Unit 1

POWER SUPPLIES
LERCTURE 1

Introduction
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load. The primary function of a
power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to another and, as a result, power supplies are sometimes
referred to as electric power converters. Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others
are built into larger devices along with their loads. Examples of the latter include power supplies found in desktop
computers and consumer electronics devices.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while
performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from
various types of energy sources, including electrical energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a
batteries and fuel cells, electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or
another power supply.
All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and a power output that
delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input and output consist of electrical connectors or
hardwired circuit connections, though some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer in lieu of galvanic
connections for the power input or output. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for
functions such as external monitoring and control.

DC power supply

A DC power supply is one that supplies a voltage of fixed polarity (either positive or negative) to its load.
Depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC source or from an AC source such
as the power mains.

AC-to-DC supply

Some DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such power supplies will
sometimes employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or lower AC voltage. A rectifier
is used to convert the transformer output voltage to a varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed through
an electronic filter to convert it to an unregulated DC voltage. The filter removes most, but not all of the
AC voltage variations; the remaining voltage variations are known as ripple.

The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum amount of filtering that must be provided by
a power supply. In some applications, high ripple is tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For
example, in some battery charging applications it is possible to implement a mains-powered DC power
supply with nothing more than a transformer and a single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the
output to limit charging current.
 Fig. 1

Linear regulator

The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC voltage to a constant, often specific,
lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a current limiting function to protect the power supply
and load from overcurrent (excessive, potentially destructive current).

A constant output voltage is required in many power supply applications, but the voltage provided by
many energy sources will vary with changes in load impedance. Furthermore, when an unregulated DC
power supply is the energy source, its output voltage will also vary with changing input voltage. To
circumvent this, some power supplies use a linear voltage regulator to maintain the output voltage at a
steady value, independent of fluctuations in input voltage and load impedance. Linear regulators can also
reduce the magnitude of ripple and noise present appearing on the output voltage.

Diode Rectifiers

Single-phase Diode Rectifiers

There are two types of single-phase diode rectifier that convert a single-phase ac supply into a dc voltage, namely,
singlephase half-wave rectifiers and single-phase full-wave rectifiers. The diodes are considered to be ideal, i.e. they
have zero forward voltage drop and reverse recovery time.

Single-phase Half-wave Rectifiers

The simplest single-phase diode rectifier is the single-phase half-wave rectifier. A single-phase half-wave rectifier
with resistive load is shown in Fig. 2

Fig. 2

The circuit consists of only one diode that is usually fed with a secondary transformer as shown. During the positive
half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, diode D conducts. During the negative half-cycle, diode D stops
conducting. Assuming that the transformer has zero internal impedance and provides perfect
sinusoidal voltage on its secondary winding, the voltage and current waveforms of resistive load R and the voltage
waveform of diode D.
By observing the voltage waveform of diode D in Fig.3 it is clear that the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of diode D is
equal to Vm during the negative half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage. Hence the peak repetitive reverse
voltage (VRRM ) rating of diode D must be chosen to be higher than Vm to avoid reverse breakdown. In the positive
half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, diode D has a forward current
which is equal to the load current, therefore the peak repetitive forward current (IFRM ) rating of diode D must be
chosen to be higher than the peak load current, Vm = R, in practice. In addition, the transformer has to carry a dc
current that may result in a dc saturation problem of the transformer core.

Fig. 3

Single-phase Full-wave Rectifiers

There are two types of single-phase full-wave rectifier, full-wave rectifiers with center-tapped transformer and bridge
rectifiers. A full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer is shown in Fig. 4

Fig. 4

It is clear that each diode, together with the associated half of the transformer, acts as a half-wave rectifier. The
outputs of the two half-wave rectifiers are combined to produce full-wave rectification in the load. As far as the
transformer is concerned, the dc currents of the two halfwave rectifiers are equal and opposite, such that there is no
dc current for creating a transformer core saturation problem. The voltage and current waveforms of the full-wave
rectifier are shown in Fig.5. By observing diode voltage waveforms vD1 and vD2 in Fig.5 , it is clear that the PIV of the
diodesis equal to 2Vm during their blocking state.
 Fig. 5

Hence the VRRM rating of the diodes must be chosen to be higher than 2Vm to avoid reverse breakdown.
During its conducting state, each diode has a forward current which is equal to the load current, therefore the IFRM
rating of these diodes must be chosen to be higher than the peak load current, Vm = R, in practice.
Employing four diodes instead of two, a bridge rectifier as shown in Fig.6 can provide full-wave
rectification without using a center-tapped transformer. During the positive halfcycle of the transformer secondary
voltage, the current flows to the load through diodes D1 and D2. During the negative halfcycle, D3 and D4 conduct.

Fig 6
The voltage and current waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in Fig.7 As with the fullwave rectifier
with center-tapped transformer, the IFRM rating of the employed diodes must be chosen to be higher than the peak
load current, Vm = R. However, the PIV of the diodes is reduced from 2Vm to Vm during their blocking state.
Fig.7
 LECTURE 2

Performance Parameters

Voltage Relationships

The average value of the load voltage vL is Vdc and it is defined as

……………………………………………. (1)
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, Fig.3 indicates that load voltage vL(t ) = 0 for the negative half-cycle. Note that the
angular frequency of the source ω = 2π = T, and equation (1) can be written as

……………………………. (2)
Therefore,

…………………………….. (3)

In the case of a full-wave rectifier, Figs. 5 and 7 indicate that VL(t ) = Vm |sin ωt | for both the positive and negative
half-cycles. Hence Eq. (1) can be re-written as

…………………………………. (4)
Therefore,

…………………………..(5)
The root-mean-square (rms) value of load voltage vL is VL, which is defined as

……………………… (6)
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, vL(t ) = 0 for the negative half-cycle, therefore Eq. (6) can be re-written as

……………………………. (7)
Or

…………………………….. (8)
In the case of a full-wave rectifier, vL(t ) = Vm |sin ωt | for both the positive and negative half-cycles. Hence Eq. (6)
can be re-written as

…………………………….(9)
Or
 ……………………………. (10)
The result of Eq. (10) is as expected because the rms value of a full-wave rectified voltage should be equal to that of
the original ac voltage.

Current Relationships

The average value of load current iL is Idc and because load R is purely resistive it can be found as

……………………………. (11)
The rms value of load current iL is IL and it can be found as

……………………………… (12)
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, from eq. (3)

………………………………..(13)
And from eq.(8)

………………………….(14)
In the case of a full-wave rectifier, from eq.(5)

……………………………(15)
And from eq.(10)

…………………………..(16)
Rectification Ratio

The rectification ratio, which is a figure of merit for comparing the effectiveness of rectification, is defined as

………………………………(17)
In the case of a half-wave diode rectifier, the rectification ratio can be determined by substituting Eqs. (3), (13), (8)
and (14) into (17)

……………………………….(18)
In the case of a full-wave rectifier, the rectification ratio is obtained by substituting Eqs. (5), (15), (10), and (16) into
Eq. (17).

………………………………(19)
Form Factor

The form factor is defined as the ratio of the root-meansquare value of a voltage or current to its average value,

…………………………….(20)
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, the FF can be found by substituting Eqs. (8) and (3) into Eq. (20).

