CHAPTER 4 Network Realizability Theory

CHAPTER 4
NETWORK REALIZABILITY
THEORY
AMiT-ECE NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS CHAPTER FOUR Tuesday, August 20, 2019 1
CAUSALITY AND STABILITY
• In the preceding chapters we have been primarily concerned with the problem of
determining the response, given the excitation and the network; this problem lies in
the domain of network analysis.
• In the remaining chapters we will be dealing with the problem of synthesizing a
network given the excitation E(s) and the response R(s).
• The starting point for any synthesis problem is the system function:
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐻 𝑠 =
𝐸(𝑠)
• Our task is to synthesize a network from a given system function.
• The first step in a synthesis procedure is to determine whether H(s) can be realized
as a physical passive network or not.
Cont …
• There are two important considerations - causality and stability.
By causality we mean that a voltage cannot appear between any pair of terminals
in the network before a current is impressed, or vice versa.
 In other words, the impulse response of the network must be zero for t < 0,
that is,
ℎ 𝑡 =0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
• As an example, the impulse response:
 ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑙 where as
 ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑙
Cont …
• In certain cases, the impulse response could be made realizable (causal) by delaying it
appropriately.
• For example, the impulse response in Fig. 4-1a is not realizable.
• If we delay the response by T seconds, we find that the delayed response h(t - T) is
realizable (Fig. 4-1b).
Cont …
• In the frequency domain, causality is implied when the Paley-Wiener criterion is
satisfied for the amplitude function 𝐻(𝑗𝑤) .
• The Paley-Wiener criterion states that a necessary and sufficient condition for an
amplitude function 𝐻(𝑗𝑤) to be realizable (causal) is that:
• The following conditions must be satisfied before the Paley-Wiener criterion is valid:
h(t) must possess a Fourier transform H(jω); the square magnitude function
𝐻(𝑗ω) 2 must be integrable, that is,
Cont …
• The physical implication of the Paley-Wiener criterion is that the amplitude 𝐻(𝑗ω)
of a realizable network must not be zero over a finite band of frequencies.
• Another way of looking at the Paley-Wiener criterion is that the amplitude function
cannot fall off to zero faster than exponential order. For example, the ideal low-pass
filter in Fig. 4-2 is not realizable because beyond ω𝑐 the amplitude is zero.
Cont …
• The Gaussian shaped curve:
2
𝐻(𝑗ω) = 𝑒 −ω
shown in Fig. 4 -3 is not realizable because:
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐻(𝑗ω) = ω2
∞ ω2
so that the integral 𝑑
−∞ 1+ω2 ω
is not finite.
• On the other hand, the amplitude function:
1
𝐻(𝑗ω) =
1 + ω2
does represent a realizable network.
• In fact, the voltage-ratio transfer function of the R-C network in Fig. 4-4 has an amplitude
characteristic given by 𝐻(𝑗ω) in the above equation.
Cont …
• Consider the rectangular function plotted in figure below. Formally, we define the
function as the rect function.
1 𝑥 ≤𝑊
2
rect x=
0 𝑥 ≥𝑊
2
Cont …
• The inverse transform of rect f is defined as sinc t (pronounced sink),
F −1 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝑡
𝑊
= 2
𝑊 𝑒 𝑗2π𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑓
−2
sin π𝑊𝑡
=
π𝑡
Cont …
• For the ideal filter in Fig. 4-2, the inverse Fourier transform h(t) has the form:
𝐴𝑜 sin ω𝑐 𝑡
ℎ 𝑡 =
π𝑡
Where 𝐴𝑜 is constant.
• From the (sin x)/x curve we see that h(t) is nonzero for t less than zero. In fact, in
order to make h(t) causal, it must be delayed by an infinite amount. In practice,
however, if we delay h(t) by a large but finite amount 𝑡𝑑 such that for t<0 the
magnitude of h(t - 𝑡𝑑 ) is less than a very small quantity ε, that is:
ℎ(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑑 ) < ε 𝑡<0
• We then can approximate ℎ(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑑 ) by a causal response ℎ1 (𝑡) which is zero for t < 0.
Cont …
• If a network is stable, then for a bounded excitation e(t) the response r(t) is also bounded.
In other words, if:
𝑒(𝑡) < 𝐶1 0≤𝑡<∞
then 𝑟(𝑡) < 𝐶2 0≤𝑡<∞
• where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are real, positive, finite quantities.
• If a linear system is stable, then from the convolution integral we obtain:
∞
𝑟(𝑡) < 𝐶1 ℎ(τ) 𝑑τ < 𝐶2

0
• This equation requires that the impulse response be absolutely integrable, or
∞
0
ℎ(τ) 𝑑τ < ∞
Cont …
• One important requirement for h(t) to be absolutely integrable is that the impulse
response approach zero as t approaches infinity, that is,
lim ℎ(𝑡) → 0
𝑡→∞
• Generally, it can be said that with the exception of isolated impulses, the impulse
response must be bounded for all t, that is,
ℎ(𝑡) < 𝐶 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡
where C is a real, positive, finite number.
• Observe that our definition of stability precludes such terms as sin ω𝑜 𝑡 from the
impulse response because sin ω𝑜 𝑡 is not absolutely integrable.
• These undamped sinusoidal terms are associated with simple poles on the jω axis.
