important geometric
tolerances of form and position should be explicitly stated in a drawing. This will simplify the
test planning.
3. Tolerance notations must be unambiguous
Toleranced features and datum features must be clearly recognizable in a drawing.
162
4. Tolerance notations must be faultless
I case of doubts, relevant standards should be consulted or appropriate qualified specialist

assistance sought.
5. Reasonable datum features/datum systems should be always used
Datum features should be chosen in such manner that is appropriate to the

clamping/locating conditions during the testing. Datum surfaces should be sufficiently large
and feature high stability of form and quality of surface.
6. The tolerancing principle applied should be always indicated in a drawing
This warning is necessary because international practices and German practices are
different. While the independence principle is preferred at the international level, the
envelope principle is considered as generally agreed in Germany, unless a drawing contains
a notice to the contrary. For the sake of clarity with regard to the internationalization of
economy, a drawing should always indicate whether it has been toleranced according to DIN
7167 or ISO 8015.
7. Unambiguous measuring requirements for tolerance testing should be always laid

down
Since standardized regulations for tolerance measuring practices are still missing, adequate
regulations should be incorporated into working instructions or internal rules.
163
15.2 Wikipedia Page on Dimensional Management
Search term:
Dimensional Management
164
165

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Geometric

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Recommendation for implementation at Johnson Controls

1.1 What is Tolerance?

A part basically comprises individual geometric-shape features. Though a design engineer

required geometrically ideal shape

The engineer has assigned a geometrically ideal

The part has been assigned a tolerance of 0.04

The true profile is the resulting feature of the real

The figure shows the required outline of a hole.

The dimensional tolerance defines the hole

Where only a dimensional tolerance is stated,

Figure 2:Dimensional tolerance

Related to distance dimensions we distinguish between four dimension groups.

Figure 3:dimension groups

a) Outer dimension (e.g. bolt diameter or sheet-metal thickness)

1.1.2 Form and Position (Geometric) Tolerances

Design deviations True deviation

Geometrically ideal (required) Nominal design

Dimensional deviation Dimensional deviation

Shape deviation Shape deviation

Position deviations Location deviation

Surface Surface deviation

Table 1: Design deviations

- as area between two equidistant lines or two parallel straight lines

- as space between two parallel planes

- as space within a cylinder

- as space within a rectangular prism or a sphere

- as area between two concentric circles

- as space between two coaxial cylinders

Area between two Space between two Space inside

parallel straight lines parallel planes a cylinder

Space inside Area between two Space between two

a rectangular prism concentrically circles coaxial cylinders

Figure 4: Zones of tolerance

qualitative requirements placed on the product

Figure 5:Qualitative characteristics

function of the part/assembly group.

Figure 6: Hole series alignment precision

Figure 7: Gap & Flush focus

Quality product = design engineering activities + manufacturing activities

Where no tolerances are defined, the following consequences may emerge:

The pin wouldn’t enter the hole (shape error)

The pin’s position in the hole would be skewed (position

Figure 8: Possible errors if tolerance specifications are absent

Conclusion: Form and position tolerances are required to ensure trouble-free

1.3 What Types of Tolerance Deviations Do Exist?

Basically, three different tolerance deviations are distinguished:

- individual part deviations

individual part deviations

Figure 9: Deviation ratios

1.4 What is “Right” Tolerance?

The following points should be considered at the use of tolerances:

if a specified tolerance is to broad, process problems are encountered and the

A “right” tolerance is as large as possible and as small as necessary!

GD&T (Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing) is an international symbol-based language

It complements the traditional “plus-minus” or coordinate methods.

The main purpose of GD&T is to describe part/assembly geometric requirements so as to

The GD&T symbol language defines the:

The strictly defined, symbol-based GD&T language aims at preventing erroneous

2.1 Historical Background

The G.A Gladmann’s “Drawing Office Practice in Relation to Interchangeable Components”

1959: MIL-STD-8B is a follow-up to MIL-STD-8A, adding to it right-angle tolerance zones,