……………………………..(21)
In the case of a full-wave rectifier, the FF can be found by substituting Eqs. (16) and (15) into Eq. (20).

………………….(22)

Ripple Factor

The ripple factor (RF), which is a measure of the ripple content, is defined as

………………………… (23)
where Vac is the effective (rms) value of the ac component of load voltage vL.

……………………………………. (24)
Substituting Eq. (24) into Eq. (23), the RF can be expressed as

…………………………….(25)
In the case of a half-wave rectifier,

…………………………….(26)
In the case of a full-wave rectifier,

……………………………..(27)

Transformer Utilization Factor

The transformer utilization factor (TUF), which is a measure of the merit of a rectifier circuit, is defined as the ratio
of the dc output power to the transformer volt–ampere (VA) rating required by the secondary winding

……………………………(28)
where Vs and Is are the rms voltage and rms current ratings of the secondary transformer.

………………………………..(29)

The rms value of the transformer secondary current Is is the same as that of the load current IL. For a half-wave
rectifier, Is can be found from Eq. (14)

………………………………………..(30)
For a full-wave rectifier, Is is found from Eq. (16)

……………………………………..(31)
Therefore, the TUF of a half-wave rectifier can be obtained by substituting Eqs. (3), (13), (29), and (30) into Eq. (28).

…………………………….(32)
In the case of a full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer, the circuit can be treated as two half-wave
rectifiers operating together.

………………………..(33)
In the case of a bridge rectifier, it has the highest TUF in single-phase rectifier circuits because the currents flowing
in both the primary and secondary windings are continuous sinewaves.

…………………………… (34)
 LECTURE 3

BLEEDER RESISTOR
The operation of an inductor filter is based on the fact that a minimum current flows through all the times. To
provide flow of this minimum current at all times through the choke a resistor called the bleeder resistor is placed
across the filter output.
Hence it is used to maintain a certain minimum current through the choke, even the load resistor gets open
circuited and improves the filtering action. The value of bleeder resistance should be such as to draw only 10% of
the total load current. The bleeder resistor can serve a number of functions are given below:
(i) A single power supply may be required to provide more than one voltage for the operation of electronic
devices/circuits. Bleeder resistor can be used as a voltage divider for tapping out any desired output
voltage.
(ii) It improves the voltage regulation. Being connected permanently across the supply it causes an initial
voltage drop and on connecting the load there is a slightly additional voltage drop. Thus the difference
between no load and full load voltage is reduced thereby improving the regulation.
(iii) It provides the safety t o the operation by providing a discharge path to the capacitor. When power
supply is switched off, the filter capacitor discharges through it. That is why it is called the bleeder
resistor. If bleeder resistor is not connected across the filter output the capacitor will retain its charge
for quite sometime even when the power supply is switched off and the high voltage can be dangerous
to the operational staff, thus the hazard of electrical shock is reduced.

Fig. Filter connected with bleeder resistor

VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER
a voltage multiplier is a circuit, which produces an output DC voltage whose value is multiple of peak A.C. input
voltage. Such circuits are used as a power supply for high voltage/ low current
TYPES
I. Half Wave Voltage Doubler
A voltage multiplier is a circuit, whose output DC voltage is double the peak A.C input voltage is called voltage
doubler. Fig. shows the half wave voltage doubler. Each section of a diodeand capacitor in this circuit is known as
peak rectifier.
During the positive half cycle of the input signal, the diode D1 conducts, charging the capacitor C1 upto the peak
rectified voltage. During the negative half cycle D1 is cut-off and D2 conducts charging capacitor C2. During the
negative half cycle the voltage across capacitor C1 in series with the input voltage. Therefore the total voltage
presented to capacitor C2 is equal to 2Vm.
As a result of this, the capacitor C2 is charged to a voltage of 2Vm during the negative half cycle. On the next positive
half cycle, the diode D2 is not conducting and the capacitor will discharged through the load. If no load is connected
across capacitor C2, both capacitors stay charged at their full values. It may be noted that both the diodes have a
peak inverse voltage of 2Vm.
 II. FULL Wave Voltage Doubler
A full wave voltage doubler that gives two lines pulses per unit cycle shown in figure.

In this circuit, during the positive half cycle of A.C. input voltage, D1 diode conducts charging capacitor C1 toa peak
voltage Vm, D2 diode is cut off at this time. Diode D2 conducts charging capacitor C2 to Vm during the negative half
cycle. When there is no load connected across the output, then the output voltage is equal to 2Vm . However if the
load is connected, then voltage would be less than 2Vm .
 Lecture 4

REGULATED POWER SUPPLIES [RGPV june 2014]

A power supply is a device which converts the output from an ac power line to a steady dc output or multiple
outputs. The ac voltage is first rectified to provide a pulsating dc, and then filtered to produce a smooth voltage.
Finally, the voltage is regulated to produce a constant output level despite variations in the ac line voltage or circuit
loading.

Zener Diode voltage regulator [June 2014, 7 marks]

Figure 4.1 illustrates the process of rectification, filtering, and regulation in a dc power supply. The transformer,
rectifier, and filtering circuits are discussed in other chapters. In this chapter, we will concentrate on the
operation and characteristics of the regulator stage of a dc power supply. In general, the regulator stage of a dc
power supply consists of a feedback circuit, a stable reference voltage, and a control circuit to drive a pass
element (a solid-state device such as transistor, MOSFET, etc.). The regulation is done by sensing variations
appearing at the output of the dc power supply. A control signal is produced to drive the pass element to cancel any
variation. As a result, the output of the dc power supply is maintained essentially constant. In a transistor regulator,
the pass element is a transistor, which can be operated in its active region or as a switch, to regulate the output
voltage. When the transistor operates at any point in its active region, the regulator is referred to as a linear voltage
regulator. When the transistor operates only at cutoff and at saturation, the circuit is referred to as a switching
regulator.

Fig 4.1 Block diagram of dc power supply

Linear voltage regulators can be further classified as either series or shunt types.

In a series regulator, the pass transistor is connected in series with the load as shown in Fig. 4.2. Regulation is
achieved by sensing a portion of the output voltage through the voltage divider network R1 and R2, and comparing
this voltage with the reference voltage VREF to produce a resulting error signal that is used to control the
conduction of the pass transistor. This way, the voltage drop across the pass transistor is varied and the output
voltage delivered to the load circuit is essentially maintained constant.

In the shunt regulator shown in Fig. 4.3, the pass transistor is connected in parallel with the load, and a voltage-
dropping resistor R3 is connected in series with the load. Regulation is achieved by controlling the current
conduction of the pass transistor such that the current through R3 remains essentially constant. This way, the
current through the pass transistor is varied and the voltage across the load remains constant.
 Fig 4.2 A linear series voltage regulator

Fig 4.3 A linear shunt voltage regulator

As opposed to linear voltage regulators, switching regulators employ solid-state devices, which operate as switches:
either completely on or completely off, to perform power conversion. Because the switching devices are not
required to operate in their active regions, switching regulators enjoy a much lower power loss than those of linear
voltage regulators.