Cont …
• Since pure L-C networks have system functions with simple poles on the jω axis, and
since we do not wish to call these networks unstable, we say that a system is marginally
stable if its impulse response is bounded according to ℎ(𝑡) < 𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡, but does
not approach zero as t approaches infinity.
• In the frequency domain, the stability criterion requires that the system function
possess poles in the left-half plane or on the jω only. More over, the poles on the jω
axis must be simple.
• As a result of requirements of simple poles on the jω axis, if 𝐻(𝑠) is given as:
𝑝(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ...+𝑎1 𝑠+𝑎𝑜
H(s)= =
𝑞(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 +𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ...+𝑏1 𝑠+𝑏𝑜
then the order of the numerator ‘n’ cannot exceed the order of the denominator ‘m’ by
more than unity, that is, n — m ≤ 1.
Cont …
• If ‘n’ exceeded ‘m’ by more than unity, this would imply that at s = jω = ∞, and
there would be a multiple pole.
• To summarize, in order for a network to be stable, the following three conditions on
its system function H(s) must be satisfied:
1. H(s) cannot have poles in the right-half plane.
2. H(s) cannot have multiple poles in the jω axis.
3. The degree of the numerator of H(s) cannot exceed the degree of the
denominator by more than unity.
• Finally, it should be pointed out that a rational function H(s) with poles in the left-
half plane only has an inverse transform h(t), which is zero for t < 0.
Cont …
• In this respect, stability implies causality.
• Since system functions of passive linear networks with lumped elements are rational
functions with poles in the left-half plane or jω axis only, causality ceases to be a
problem when we deal with system functions of this type.
• We are only concerned with the problem of causality when we have to design a filter
for a given amplitude characteristic such as the ideal filter in Fig. 4-2.
• We know we could never hope to realize exactly a filter of this type because the
impulse response would not be causal.
• To this extent the Paley-Wiener criterion is helpful in denning the limits of our
capability.
HURWITZ POLYNOMIALS
• In previous section we saw that in order a system function to be stable, its poles must be
restricted to the left-half plane or the jω axis. Moreover, the poles on the jω axis must be simple.
• The denominator polynomial of the system function belongs to a class of polynomials known
as Hurwitz polynomials.
• A polynomial 𝑝(𝑠) is said to be Hurwitz if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. 𝑝(𝑠) is real when s is real.
2. The roots of 𝑝(𝑠) have real parts which are zero or negative.
• As a result of these conditions, if 𝑝(𝑠) is a Hurwitz polynomial given by:
𝑝 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + . . . +𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑜
then all the coefficients 𝑎𝑖 must be real ; if 𝑠𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑗β𝑖 is a root of 𝑝 𝑠 , then 𝑖 , must be
negative.
Cont …
• The polynomial: P(s) = (s+ 1)(s + 1 +j√2)(s + 1 - j√2) is Hurwitz because all of its roots
have negative real parts.
• On the other hand, G(s) = (s - l)(.s + 2)(s + 3) is not Hurwitz because of the root s = 1,
which has a positive real part.
• Hurwitz polynomials have the following properties:
1. All the coefficients 𝑖 are nonnegative. This is readily seen by examining the three
types of roots that a Hurwitz polynomial might have. These are:
𝑠 = −𝑖 𝑖 − real and positive
𝑠 = ±𝑗ω𝑖 ω𝑖 − real
𝑠 = −𝑖 ± 𝑗β𝑖 𝑖 − real and positive
• The polynomial P(s) which contains these roots can be written as:
𝑃 𝑠 = (𝑠 + 𝑖 )(𝑠 2 + ω2𝑖 )( 𝑠 + 𝑖 2
+ β2𝑖 ) ⋯
Cont …
• Since p(𝑠) is the product of terms with only positive coefficients, it follows that the
coefficients of p(𝑠) must be positive.
• A corollary is that between the highest order term in s and the lowest order term,
none of the coefficients may be zero unless the polynomial is even of odd.
• In other words, 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛−2 , … 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 must not be zero if the polynomial is neither
even nor odd.
• This is readily seen because the absence of a term 𝑎𝑖 implies cancellation brought
about by a root 𝑠 − 𝑖 with a positive real part.
Cont …
2. Both the odd and even parts of a Hurwitz polynomial P(s) have roots on the 𝑗ω axis
only. If we denote the odd part of 𝑝 𝑠 as 𝑛(𝑠) and the even part as 𝑚(𝑠), so that:
𝑝 𝑠 = 𝑛 𝑠 + 𝑚(𝑠)
• then 𝑚 𝑠 and 𝑛 𝑠 both have roots on the 𝑗ω axis only.
3. As a result of property 2, if 𝑝(𝑠) is either even or odd, all its roots are on the 𝑗ω axis.
4. The continued fraction expansion of the ratio of the odd to even parts or the even to
odd parts of a Hurwitz polynomial yields all positive quotient terms.
• Suppose we denote the ratios as φ 𝑠 = 𝑛(𝑠)/𝑚(𝑠) or φ 𝑠 = 𝑚(𝑠)/𝑛(𝑠), then
the continued fraction expansion of φ 𝑠 can be written as:
Cont …
• where the quotients 𝑞1 𝑠, 𝑞2 𝑠, ⋯ 𝑞𝑛 𝑠 must be positive
if the polynomial 𝑃 𝑠 = 𝑛 𝑠 + 𝑚(𝑠) is Hurwitz.