Fig. 4.4 A simplified form of a voltage regulator

Fig.4.4 shows a switching regulator in a simplified form. The high-frequency switch converts the unregulated dc
voltage from one level to another dc level at an adjustable duty cycle. The output of the dc supply is regulated
by means of a feedback control that employs a pulse-width-modulator (PWM) controller, where the control
voltage is used to adjust the duty cycle of the switch. Both linear and switching regulators are capable of performing
the same function of converting an unregulated input into a regulated output. However, these two types of
regulators have significant differences in properties and performances. In designing power supplies, the choice
of using certain type of regulator in a particular design is significantly based on the cost and performance of the
regulator itself. In order to use the more appropriate regulator type in the design, it is necessary to understand the
requirements of the application and select the type of regulator that best satisfies those requirements. Advantages
and disadvantages of linear regulators, as compared to
switching regulators, are given below:

1. Linear regulators exhibit efficiency of 20–60%, whereas switching regulators have a much higher
efficiency, typically 70–95%.
2. Linear regulators can only be used as a step-down regulator, whereas switching regulators can be used in
both step-up and step-down operations.
3. Linear regulators require a mains-frequency transformer for off-the-line operation. Therefore, they are
heavy and bulky. On the other hand, switching regulators use high-frequency transformers and can
therefore be small in size.
4. Linear regulators generate little or no electrical noise at their outputs, whereas switching regulators may
produce considerable noise if they are not properly designed.
5. Linear regulators are more suitable for applications of less than 20 W, whereas switching regulators are
more suitable for large power applications.

Linear Series Voltage Regulator

A zener diode regulator can maintain a fairly constant voltage across a load resistor. It can be used to improve the
voltage regulation and reduce the ripple in a power supply. However, the regulation is poor and the efficiency is
low because of the non-zero resistance in the zener diode. To improve the regulation and efficiency of the
regulator, we have to limit the zener current to a smaller value. This can be accomplished by
using an amplifier in series with the load as shown in Fig. 4.5.

Fig 4.5 basic ckt of series regulator

The effect of this amplifier is to limit the variation of the current ID through the zener diode Dz. This circuit is
known as a linear series voltage regulator because the transistor is in series with the load. Because of the current-
amplifying property of the transistor, ID is reduced by a factor of ( β + 1), where β is the dc current gain of the
transistor. Hence there is a small voltage drop across the diode resistance and the zener diode approximates an
ideal voltage source. The output voltage Vo of the regulator is
 …………. 4.1
where Vz is the zener voltage and VBE is the base-to-emitter voltage of the transistor. The change in output
voltage is

……….4.2
where rd is the dynamic resistance of the zener diode and re is the output resistance of the transistor. Assume that
Vi and Vz are constant. With ID ≈ IL / ( β + 1), the change in output voltage is then

……………. 4.3
If Vi is not constant, then the current I will change with the input voltage. In calculating the change in output
voltage, this current change must be absorbed by the zener diode. In designing linear series voltage regulators, it
is imperative that the series transistor must work within the rated Safe Operation Area (SOA) and be protected
from excess heat dissipation because of current overload. The emitter-to-collector voltage VCE of Q1 is given by

…………4.5
Thus, with specified output voltage, the maximum allowable VCE for a given Q1 is determined by the maximum
input voltage to the regulator. The power dissipated by Q1 can be approximated by

…………4.6
Consequently, the maximum allowable power dissipated in Q1is determined by the combination of the input
voltage Vi and the load current IL of the regulator. For a low output voltage and a high loading current regulator,
the power dissipated in the series transistor is about 50% of the power delivered to the output. In many high-
current high-voltage regulator circuits, it is necessary to use a Darlington-connected transistor pair so that the
voltage, current, and power ratings of the series element are not exceeded. The method is shown in Fig. 4.6. An
additional desirable feature of this circuit is that the reference diode dissipation can be reduced greatly. The
maximum base current IB1 is then IL / ( β 1 + 1)( β 2 + 1), where β 1 and β 2 are the dc current gain of Q1 and Q2
respectively. This current is usually of the order of less than 1 mA. Consequently, a low-power reference diode can
be used.

Fig. 4.6 A linear series regulator with Darlington-connected amplifier.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 What are the limitations of unregulated power supply? What do 2014 7
you understand by regulated power supply.
Q.2 Explain the action of zener voltage regulator with a neat diagram 2014 7
 LECTURE 5

Current Limiting and Overload Protection

In some series voltage regulators, overloading causes per manent damage to the pass transistors. The
pass transistors must be kept from excessive power dissipation under current overloads or short
circuit conditions. A current-limiting mechanism must be used to keep the current through the
transistors at a safe value as determined by the power rating of the transistors. The mechanism must be
able to respond quickly to protect the transistor and yet permit the regulator to return to normal
operation as soon as the overload condition is removed. One of the current-limiting techniques to prevent
current overload, called the constant current-limiting method, is shown in Fig. 4.9(a). Current limiting is
achieved by the combined action of the components shown inside the dashed line. The voltage developed
across the current-limit resistor R3 and the base-to-emitter voltage of current-limit transistor Q3 is
proportional to the circuit output current IL. During current overload, IL reaches a predetermined
maximum value that is set by the value of R3 to cause Q3 to conduct. As Q3 starts to conduct, Q3
shunts a portion of the Q1 base current. This action, in turn, decreases and limits IL to a maximum value
IL (max). Since the base-to-emitter voltage VBE of Q3 cannot exceed above 0.7 V, the voltage across R3
is held at this value and IL (max ) is limited to

…………….. 4.6

Fig 4.9 Series regulator with constant current limiting: (a) circuit and (b) voltage–current characteristic.

Consequently, the value of the short-circuit current is selected by adjusting the value of R3. The
voltage–current characteristic of this circuit is shown in Fig. 4.9(b).
Foldback current limiting

In many high-current regulators, foldback current limiting is always used to protect against
excessive current. This technique is similar to the constant current-limiting method, except that as the
output voltage is reduced as a result of load impedance moving toward zero, the load current is also
reduced. Therefore, a series voltage regulator that includes a foldback current-limiting circuit has
the voltage–current characteristic shown in Fig. 4.10. The basic idea of foldback current limiting, with
reference to Fig. 4.11, can be explained as follows. The foldback current-limiting circuit (in dashed
outline) is similar to the constant current-limiting circuit, with the exception of resistors R5 and R6. At low
output current, the current-limit transistor Q3 is cutoff. A voltage proportional to the output current IL is
developed across the current-limit resistor R3. This voltage is applied to the base of Q3 through the
divider network R5 and R6. At the point of transition into current-limit, any further increase in IL will
increase the voltage across R3 and hence across R5, and Q3 will progressively be turned on. As Q1
conducts, it shunts a portion of the Q1 base current. This action, in turn, causes the output voltage to fall.
As the output voltage falls, the voltage across R6 decreases and the current in R6 also decreases, and
more current is shunted into the base of Q3. Hence, the current required in R3 to maintain the
conduction state of Q3 is also decreased. Consequently, as the load resistance is reduced, the output
voltage and current fall, and the current-limit point decreases toward a minimum when the output
voltage is short-circuited. In summary, any regulator using foldback current limiting can have peak load
current up to IL(max). But when the output becomes shorted, the current drops to a lower value to
prevent overheating of the series transistors.

Fig 4.10 Voltage–current characteristic of foldback current-limit.