• To obtain the continued fraction expansion, we must
perform a series of long divisions.
𝑚(𝑠)
• Suppose φ 𝑠 is: φ 𝑠 =
𝑛(𝑠)
where m(s) is of one higher degree than n(s).
• Then if we divide n(s) into m(s), we obtain a single quotient and a remainder:
𝑚(𝑠) 𝑅1 (𝑠)
φ 𝑠 = = 𝑞1 𝑠 +
𝑛(𝑠) 𝑛(𝑠)
Cont …
• The degree of the term 𝑅1 (𝑠) is one lower than the degree of 𝑛(𝑠).
• Therefore, if we invert the remainder term and divide, we have:
𝑛(𝑠) 𝑅2 (𝑠)
= 𝑞2 𝑠 +
𝑅1 (𝑠) 𝑅1 (𝑠)
• Inverting and dividing again, we obtain:
𝑅1 (𝑠) 𝑅3 (𝑠)
= 𝑞3 𝑠 +
𝑅2 (𝑠) 𝑅2 (𝑠)
• We see that the process of obtaining the continued fraction expansion of φ 𝑠 simply
involves division and inversion.
• At each step we obtain a quotient term 𝑞𝑖 𝑠 and a remainder term, 𝑅𝑖+1 (𝑠) 𝑅𝑖 (𝑠).
• We then invert the remainder term and divide 𝑅𝑖+1 (𝑠) into 𝑅𝑖 (𝑠) to obtain a new quotient.
Cont …
• There is a theorem in the theory of continued fractions which states that:
the continued fraction expansion of the even to odd or odd to even parts of a
polynomial must be finite in length.
• Another theorem states that,
if the continued fraction expansion of the odd to even or even to odd parts of a
polynomial yields positive quotient terms, then the polynomial must be Hurwitz
to within a multiplicative factor 𝑊(𝑠).
• That is, if we write: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑊(𝑠)𝐹1 (𝑠)
then F(s) is Hurwitz, if 𝑊(𝑠) and 𝐹1 (𝑠) are Hurwitz.
Cont …
• For example, let us test whether the polynomial:
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 + 𝑠 3 + 5𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 4 is Hurwitz.
• The even and odd parts of F(s) are:
𝑚 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 + 5𝑠 2 + 4
𝑛 𝑠 = 𝑠 3 + 3𝑠
• We now perform a continued fraction expansion
of φ 𝑠 = 𝑚(𝑠) 𝑛(𝑠) by dividing m(𝑠) by 𝑛(𝑠),
and then inverting and dividing again, as given by
the operation
Cont …
• So that the continued fraction expansion of φ 𝑠 is:
• Since all the quotient terms of the continued fraction expansion are positive, φ 𝑠 is
Hurwitz.
Example 4-1: Let us test whether the polynomial
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 6 is Hurwitz.
• The continued fraction expansion of 𝑛(𝑠)/𝑚 𝑠 is obtained from the division:
Cont …
• We see that the division has been terminated abruptly by a common factor 𝑠 3 + 3𝑠.
• The polynomial can then be written as:
• We know that the term 1 + 2/s is Hurwitz.
• Since the multiplicative factor 𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 is also Hurwitz, then G(s) is Hurwitz.
• The term 𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 is the multiplicative factor 𝑊(𝑠), which we referred to earlier.
Example 4-2: Next consider a case where 𝑊(𝑠) is non-Hurwitz.

𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 7 + 2𝑠 6 + 2𝑠 5 + 𝑠 4 + 4𝑠 3 + 8𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 4
The continued fraction expansion of F(s) is now obtained as:
Cont …
• We thus see that 𝑊 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 + 4, which can be factored into:

• It is clear that F(s) is not Hurwitz.
Example 4-3: Let us consider a more obvious
non-Hurwitz polynomial:
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 + 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2
The continued fraction expansion is given as shown.
• We see that is not Hurwitz because of the negative
quotients.
Example 4-4:
• Consider the case where F(s) is an odd or even function.
• It is impossible to perform a continued fraction expansion on the function as it
stands.
• However, we can test the ratio of F(s) to its derivative, 𝐹 ′ (𝑠).
• If the ratio 𝐹(𝑠) 𝐹 ′ (𝑠) gives a continued fraction expansion with all positive
coefficients, then 𝐹(𝑠) is Hurwitz.
• For example, if F(s) is given as: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 7 + 3𝑠 5 + 2𝑠 3 + 𝑠
then 𝐹 ′ 𝑠 = 7𝑠 6 + 15𝑠 4 + 6𝑠 2 + 1
Without going into the details, it can be shown that the continued fraction expansion
of 𝐹(𝑠) 𝐹 ′ (𝑠) does not yield all positive quotients. Therefore F(s) is not Hurwitz.
POSITIVE REAL FUNCTIONS
• In this section we will study the properties of a class of functions known as positive
real functions.