Fig 4.11 Series regulator with foldback current limiting.

Linear Shunt Voltage Regulator

The second type of linear voltage regulator is the shunt regulator. In the basic circuit shown in Fig. 4.12,
the pass transistor Q1 is connected in parallel with the load.

Fig 4.12 Basic circuit of a linear shunt regulator.

A voltage-dropping resistor R3 is in series with this parallel network. The operation of the circuit is similar to that
of the series regulator, except that regulation is achieved by controlling the current through Q1. The operation of
the circuit can be explained as follows. When the output voltage tries to increase because of a change in load
resistance, the voltage at the non-inverting terminal of the operational amplifier also increases. This voltage
is compared with a reference voltage and the resulting difference voltage causes Q1 conduction to increase. With
constant Vi and Vo, IL will decrease and Vo will remain constant. The opposite action occurs when Vo tries to
decrease. The voltage appearing at the base of Q1 causes its conduction to decrease.
This action offsets the attempted decrease in Voand maintains it at an almost constant level.
Analytically, the current flowing in R3 is

……………… 4.7
And

…………….4.8

With IL and Vo constant, a change in Vi will cause a change in IQ1.

………………..4.9
With Vi and Vo constant,

……………………4.10
Equation (4.10) shows that if IQ1 increases, IL decreases, and vice versa. Although shunt regulators are not as
efficient as series regulators for most applications, they have the advantage of greater simplicity. This topology
offers inherently short-circuit protection. If the output is shorted, the load current is limited by the series resistor
R3 and is given by

…………………4.11
The power dissipated by Q1 can be approximated by

………………….4.12
For a low value of IL, the power dissipated in Q1 is large and the efficiency of the regulator may drop to 10% under
this condition.
 LECTURE 6

Integrated Circuit Voltage Regulators

The linear series and shunt voltage regulators presented in the previous sections have been developed by
various solid-state device manufacturers and are available in integrated circuit (IC) form. Like
discrete voltage regulators, linear IC voltage regulators maintain an output voltage at a constant value
despite variations in load and input voltage.
In general, linear IC voltage regulators are three-terminal devices that provide regulation of a
fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustable set voltage. The basic connection of a
three-terminal IC voltage regulator to a load is shown in Fig. 4.14. The IC regulator has an unregulated
input voltage Vi applied to the input terminals, a regulated voltage Vo at the output, and a ground
connected to the third terminal. Depending on the selected IC regulator, the circuit can be operated with
load currents ranging from milliamperes to tens of amperes and output power from milliwatts to tens of
watts.

Fig. 4.14 Basic connection of a three-terminal IC voltage regulator

Fixed Positive and Negative Linear Voltage Regulators

The 78XX series of regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 V. The last two digits of
the IC part number denote the output voltage of the device. For example, a 7824 IC regulator produces a
+ 24 V regulated voltage at the output. The standard configuration of a 78XX fixed positive voltage
regulator is shown in Fig. 4.15. The input capacitor C1 acts as a line filter to prevent unwanted variations
in the input line, and the output capacitor C2 is used to filter the high-frequency noise that may appear at
the output. In order to ensure proper operation, the input voltage of the regulator must be at least 2 V
above the output voltage.

Fig 4.15 The 78XX series fixed positive voltage regulator.

The 79XX series voltage regulator is identical to the 78XX series except that it provides negative regulated
voltages instead of positive ones. Figure 4.16 shows the standard configuration of a 79XX series voltage
regulator.

Fig. 4.16 The 79XX series fixed negative voltage regulator.

Adjustable Positive and Negative Linear Voltage Regulators

The IC voltage regulators are also available in circuit configurations that allow the user to set the output
voltage to a desired regulated value. The LM317 adjustable positive voltage regulator, for example, is
capable of supplying an output current of more than 1.5 A over an output voltage range of 1.2–37 V.
Figure 4.17 shows how the output voltage of an LM317 can be adjusted by using two external resistors
R1 and R2. The capacitors C1 and C2 have the same function as those in the fixed linear voltage
regulator.
As indicated in Fig. 4.17, the LM317 has a constant 1.25 V reference voltage, VREF, across the
output and the adjustment terminals. This constant reference voltage produces a constant current
through R1 regardless of the value of R2. The output voltage V0 is given by

……………….4.13

Fig. 4.17 The LM317 adjustable positive voltage regulator.

where Iadj is a constant current into the adjustment terminal and has a value of approximately 50 μ A for
the LM317. As can be seen from Eq. (4.13), with fixed R1, Vo can be adjusted by varying R2.
The LM337 adjustable voltage regulator is similar to the LM317 except that it provides negative
regulated voltages instead of positive ones. Figure 4.18 shows the standard configuration of a LM337
voltage regulator. The output voltage can be adjusted from –1.2 to –37 V, depending on the external
resistors R1 and R2.

Fig 4.18 The LM337 adjustable negative voltage regulator.

 LECTURE 7

SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS) [RGPV June 2014]

D.C. to D.C. converters and D.C. to A.C. Converters belong to the category of Switched Mode Power
Supplies (SMPS). The various types of voltage regulators, used in Linear Power Supplies (LPS), fall in the
category of dissipative regulator, as they have a voltage control element usually transistor or zener diode
which dissipates power equal to the voltage difference between an unregulated input voltage and a fixed
supply voltage multiplied by the current flowing through it. The switching regulator acts as a continuously
variable power converter and hence its efficiency is negligibly affected by the voltage difference. Hence
the switching regulator is also known as ‘non-dissipative regulator’. In a SMPS, the active device that
provides regulation is always operated in cut-off or in saturation mode.
The input D.C. Supply is chopped at a higher frequency around 15 to 50 kHz using an active device like the
BJT, power MOSFET or SCR and the converter transformer. Here the size of the ferrite core reduces
inversely with the frequency. The lower limit is around 5 kHz for silent operation and an upper limit of 50
kHz to limit the losses in the choke and in active switching elements. The transformed wave form is
rectified and filtered. A sample of the output voltage is used as the feedback signal for the drive circuit for
the switching transistor to achieve regulation.

The oscillator in above figure allows the control element to be switched ON and OFF. The control element usually
consists of a transistor switch, an inductor, and a diode. For each switch ON, energy is pumped into the magnetic
field associated with the inductor which is a transformer winding in practice. This energy is then released to the
load at the desired voltage level.

By varying the duty cycle or frequency of switching, we can vary the stored energy in each cycle and thus control
the output voltage. Higher efficiency is obtained since only the energy required is pumped to maintain the load
current hence no power dissipation.

The major feature of SMPS is the elimination of physically massive power transformers and other power line
magnetic. The net result is smaller, lighter package and reduced manufacturing cost, reducing primarily from the
elimination of the 50 Hz components
D.C. to D.C. Converter:
The block diagram of D.C. to D.C. converter (SMPS) is shown here.

Here, the primary power received from AC main is rectified and filtered as high voltage DC. It is then switched at a
huge rate of speed approximately 15 kHz to 50 kHz and fed to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The
step-down transformer is only a fraction of the size of a comparable 50 Hz unit thus reliving the size and weight
problems. The output at the secondary side of the transformer is rectified and filtered. Then it is sent to the output
of the power supply. A sample of this output is sent back to the switch to control the output voltage.

SMPS rely on PWM to control the average value of the output voltage. The average value of the repetitive pulse
waveform depends on the area under the waveform. As load increases, output voltage tends to fall. Most switching
power supplies regulate their output using the method called Pulse – Width Modulation (PWM). The power switch
which feeds the primary of the step-down transformer is driven by the PWM oscillator. When the duty cycle is at
50%, then the maximum amount of energy will be passed through the step-down transformer. As the duty cycle
decreases the power transmitted is less hence low power dissipation.
The Pulse Width signal given to the switch is inversely proportional to the output voltage. The width or the ON time
of the oscillator is controlled by the voltage feedback from the secondary of the rectifier output and forms a closed
loop regulator.

Q.2 Explain the working of SMPS with diagram. [RGPV 2014]

 LECTURE 8

SWITCH-MODE CONVERTER

The switch-mode converter is the core of the entire supply because the energy drawn, stored as
magnetic energy, is released at different potential levels. By setting up the switch-mode section in
various topologies such as buck or boost converter, voltage converters are designed providing a
fixed input voltage or current, which correspond to the maximum power point, allowing the output
resistance to match the battery.

A. FLYBACK CONVERTERS

This converter topology steps up the PV voltage to DC bus voltage. Pulse width modulation operated
converter has been used for grid connection of PV system (fig.4.40) This scheme is less complex and
has less number of switches. Flyback converters can be beneficial for remote areas due to less complex
power conditioning components.

Fig. 4.40 Flyback converter.

B. BUCK CONVERTER

The simplest way to reduce the voltage of a DC supply is to use a linear regulator (such as a 7805), but
linear regulators waste energy as they operate by dissipating excess power as heat. Buck converters, on
the other hand, can be remarkably efficient (95% or higher for integrated circuits), making them useful for
tasks such as converting the main voltage in a computer (12 V in a desktop, 12-24 V in a laptop) down to
the 0.8-1.8 volts needed by the processor.
Concept
The conceptual model of the buck converter is best understood in terms of the relation between current
and voltage of the inductor. Beginning with the switch open (in the "off" position), the current in the
circuit is 0. When the switch is first closed, the current will begin to increase, and the inductor will
produce an opposing voltage across its terminals in response to the changing current. This voltage drop
counteracts the voltage of the source and therefore reduces the net voltage across the load.
Over time, the rate of change of current decreases, and the voltage across the inductor also then
decreases, increasing the voltage at the load. During this time, the inductor is storing energy in the form
of a magnetic field. If the switch is opened while the current is still changing, then there will always be a
voltage drop across the inductor, so the net voltage at the load will always be less than the input voltage
source.
When the switch is opened again, the voltage source will be removed from the circuit, and the current will
decrease. The changing current will produce a change in voltage across the inductor, now aiding the
source voltage. The stored energy in the inductor's magnetic field supports current flow through the load.
During this time, the inductor is discharging its stored energy into the rest of the circuit. If the switch is
closed again before the inductor fully discharges, the voltage at the load will always be greater than zero.

Continuous mode
A buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current through the inductor (IL) never falls to zero during the
commutation cycle. In this mode, the operating principle is described by the plots in figure 4:
 When the switch pictured above is closed (on-state, top of figure 2), the voltage across the inductor

is . The current through the inductor rises linearly. As the diode is reverse-biased by the voltage
source V, no current flows through it;
 When the switch is opened (off state, bottom of figure 2), the diode is forward biased. The voltage
across the inductor is (neglecting diode drop). Current IL decreases.
The energy stored in inductor L is

Therefore, it can be seen that the energy stored in L increases during On-time (as IL increases) and then
decreases during the Off-state. L is used to transfer energy from the input to the output of the converter.
The rate of change of IL can be calculated from:

With VL equal to during the On-state and to during the Off-state. Therefore, the increase in current during
the On-state is given by:

Conversely, the decrease in current during the Off-state is given by:

If we assume that the converter operates in steady state, the energy stored in each component at the end
of a commutation cycle T is equal to that at the beginning of the cycle. That means that the current IL is
the same at t=0 and at t=T (see figure 4).
So we can write from the above equations:

The above integrations can be done graphically: In figure 4, is proportional to the area of the yellow
surface, and to the area of the orange surface, as these surfaces are defined by the inductor voltage (red)
curve. As these surfaces are simple rectangles, their areas can be found easily: for the yellow rectangle
and for the orange one. For steady state operation, these areas must be equal.
As can be seen on figure 4, and . Where D is a scalar called the duty cycle with a value between 0 and 1.
This yields:
From this equation, it can be seen that the output voltage of the converter varies linearly with the duty
cycle for a given input voltage. As the duty cycle D is equal to the ratio between t On and the period T, it
cannot be more than 1. Therefore,V0 <= Vi. This is why this converter is referred to as step-down
converter.
So, for example, stepping 12 V down to 3 V (output voltage equal to one quarter of the input voltage)
would require a duty cycle of 25%, in our theoretically ideal circuit.
Discontinouous mode
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is too small. In this case, the current through
the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is
that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see figure 5). This has,
however, some effect on the previous equations.

We still consider that the converter operates in steady state. Therefore, the energy in the inductor is the
same at the beginning and at the end of the cycle (in the case of discontinuous mode, it is zero). This
means that the average value of the inductor voltage (VL) is zero; i.e., that the area of the yellow and
orange rectangles in figure 5 are the same. This yields:

So the value of δ is:

The output current delivered to the load ( ) is constant, as we consider that the output capacitor is
large enough to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals during a commutation cycle. This implies
that the current flowing through the capacitor has a zero average value. Therefore, we have :

Where ῙL is the average value of the inductor current. As can be seen in figure 5, the inductor current
waveform has a triangular shape. Therefore, the average value of IL can be sorted out geometrically as
follow:

The inductor current is zero at the beginning and rises during t on up to ILmax. That means that ILmax is equal
to:

Substituting the value of ILmax in the previous equation leads to:

This expression can be rewritten as:

It can be seen that the output voltage of a buck converter operating in discontinuous mode is much more
complicated than its counterpart of the continuous mode. Furthermore, the output voltage is now a
function not only of the input voltage (Vi) and the duty cycle D, but also of the inductor value (L), the
commutation period (T) and the output current (Io).
 LECTURE 9

Boost Converter
A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter with an output voltage greater than
its input voltage. It is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two
semiconductors (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage element, a capacitor, inductor,
or the two in combination. Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are
normally added to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple.

Operating principle
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist changes in
current by creating and destroying a magnetic field. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always
higher than the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Figure 1.
(a) When the switch is closed, current flows through the inductor in clockwise direction and the inductor
stores some energy by generating a magnetic field. Polarity of the left side of the inductor is positive.
(b) When the switch is opened, current will be reduced as the impedance is higher. The magnetic field
previously created will be destroyed to maintain the current flow towards the load. Thus the polarity will
be reversed (means left side of inductor will be negative now). As a result two sources will be in series
causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor through the diode D.
If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in between charging stages, and
the load will always see a voltage greater than that of the input source alone when the switch is opened.
Also while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the load is charged to this combined
voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right hand side is shorted out from the left hand side, the
capacitor is therefore able to provide the voltage and energy to the load. During this time, the blocking
diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through the switch. The switch must of course be opened
again fast enough to prevent the capacitor from discharging too much.
The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states (see figure 2):

 in the On-state, the switch S (see figure 1) is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor current;
 in the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is through the flyback
diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This results in transferring the energy accumulated during the
On-state into the capacitor.
 The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in figure 2. So it is not
 discontinuous as in the buck converterand the requirements on the input filter are relaxed compared
to a buck converter.