• These functions are important because they represent physically realizable passive
driving-point immittances. A function F(s) is positive real (p.r.) if the following
conditions are satisfied:
1. 𝐹(𝑠) is real for real ‘s’; that is, 𝐹(σ) is real. NB: 𝑠 = σ + 𝑗ω
2. The real part of 𝐹(𝑠) is greater than or equal to zero when the real part of ‘s’
is greater than or equal to zero, that is,
𝑅𝑒 𝐹 𝑠 ≥ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 ≥ 0
• Let us consider a complex plane interpretation of a p.r. function.
Cont …
• Consider the s-plane and the F(s) plane in Fig. 4-5.
• If F(s) is p.r., then a point σ𝑜 on the positive real axis of the s-plane would correspond to,
or map onto, a point 𝐹(σ𝑜 ) which must be on the positive real axis of the F(s) plane.
• In addition, a point 𝑠𝑖 in the right half of the s plane would map onto a point 𝐹(𝑠𝑖 ) in the
right half of the F(s) plane.
• In other words, for a positive real function, the right
half of the s-plane maps onto the right half of the
F(s) plane.
• The real axis of the s plane maps onto the real axis of
the F(s) plane.
Cont …
• A further restriction we will impose is that F(s) be rational.
• Consider the following examples of p.r. functions:
1. 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠 (where L is a real, positive number) is p.r. by definition. If F(s) is
an impedance function, then L is an inductance.
2. 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑅 (where R is real and positive) is p.r. by definition. If F(s) is
an impedance function, R is a resistance.
3. 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐾 𝑠 (K real and positive) is p.r. because, when s is real, F(s) is real.
In addition, when the real part of ‘s’ is greater than zero, Re (s) = σ>0, then:
𝐾 𝐾σ
𝑅𝑒 = >0
𝑠 σ2 +ω2
Therefore, F(s) is p.r. If F(s) is an impedance function, then the corresponding element
is a capacitor of 1 𝐾 farads.
Cont …
• We thus see that the basic passive impedances are p.r. functions.
• Similarly, it is clear that the admittances:
𝑌 𝑠 =𝐾
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑠
𝐾
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠
are positive real if K is real and positive.
• We now show that all driving point immittances of passive networks must be p.r.
• The proof depends upon the following assertion: for a sinusoidal input, the average
power dissipated by a passive network is nonnegative
Cont …
• . For the passive network in Fig. 4-6, the average power dissipated by the network is:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 12𝑅𝑒[𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑗ω ] 𝐼 2 ≥0
• We then conclude that, for any passive network
𝑅𝑒[𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑗ω ] ≥ 0
• We can now prove that for 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 = σ ≥ 0,𝑅𝑒 𝑍𝑖𝑛 σ + 𝑗ω ≥ 0
• Next let us consider some useful properties of p.r. functions. The proofs of these
properties are given in Appendix D.
1. If F(s) is p.r., then l/F(s) is also p.r.
This property implies that if a driving-point impedance is p.r., then its reciprocal,
the driving-point admittance, is also p.r.
Cont …
2. The sum of p.r. functions is p.r.
From an impedance standpoint, we see that if two impedances are connected in
series, the sum of the impedances is p.r.
An analogous situation holds for two admittances in parallel.
Note that the difference of two p.r. functions is not necessarily p.r. ;
for example, F(s) = s — 1/s is not p.r.
3. The poles and zeros of a p.r. function cannot have positive real parts, i.e., they
cannot be in the right half of the s-plane.
4. Only simple poles with real positive residues can exist on the jω axis.
Cont …
5. The poles and zeros of a p.r. function are real or occur in conjugate pairs.
 We know that the poles and zeros of a network function are functions of the elements
in the network.
 Since the elements themselves are real, there cannot be complex poles or zeros without
conjugates because this would imply imaginary elements.
6. The highest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials may differ at most by
unity.
This condition prohibits multiple poles and zeros at 𝑠 = ∞.
7. The lowest powers of the denominator and numerator polynomials may differ by at most
unity.
This condition prevents the possibility of multiple poles or zeros at s = 0.
Cont …
8. The necessary and sufficient conditions for a rational function with real
coefficients F(s) to be p.r. are
a) F(𝑠) must have no poles in the right-half plane.
b) F(𝑠) may have only simple poles on the 𝑗ω axis with real and positive residues.
c) Re F(𝑗ω) ≥ 0 for all ω.
• Let us compare this new definition with the original one which requires the two
conditions.
1. F(𝑠) is real when s is real.
2. Re F(𝑠) ≥ 0 , when Re 𝑠 ≥ 0 .
Cont …
• In order to test condition 2 of the original definition, we must test every single point
in the right-half plane.
• In the alternate definition, condition (c) merely requires that we test the behavior of
F(s) along the 𝑗ω axis.
• It is apparent that testing a function for the three conditions given by the alternate
definition represents a considerable saving of effort, except in simple cases as F(s) =
1/s.
• Let us examine the implications of each criterion of the second definition.
• Condition (a) requires that we test the denominator of F(s) for roots in the right-
half plane, i.e., we must determine whether the denominator of F(s) is Hurwitz.
Cont …
• This is readily accomplished through a continued fraction expansion of the odd to
even or even to odd parts of the denominator.
• The second requirement—condition (b)—is tested by making a partial fraction
expansion of F(s) and checking whether the residues of the poles on the jω axis are
positive and real.
• Thus, if F(s) has a pair of poles at 𝑠 = ±𝑗ω1 , a partial fraction expansion gives
terms of the form shown.