Continuous mode
When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor (ῙL) never falls to zero.
Figure 3 shows the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in a converter operating in this mode.
The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal converter (i.e. using components
with an ideal behaviour) operating in steady conditions:
During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi) appear across the inductor,
which causes a change in current (ῙL) flowing through the inductor during a time period (t) by the formula:

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch is On.
Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we consider
zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the
evolution of IL is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

Discontinuous mode

If the ripple amplitude of the current is too high, the inductor may be completely discharged before the
end of a whole commutation cycle. This commonly occurs under light loads. In this case, the current
through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period (see waveforms in figure 4). Although slight,
the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows:
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value ILMax (at t=DT) is

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT:

Using the two previous equations, δ is

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4, the diode current
is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output current can be written as:

Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this expression is much more
complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not only depends on the
duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage, the switching frequency, and the output
current.

BUCK BOOST CONVERTER

The buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output voltage magnitude that is
either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is equivalent to a flyback converter using a
single inductor instead of a transformer.[1]
Two different topologies are called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce a range of output
voltages, from an output voltage much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage, down to
almost zero.
A buck (step-down) converter combined with a boost (step-up) converter
The output voltage is typically of the same polarity of the input, and can be lower or higher than the input.
Such a non-inverting buck-boost converter may use a single inductor which is used for both the buck
inductor and the boost inductor,[2][3][4] it may use multiple inductors but only a single switch as in
the SEPIC and Ćuk topologies.

Principle of Operation
The basic principle of the buck–boost converter is fairly simple (see figure 2):
 while in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly connected to the inductor (L). This results in
accumulating energy in L. In this stage, the capacitor supplies energy to the output load.
 while in the Off-state, the inductor is connected to the output load and capacitor, so energy is transferred
from L to C and R.
Compared to the buck and boost converters, the characteristics of the buck–boost converter are mainly:
 polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input;
 the output voltage can vary continuously from 0 to -∞ (for an ideal converter). The output voltage ranges
for a buck and a boost converter are respectively 0 to Vi and Vi to ∞.

Continuous mode
If the current through the inductor L never falls to zero during a commutation cycle, the converter is said
to operate in continuous mode. The current and voltage waveforms in an ideal converter can be seen in
Figure 3.
From t=0 to t= DT the converter is in On-State, so the switch S is closed. The rate of change in the
inductor current (IL) is therefore given by

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch is On.
Therefore Dranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we assume
zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the
evolution of IL is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored in
each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle. As the
energy in an inductor is given by:

it is obvious that the value of IL at the end of the Off state must be the same with the value of IL at the
beginning of the On-state, i.e. the sum of the variations of IL during the on and the off states must be zero:

Substituting ∆ILOn and ∆ILOff by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

This in return yields that:

From the above expression it can be seen that the polarity of the output voltage is always negative
(because the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that its absolute value increases with D, theoretically up to
minus infinity when D approaches 1. Apart from the polarity, this converter is either step-up (a boost
converter) or step-down (a buck converter). Thus it is named a buck–boost converter.

DISCONTINUOUS MODE
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred in a time
smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero
during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is that the inductor is
completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see waveforms in figure 4). Although slight,
the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It can be calculated like follows:

Because the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value ILmax (at t= DT) is

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δ.T:

Using the two previous equations, δ is:

The load current I0 is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4, the diode current
is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore, the output current can be written as:

Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage gain for the continuous mode, this expression is much
more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage not only depends on the
duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage and the output current.

CUK CONVERTERS
The Ćuk converter is a type of DC-DC converter that has an output voltage magnitude that is either
greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is essentially a boost converter followed by
a buck converter with a capacitor to couple the energy.
The non-isolated Ćuk converter can only have opposite polarity between input and output. It uses
a capacitor as its main energy-storage component, unlike most other types of converters which use
an inductor.
Non isolated cuk converter
There are variations on the basic Ćuk converter. For example, the coils may share single magnetic core,
which drops the output ripple, and adds efficiency. Because the power transfer flows continuously via the
capacitor, this type of switcher has minimized EMI radiation. The Ćuk converter enables the energy flow
bidirectionally, by adding a diode and a switch.

Operating principle
A non-isolated Ćuk converter comprises two inductors, two capacitors, a switch (usually a transistor), and
a diode. Its schematic can be seen in figure 1. It is an inverting converter, so the output voltage is negative
with respect to the input voltage.
The capacitor C is used to transfer energy and is connected alternately to the input and to the output of
the converter via the commutation of the transistor and the diode (see figures 2 and 3).
The two inductors L1 and L2 are used to convert respectively the input voltage source (V i) and the output
voltage source (Co) into current sources. At a short time scale an inductor can be considered as a current
source as it maintains a constant current. This conversion is necessary because if the capacitor were
connected directly to the voltage source, the current would be limited only by the parasitic resistance,
resulting in high energy loss. Charging a capacitor with a current source (the inductor) prevents resistive
current limiting and its associated energy loss.

As with other converters (buck converter, boost converter, buck-boost converter) the Ćuk converter can
either operate in continuous or discontinuous current mode. However, unlike these converters, it can also
operate in discontinuous voltage mode (i.e., the voltage across the capacitor drops to zero during the
commutation cycle).
Continuous mode
In steady state, the energy stored in the inductors has to remain the same at the beginning and at the end
of a commutation cycle. The energy in an inductor is given by:

This implies that the current through the inductors has to be the same at the beginning and the end of the
commutation cycle. As the evolution of the current through an inductor is related to the voltage across it:

it can be seen that the average value of the inductor voltages over a commutation period have to be zero
to satisfy the steady-state requirements.
If we consider that the capacitors C and Co are large enough for the voltage ripple across them to be
negligible, the inductor voltages become:

 in the off-state, inductor L1 is connected in series with Vi and C (see figure 2). Therefore VL1 = Vi – VC.
As the diode D is forward biased (we consider zero voltage drop), L2 is directly connected to the
output capacitor. Therefore VL2 = V0
 in the on-state, inductor L1 is directly connected to the input source. Therefore VL1 = Vi. Inductor L2 is
connected in series with C and the output capacitor, so VL2 = V0 + VC
The converter operates in on-state from t=0 to t=D·T (D is the duty cycle), and in off state from D·T to T
(that is, during a period equal to (1-D)·T). The average values of VL1 and VL2 are therefore:

As both average voltage have to be zero to satisfy the steady-state conditions we can write, using the last
equation:

So the average voltage across L1 becomes:

Which can be written as:

Where fs is the switching frequency.