𝐾1 𝐾1∗
+
𝑠 − 𝑗ω1 𝑠 + 𝑗ω1
Cont …
• The residues of complex conjugate poles are themselves conjugates.
• If the residues are real, as they must be in order for F(s) to be p.r., then 𝐾1 = 𝐾1∗ so
that:
𝐾1 𝐾1∗ 2𝐾1 𝑠
+ = 2
𝑠 − 𝑗ω1 𝑠 + 𝑗ω1 𝑠 + ω12
• If 𝐾1 is found to be positive, then F(s) satisfies the second of the three conditions.
• In order to test for the third condition for positive realness, we must first find the
real part of 𝐹(𝑗ω) from the original function F(s).
• To do this, let us consider a function F(s) given as a quotient of two polynomials:
𝑃(𝑠)
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑄(𝑠)
Cont …
• We can separate the even parts from the odd parts of P(s) and Q(s) so that F(s) is:
𝑀1 𝑠 + 𝑁1 (𝑠)
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑀2 𝑠 + 𝑁2 (𝑠)
• where 𝑀𝑖 𝑠 is an even function and 𝑁𝑖 (𝑠)is an odd function.
• F(s) is now decomposed into its even and odd parts by multiplying both P(s) and Q(s)
by 𝑀2 𝑠 − 𝑁2 (𝑠) so that;
𝑀1 𝑠 +𝑁1 (𝑠) 𝑀2 𝑠 −𝑁2 (𝑠)
𝐹 𝑠 = *
𝑀2 𝑠 +𝑁2 (𝑠) 𝑀2 𝑠 −𝑁2 (𝑠)
𝑀1 𝑀2 −𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑀2 𝑁1 −𝑀1 𝑁2
= +
𝑀22 −𝑁22 𝑀22 −𝑁22
Cont …
• We see that the products 𝑀1 𝑀2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁1 𝑁2 are even functions, while 𝑀2 𝑁1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀1 𝑁2
are odd functions.
• Therefore, the even part of F(s) is:
𝑀1 𝑀2 − 𝑁1 𝑁2
𝐸𝑣 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑀22 − 𝑁22
and the odd part of F(s) is:
𝑀2 𝑁1 − 𝑀1 𝑁2
𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑀22 − 𝑁22
• If we let 𝑠 = 𝑗ω, we see that the even part of any polynomial is real, while the odd
part of the polynomial is imaginary, so that if 𝐹(𝑗ω) is written as:
𝐹 𝑗ω = 𝑅𝑒 𝐹 𝑗ω + 𝑗𝐼𝑚[𝐹 𝑗ω ]
Cont …
It is clear that: 𝑅𝑒 𝐹 𝑗ω = 𝐸𝑣 𝐹 𝑗ω = 𝐸𝑣 𝐹 𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑠 = 𝑗ω
and 𝑗𝐼𝑚 𝐹 𝑗ω = 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝐹 𝑗ω = 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝐹 𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑠 = 𝑗ω
• Therefore, to test for the third condition for positive realness, we determine the real
part of 𝐹 𝑗ω by:
finding the even part of 𝐹 𝑠 and then letting 𝑠 = 𝑗ω.
then check to see whether 𝑅𝑒 𝐹 𝑗ω ≥ 0 for all ω.
• The denominator of 𝑅𝑒 𝐹 𝑗ω is always a positive quantity because:
𝑀22 𝑗ω − 𝑁22 𝑗ω = 𝑀22 ω + 𝑁22 ω ≥ 0
• That is, there is an extra j or imaginary term in N 𝑗ω , which, when squared, gives -1,
so that the denominator of 𝑅𝑒 𝐹 𝑗ω is the sum of two squared numbers and is
always positive.
Cont …
• Therefore, our task resolves into the problem of determining whether:
∆
𝐴 ω ― 𝑀1 (𝑗ω)𝑀2 (𝑗ω) − 𝑁1 (𝑗ω)𝑁2 (𝑗ω) ≥ 0
• If we call the preceding function A(ω), we see that A(ω) must not have positive, real
roots of the type shown in Fig. 4-7; i.e., A(ω) must never have single, real roots of ω.
• However, A(ω) may have double roots (Fig.4-8), because A(ω) need not become
negative in this case.
Cont …
• As an example, consider the requirements for:
𝑠+𝑎
𝐹 𝑠 = to be p.r function
𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑠+𝑐
• First, we know that, in order for the poles and zeros to be in the left-half plane or
on the jω axis, the coefficients a, b, c must be greater or equal to zero.
• Second, if b = 0, then F(s) will possess poles on the jω axis.
• We can then write F(s) as:
𝑠 𝑎
𝐹 𝑠 = 2 + 2
𝑠 +𝑐 𝑠 +𝑐
• We will show later that the coefficient ‘a’ must also be zero when b = 0.
• Let us proceed with the third requirement, namely, 𝑅𝑒 𝐹(𝑗ω) ≥ 0.
• From the equation: Cont …
𝑀1 (𝑗ω)𝑀2 (𝑗ω) − 𝑁1 (𝑗ω)𝑁2 (𝑗ω) ≥ 0
we have: 𝑎 −ω2 + 𝑐 + 𝑏ω2 ≥ 0
which simplifies to: 𝐴 ω = 𝑏 − 𝑎 ω2 + 𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0
• It is evident that in order to prevent 𝐴 ω from having positive real roots of ω, ‘b’
must be greater than or equal to ‘a’, that is, 𝑏 ≥ 𝑎.