Isolated Cuk converter
The Ćuk converter can be made in an isolated kind. An AC-transformer and an additional capacitor must
be added. [2]
Because the isolated Ćuk converter is isolated, the output-voltage polarity can be chosen freely.
As the non-isolated Ćuk converter, the isolated Ćuk converter can have an output voltage magnitude that
is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude, even with an 1:1 AC-transformer.
 UNIT 2

THYRISTORS

LECTURE 1

THYRISTORS
The two-layer semiconductor diode has led to three-, four-, and even five-layer devices. A family of four-
layer pnpn devices will first be considered: SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier), SCS (silicon-controlled
switch), GTO (gate turn-off switch), LASCR (light-activated SCR), followed by an increasingly important
device—the UJT (unijunction transistor). Those four-layer devices with a control mechanism are
commonly referred to as thyristors, although the term is most frequently applied to the SCR (silicon-
controlled rectifier). Some of the thyristor family devices are as follows:
1. DIAC (bidirectional diode thyristor)
2. TRIAC ( bidirectional triode thyristor)
3. SCR ( silicon-controlled rectifier)
4. SUS (Silicon unilateral switch)
5. SBS ( silicon bilateral switch)
6. SCS (silicon-controlled switch)
7. LASCR ( light activated SCR)
8. LASCS (light activated SCS
The most important family member of thyristor is SCR. It is four layered three junction semiconductor
device having three terminals, known as anode, cathode and gate. It is a unidirectional device where
conduction occurs from the Anode to the cathode, under proper biasing condition (forward bias). As SCR
can be considered as a power switching device which has two states (ON & OFF), offering a very high
resistance in its OFF state and a very low resistance in its ON state. Both the states are stable.
In recent years, SCRs have been designed to control powers as high as 10 MW with individual ratings as
high as 2000 A at 1800 V. Its frequency range of application has also been extended to about 50 kHz,
permitting some high-frequency applications such as induction heating and ultrasonic cleaning.

BASIC SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER OPERATION

As the terminology indicates, the SCR is a rectifier constructed of silicon material with a third
terminal for control purposes. Silicon was chosen because of its high temperature and power capabilities.
The basic operation of the SCR is different from the fundamental two-layer semiconductor diode in that a
third terminal, called a gate, determines when the rectifier switches from the open-circuit to short-circuit
state. It is not enough to simply forward-bias the anode-to-cathode region of the device. In the
conduction region, the dynamic resistance of the SCR is typically 0.01 to 0.1Ω . The reverse resistance is
typically 100 kΩ or more.
The graphic symbol for the SCR is shown in Fig. 2.1 with the corresponding connections to the four-
layer semiconductor structure. As indicated in Fig. 2.1a, if forward conduction is to be established, the
anode must be positive with respect to the cathode. This is not, however, a sufficient criterion for turning
the device on. A pulse of sufficient magnitude must also be applied to the gate to establish a turn-on
gate current, represented symbolically by IGT .
Fig 2.1 (a) SCR symbol (b) basic construction

Fig 2.2 SCR two transistor equivalent circuit

 LECTURE 2

TURN “ON” AND TURN “OFF” METHODS [June 2014, 7]

A more detailed examination of the basic operation of an SCR is best effected by splitting the four-layer
pnpn structure of Fig. 2.1b into two three-layer transistor structures as shown in Fig. 2.2a and then
considering the resultant circuit of Fig. 2.2b.
For discussion purposes, the signal shown in Fig. 2.3a will be applied to the gate of the circuit of Fig. 2.2b.
During the interval 0 → t1 ,Vgate = 0 V, the circuit of Fig. 2.2b will appear as shown in Fig. 2.3b ( Vgate = 0 V
is equivalent to the gate terminal being grounded as shown in the figure). For VBE2 = Vgate = 0 V , the base
current IB2= 0 and IC2 will be approximately ICO . The base current of Q1 , IB1 = IC2= ICO , is too small to turn
Q 1 on. Both transistors are therefore in the “off” state, resulting in a high impedance between the
collector and emitter of eachtransistor and the open-circuit representation for the controlled rectifier
as shown in Fig. 2.3c.

Figure 21.3 “Off” state of the SCR.

At t = t1, a pulse of VG volts will appear at the SCR gate. The circuit conditions established with this input
are shown in Fig. 2.4a. The potential V G was chosen sufficiently large to turn Q2 on (VBE22 = V G ). The
collector current of Q 2 will then rise to a value sufficiently large to turn Q 1 on (IB1 = IC2). As Q1 turns on,
IC1 will increase, resulting in a corresponding increase in IB2. The increase in base current for Q 2 will result
in a further increase in IC2. The net result is a regenerative increase in the collector current of each
transistor. The resulting anode-to-cathode resistance (RSCR = V/IA ) is then small because IA is large,
resulting in the short-circuit representation for the SCR as indicated in Fig. 2.4b. The regenerative action
described above results in SCRs having typical turn-on times of 0.1 to 1 μs. However, high-power devices
in the range 100 to 400 A may have 10- to 25 μs turn-on times.

Fig 2.4 ON state of SCR

Types of commutation
Term commutation means the transfer of current from one place to another. Commutation is used to
explain method of transferring current from one thyristor to another. commutation is one of the basic
principles in behind the use of thyristor for control purposes. A thyristor operates in open circuit (off
state) or in short circuit (ON state). All thyristor circuits therefore involve the cyclic or sequential
switching of thyristors. Three methods by which a thyristor can be commutated are given below:

(i) Natural commutation:- We know that in ac circuits the current always passes through zero
every half cycle. As the current passes through natural zero, a reverse voltage will
simultaneously appear across the device. It immediately turns off the device. This method is
known as natural commutation.
(ii) Forced commutatiom:- In addition to gate triggering, SCRs can also be turned on by
significantly raising the temperature of the device or raising the anode-to-cathode
voltage to the breakover value shown on the characteristics of Fig. 2.7. An SCR cannot be
turned off by simply removing the gate signal, and only a special few can be turned off by
applying a negative pulse to the gate terminal as shown in Fig. 2.3a at t = t3 .
The two general methods for turning off an SCR are categorized as the anode
current interruption and the forced-commutation technique.
The two possibilities for current interruption are shown in Fig. 2.5. In Fig. 21.5a, IA is zero when the switch
is opened (series interruption), while in Fig. 2.5b, the same condition is established when the switch is
closed (shunt interruption).

Fig 2.5 Anode current interruption

Forced commutation is the “forcing” of current through the SCR in the direction opposite to forward
conduction. There are a wide variety of circuits for performing this function, a number of which can be
found in the manuals of major manufacturers in this area. One of the more basic types is shown in Fig.
2.6. As indicated in the figure, the turn-off circuit consists of an npn transistor, a dc battery VB , and
a pulse generator. During SCR conduction, the transistor is in the “off” state, that is, IB = 0 and the
collector-to-emitter impedance is very high (for all practical purposes an open circuit). This high
impedance will isolate the turn-off circuitry from affecting the operation of the SCR. For turn-off
conditions, a positive pulse is applied to the base of the transistor, turning it heavily on, resulting in a very
low impedance from collector to emitter (short-circuit representation). The battery potential will then ap-
pear directly across the SCR as shown in Fig. 2.6b, forcing current through it in the reverse direction for
turn-off. Turn-off times of SCRs are typically 5 to 30 μs.
 Figure 21.6 Forced-commutation technique.