• As a result, when b = 0, then a = 0.
• To summarize, the conditions that must be fulfilled in order for F(s) to be positive
real are:
1. 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ≥ 0
2. 𝑏 ≥ 𝑎
Cont …
• We see that:
𝑠+2
𝐹1 𝑠 = 2 is p.r function
𝑠 +3𝑠+2
𝑠+1
• while the functions: 𝐹2 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 +2
𝑠+4
𝐹3 𝑠 = 2 are not p.r functions
𝑠 +2𝑠+1
• As a second example, let us determine the conditions for the biquadratic function:
𝑠 2 +𝑎1 𝑠+𝑎0
𝐹 𝑠 = to be p.r.
𝑠 2 +𝑏1 𝑠+𝑏0
• We will assume that the coefficients 𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑜 , 𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑜 are all real, positive constants.
• Let us test whether F(s) is p.r. by testing each requirement of the second definition.
Cont …
• First, if the coefficients of the denominator 𝑏1 and 𝑏𝑜 are positive, the denominator
must be Hurwitz.
• Second, if 𝑏1 is positive, we have no poles on the jω axis. Therefore we can ignore
the second condition.
• The third condition can be checked by first finding the even part of F(s), which is:
𝑠 2 +𝑎𝑜 𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑜 −𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑠 2
𝐸𝑣 𝐹 𝑠 =
(𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑜 )2 −𝑏12 𝑠 2
𝑠 4 + 𝑎𝑜 +𝑏𝑜 −𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑠 2 +𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜
=
(𝑠 2 +𝑏𝑜 )2 −𝑏12 𝑠 2
• The real part of F(jω) is then:
ω4 − 𝑎𝑜 +𝑏𝑜 −𝑎1 𝑏1 ω2 +𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜
𝑅𝑒 𝐹 𝑗ω =
(−ω2 +𝑏𝑜 )2 +𝑏12 ω2
Cont …
• We see that the denominator of Re [F(jω)] is truly always positive so it remains for
us to determine whether the numerator of Re [F(jω)] ever goes negative.
• Factoring the numerator, we obtain:
2
𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 1
ω1,2
= ± [ 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 ]2 −4𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜
2 2
• There are two situations in which Re [F(jω)] does not have a simple real root.
1. When the quantity under the radical sign of is zero (double, real root) or negative
(complex roots). In other words,
[ 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 ]2 −4𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜 ≤ 0
[ 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 ]2 ≤ 4𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜
Cont …
• If 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 ≥ 0 then 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 ≤ 2 𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜
𝑎1 𝑏1 ≥ ( 𝑎𝑜 − 𝑏𝑜 )2
• If 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 < 0 then 𝑎1 𝑏1 − 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 ≤ 2 𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜
𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 < 0 < 𝑎1 𝑏1 − 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜
𝑎1 𝑏1 ≥ ( 𝑎𝑜 − 𝑏𝑜 )2
2. The second situation in which Re [F(jω)] does not have a simple real root is when
2
ω1,2 is negative so that the roots are imaginary. This situation occurs when:
[ 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 ]2 −4𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜 > 0
And 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1 < 0
Cont …
• From the first equation, we have:
𝑎1 𝑏1 − 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 > 2 𝑎𝑜 𝑏𝑜 > 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑏𝑜 − 𝑎1 𝑏1
• Thus; 𝑎1 𝑏1 > ( 𝑎𝑜 − 𝑏𝑜 )2
• We thus see that 𝑎1 𝑏1 ≥ ( 𝑎𝑜 − 𝑏𝑜 )2 is a necessary and sufficient condition for a
biquadratic function to be positive real.
• If we have:𝑎1 𝑏1 = ( 𝑎𝑜 − 𝑏𝑜 )2 , then we will have double zeros for Re [F(jω)].
• Consider the following example:
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 25
𝐹 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 16
2
We see that: 𝑎1 𝑏1 = 2 ∗ 5 ≥ 𝑎𝑜 − 𝑏𝑜 = ( 25 − 16)2 so that F(s) is p.r.
Cont …
• Let us consider a number of other helpful points by which a function might be
tested quickly.
• First, if F(s) has poles on the jω axis, a partial fraction expansion will show that the
residues of these poles are positive and real.
3𝑠 2 +5
• For example, 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 2 +1)
has a pair of poles at s = ±jω.
−2𝑠 5
• The partial fraction expansion of F(s), 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠 2 +1
+
𝑠
shows that the residue of the poles at s = ±j is negative.
• Therefore F(s) is not p.r.
Cont …
• Since impedances and admittances of passive time-invariant networks are p.r. functions, we
can make use of our knowledge of impedances connected in series or parallel in our testing
for the p.r. property.
• For example, if 𝑍1 (𝑠) and 𝑍2 (𝑠) are passive impedances, then 𝑍1 connected in parallel with
𝑍2 , gives an overall impedance:
𝑍1 (𝑠)𝑍2 (𝑠)
𝑍 𝑠 =
𝑍1 (𝑠)+𝑍2 (𝑠)
• Since the connecting of the two impedances in parallel has not affected the passivity of the
network, we know that Z(s) must also be p.r.
• We see that if 𝐹1 (𝑠) and 𝐹2 (𝑠) are p.r. functions, then:
𝐹1 (𝑠)𝐹2 (𝑠)
𝑍 𝑠 = must also be p.r.
𝐹1 (𝑠)+𝐹2 (𝑠)
Cont …
• Consequently, the functions:
𝐾𝑠 𝐾
𝐹 𝑠 = and 𝐹 𝑠 = where  and K are real and positive quantities, must be p.r.
𝑠+ 𝑠+
𝑠+
We then observe that functions of the type: 𝐹 𝑠 = , β ≥ 0
𝑠+
𝑠 
= + must be p.r also.
𝑠+ 𝑠+
𝐾𝑠
• Finally, let us determine whether: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠2+ , 𝐾 ≥ 0 is p.r or not.
1
• If we write F(s) as: 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 
+
𝐾 𝐾𝑠
• We see that the terms 𝑠 𝐾 and  𝐾𝑠 are p.r. Therefore, the sum of the two terms must be
p.r. Since the reciprocal of a p.r. function is also p.r., we conclude that F(s) is p.r.
ELEMENTARY SYNTHESIS PROCEDURES
• The basic philosophy behind the synthesis of driving-point functions is to break up
a p.r. function 𝑍(𝑠) into a sum of simpler p.r. functions 𝑍1 𝑠 , 𝑍2 𝑠 , ⋯ 𝑍𝑛 (𝑠), and
then to synthesize these individual 𝑍𝑖 (𝑠) as elements of the overall network whose
driving-point impedance is 𝑍(𝑠).
𝑍 𝑠 = 𝑍1 𝑠 + 𝑍2 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛 (𝑠)
• First, consider the "breaking-up" process of the function 𝑍(𝑠) into the sum of
functions 𝑍𝑖 (𝑠).
• One important restriction is that all 𝑍𝑖 (𝑠) must be p.r.
• Certainly, if all 𝑍𝑖 (𝑠) were given to us, we could synthesize a network whose driving-
point impedance is 𝑍(𝑠) by simply connecting all the 𝑍𝑖 (𝑠) in series.
Cont …
• However, if we were to start with 𝑍(𝑠) alone, how would we decompose Z(s) to give us the
individual 𝑍𝑖 (𝑠)?
• Suppose 𝑍(𝑠) is given in general as:
𝑃(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ...+𝑎1 𝑠+𝑎𝑜
Z(s)= =
𝑄(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 +𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ...+𝑏1 𝑠+𝑏𝑜
• Consider the case where 𝑍(𝑠) has a pole at 𝑠 = 0 (that is, 𝑏𝑜 = 0).
• Let us divide P(s) by Q(s) to give a quotient D/s and a remainder R(s), which we can denote
as 𝑍1 (𝑠) and 𝑍2 (𝑠).
𝐷
𝑍 𝑠 = +𝑅 𝑠 𝐷≥0
𝑠
= 𝑍1 𝑠 + 𝑍2 𝑠
• Are 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 p.r. ? From previous discussions, we know that 𝑍1 = 𝐷 𝑠 is p.r. Is 𝑍2 (𝑠) p.r.?
Cont …
• Consider the p.r. criteria given previously.
1. 𝑍2 (𝑠) must have no poles in the right-half plane.
2. Poles of 𝑍2 (𝑠) on the imaginary axis must be simple, and their residues must
be real and positive.
3. 𝑅𝑒[𝑍2 𝑗ω ] ≥ 0 for all ω.
• Let us examine these cases one by one.
Criterion 1: is satisfied because the poles of 𝑍2 (𝑠) are also poles of 𝑍(𝑠).
Criterion 2: is satisfied by this same argument.
• A simple partial fraction expansion does not affect the residues of the other poles.
• When 𝑠 = 𝑗ω, 𝑅𝑒 𝑍 𝑗ω = 𝐷 𝑗ω = 0.
Cont …
• Therefore we have:
𝑅𝑒 𝑍2 𝑗ω = 𝑅𝑒 𝑍(𝑗ω) ≥ 0
• From the foregoing discussion, it is seen that if 𝑍(𝑠) has a pole at 𝑠 = 0, a partial fraction
expansion can be made such that one of the terms is of the form 𝐾 𝑠 and the other terms
combined still remain p.r.
• A similar argument shows that if 𝑍(𝑠) has a pole at 𝑠 = ∞ (that is, 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 1), we can
divide the numerator by the denominator to give a quotient 𝐿𝑠 and a remainder term 𝑅(𝑠),
again denoted as 𝑍1 (𝑠) and 𝑍2 (𝑠).
𝑍 𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅(𝑠)=𝑍1 (𝑠)+𝑍2 (𝑠)
• Here 𝑍2 (𝑠) is also p.r.
• If 𝑍 𝑠 has a pair of conjugate imaginary poles on the imaginary axis, for example, poles at
𝑠 = ±𝑗ω1 , then 𝑍 𝑠 can be expanded into partial fractions.
• So that:
Cont …
2𝐾𝑠
𝑍 𝑠 = 2 2 + 𝑍2 (𝑠)
𝑠 + ω1
2𝐾𝑠 𝑗2𝐾ω
• Here: 𝑅𝑒( 2 2 )𝑠=𝑗ω
𝑠 +ω1
= 𝑅𝑒
−ω2 +ω21
=0
so that 𝑍2 (𝑠) is p.r.
• Finally, if 𝑅𝑒 𝑍(𝑗ω) is minimum at some point ω𝑖 and if the value of 𝑅𝑒 𝑍 𝑗ω𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖
as shown in Fig. 4-9, we can remove a constant 𝐾 ≤ 𝐾𝑖 from 𝑅𝑒 𝑍(𝑗ω), so that the
remainder is still p.r.
• This is because 𝑅𝑒 𝑍(𝑗ω) will still be greater than or equal to zero for all values of ω.
• Suppose we have a p.r. function 𝑍(𝑠), which is a driving-point impedance function.
Cont …
• Let 𝑍(𝑠) be decomposed, as before, so that: 𝑍 𝑠 = 𝑍1 (𝑠)+𝑍2 (𝑠)
Where both 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 are p.r.
• Now let us "remove" 𝑍1 (𝑠) from 𝑍 𝑠 to give us a remainder 𝑍2 (𝑠).
• This removal process is illustrated in Fig. 4-10 and shows that removal corresponds
to synthesis of 𝑍1 (𝑠).
Example 4-5:
• Consider the following p.r. function:
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 6
𝑍 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)
• We see that Z(s) has a pole at s = 0.
2 𝑠
• A partial fraction expansion of Z(s) yields: 𝑍 𝑠 = 𝑠 + (𝑠+3) = 𝑍1 (𝑠)+𝑍2 (𝑠)
• If we remove 𝑍1 (𝑠) from 𝑍 𝑠 , we obtain 𝑍2 (𝑠),
which can be shown by a resistor in parallel with
an inductor, as illustrated in Fig. 4-11.
Example 4-6:
7𝑠 + 2
𝑌 𝑠 =
2𝑠 + 4
• where 𝑌(𝑠) is a p.r. function.
• Let us synthesize the network by first removing min[𝑅𝑒 𝑌(𝑗ω)].
• The real part of 𝑌(𝑗ω) can be easily obtained as:
8 + 14ω2
𝑅𝑒 𝑌 𝑗ω =
16 + 4ω2
• We see that the minimum of 𝑅𝑒 𝑌 𝑗ω occurs at ω = 0, and is equal to
1
min 𝑅𝑒 𝑌 𝑗ω = .
2
1
• Let us then remove 𝑌1 = 2 𝑚ℎ𝑜 from 𝑌(𝑠) and denote the remainder as 𝑌2 (𝑠), as shown in
Fig. 4-12.
Cont …
• The remainder function 𝑌2 (𝑠) is p.r. because we have removed only the minimum
real part of 𝑌2 (𝑗ω).
1 3𝑠
• 𝑌2 (𝑠) is obtained as: 𝑌2 𝑠 = Y s − 2 = 𝑠+2
1 2
• It is readily seen that 𝑌2 𝑠 is made up of a 3  resistor in series with a 3f-farad
capacitor.
• Thus the final network is that
shown in Fig. 4-13.
Example 4-7:
6𝑠 3 +3𝑠 2 +3𝑠+1
• Consider the p.r. impedance: 𝑍 𝑠 =
6𝑠 3 +3𝑠
• The real part of the function is a constant, equal to unity.
• Removing a constant of 1, we obtain (Fig. 4-14)
3𝑠 2 + 1
𝑍1 𝑠 = 𝑍 𝑠 − 1 = 3
6𝑠 + 3𝑠
• The reciprocal of 𝑍1 𝑠 is an admittance:
6𝑠 3 +3𝑠
𝑌1 𝑠 = which has a pole at 𝑠 = ∞.
3𝑠 2 +1
• This pole is removed by finding the partial fraction
expansion of 𝑌1 𝑠 .
Cont …
𝑠
𝑌1 𝑠 = 2𝑠 + 2
3𝑠 + 1
• And then by removing the term with the pole at 𝑠 = ∞ to give a capacitor of 2
farads in parallel with 𝑌2 𝑠 below (Fig. 4-15).
𝑠
• 𝑌2 𝑠 is now obtained as: 𝑌2 𝑠 = 𝑌1 𝑠 − 2𝑠 = 3𝑠2+1
1
• The reciprocal of 𝑌2 𝑠 is: 𝑍2 𝑠 = 3𝑠 + 𝑠
• which is, clearly, an inductor of 3 h in series with a
capacitor of 1 farad.
• The final network is shown in Fig. 4-16.
Cont …
• These examples are, of course, special cases of the driving-point synthesis problem.
• However, they do illustrate the basic techniques involved.
• In the next chapter, we will discuss the problem of synthesizing a network with two
kinds of elements, either L-C, R-C, or R-L networks.
• The synthesis techniques involved, however, will be the same.

CHAPTER 4 Network Realizability Theory

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CHAPTER 4 Network Realizability Theory

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CHAPTER 4

𝑟(𝑡) < 𝐶1 ℎ(τ) 𝑑τ < 𝐶2

Example 4-2: Next consider a case where 𝑊(𝑠) is non-Hurwitz.

• We thus see that 𝑊 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 + 4, which can be factored into:

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