(iii) Gate turn-off:- In some particularly designed SCRs the characteristics are such thata negative
gate current increases the holding current so that it exceeds the load current and SCR turns off.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Write the different turn ON methods of SCR June 7
2014
Q.2
 LECTURE 3

DIFFERENT METHODS OF FORCED COMMUTATION [June 2014, 7]

Class A (series resonant turn off)

\
CLASS B (Parallel resonant commutation by an LC circuit)
CLASS C (complementary commutation or parallel capacitor turn-off)
CLASS D (Auxiliary Commutation)
CLASS E (External pulse commutation)

CLASS F (AC line commutation)

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 What is commutation? Describe operation of class C June 7
commutation with circuit diagram. 2014
Q.2
 LECTURE 4

SCR CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of an SCR are provided in Fig. 21.7 for various values of gate current. The currents and
voltages of usual interest are indicated on the characteristic. A brief description of each follows.

Figure 21.7 SCR characteristics.

1. Forward breakover voltage V (BR)F* is that voltage above which the SCR enters the conduction
region. The asterisk (*) is a letter to be added that is dependent on the condition of the gate
terminal as follows:
O = open circuit from G to K
S = short circuit from G to K
R = resistor from G to K
V = fixed bias (voltage) from G to K
2. Holding current (IH ) is that value of current below which the SCR switches from the conduction
state to the forward blocking region under stated conditions.
3. Forward and reverse blocking regions are the regions corresponding to the open-circuit condition
for the controlled rectifier which block the flow of charge (current) from anode to cathode.
4. Reverse breakdown voltage is equivalent to the Zener or avalanche region of the fundamental
two-layer semiconductor diode.

It should be immediately obvious that the SCR characteristics of Fig. 2.7 are very similar to those of
the basic two-layer semiconductor diode except for the horizontal offshoot before entering the
conduction region. It is this horizontal jutting region that gives the gate control over the response of the
SCR. For the characteristic having the solid blue line in Fig. 2.7 (IG = 0), V F must reach the largest
required breakover voltage (V(BR)F ) before the “collapsing” effect will result and the SCR can enter the
conduction region corresponding to the on state. If the gate current is increased to IG1, as shown in
the same figure by applying a bias voltage to the gate terminal, the value of V F required for the
conduction (VF1) is considerably less. Note also that IH drops with increase in IG . If increased to IG2, the
SCR will fire at very low values of voltage (VF3) and the characteristics begin to approach those of the basic
p-n junction diode. Looking at the characteristics in a completely different sense, for a particular VF
voltage, say VF2 (Fig . 2.7), if the gate current is increased from IG = 0 to IG1 or more, the SCR will fire.

SCR Ratings
A data sheet for a typical thyristor follows this section and includes the following information:

Surge Current Rating (IFM )—The surge current rating ( IFM ) of an SCR is the peak anode current an
SCR can handle for a short duration.

Latching Current (IL )—A minimum anode current must flow through the SCR in order for it to stay
ON initially after the gate signal is removed. This current is called the latching current ( IL ).

Holding Current (IH )—After the SCR is latched on, a certain minimum value of anode current is
needed to maintain conduction. If the anode current is reduced below this minimum value, the
SCR will turn OFF.

Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage (VRRM )—The maximum instantaneous voltage that an SCR can with-
stand, without breakdown, in the reverse direction.

Peak Repetitive Forward Blocking Voltage (VDRM)—The maximum instantaneous voltage that the SCR
can block in the forward direction. If the VDRM rating is exceeded, the SCR will conduct without
a gate voltage.

Nonrepetitive Peak Reverse Voltage (VRSM )—The maximum transient reverse voltage that the SCR can
withstand.

Maximum Gate Trigger Current (IGTM)—The maximum DC gate current allowed to turn the SCR ON.

Minimum Gate Trigger Voltage (V GT )—The minimum DC gate-to-cathode voltage required to trigger
the SCR.

Minimum Gate Trigger Current (IGT)—The minimum DC gate current necessary to turn the SCR ON.

SCR triggering
Triggering means turning ON of a device from its off state. Turning ON of a thyristor refers to thyristor
triggering. Thyristor is turned on by increasing the anode current flowing through it. The increase in
anode current can be achieved by many ways.
1. Voltage Thyristor Triggering: – Here the applied forward voltage is gradually increased beyond a
pt.known as forward break over voltage VBO and gate is kept open. This method is not preferred
because during turn on of thyristor, it is associated with large voltage and large currentwhich
results in huge power loss and device may be damaged.

2. Temperature triggering: This form of SCR triggering may occur under some circumstances. It may
give rise to unexpected responses and therefore its effects should be noted as part of any design
process.

Temperature triggering of SCRs occurs as the voltage across the junction J2 and any leakage
current may raise the temperature of the junction. The increase in temperature further increases
 the temperature which will in turn increase the leakage current. This cumulative process may be
sufficient to trigger the SCR, although it tends to only occur when the device temperature is high.

3. Light triggering: This form of SCR triggering or firing is often used with high voltage systems. Here
an electrical connection is not required from the firing mechanism, and an isolated light source can
be used.

Where light SCR triggering is to be used, specially manufactured SCRs are available. The light
triggering occurs within the inner P-type later. When this area is irradiated by light, free charge
carriers are generated and just like applying a gate signal, the SCR is triggered.

To achieve the maximum light absorption, specialised SCR structures are used, often having a
recess in the inner P-type later to enable maximum access to the light.

To enable the light triggering to take place, light is often directed to the correct point in the SCR
using optical fibre. Once the light exceeds a certain intensity, switching occurs. An SCR of this type
is often referred to as a Light-activated SCR or LASCR. These LASCRs have been used in high voltage
power distribution switching centres. The optical switching enables very high levels of isolation to
be achieved while still being able to switch with low level circuitry.

4. dv/dt triggering: – If the rate of rise of anode to cathode voltage is high , the
charging currentthrough the capacitive junction is high enough to turn on the thyristor. A high
value of chargingcurrent may destroy the thyristor hence the device must be protected against
high dv/dt.

5. Gate triggering: – This method of thyristor triggering is widely employed because of ease
C8control over the thyristor gate triggering of thyristor allows us to turn of the thyristor whenever
we wish. Here we apply a gate signal to the thyristor. Forward biased thyristor will turn on when
gate signal is applied to it. Once the thyristor starts conducting, the gate loses its control over the
device and the thyristor continues to conduct. This is because of regenerative action that takes
place within the thyristor when gate signal is applied.
When the thyristor is forward biased, and a gate signal is injected by applying positive
gatevoltage is applied between gate and cathode terminals, then the thyristor is turned on.
Fig. shows the waveform of anode current after the application of gate signal. t on is the turn on delay
time. The turn on delay time is the time interval between the application of gate signal and conduction
of thyristor. The turn on delay time ton is defined as the time interval between 10% of steady state gate
current 0.1Ig and 90% of steady state thyristor on statecurrent 0.9IT.ton is the sum of delay time td and rise
time tr. The delay time td is defined as the time interval between 10% of steady state gate current (0.1 I g)
and 10% of on state thyristor current (0.1IT). The rise time tr is defined as the time taken by
the thyristor anode current from 10% of thyristor on state current (0.1IT) to 90% of on
state thyristor current (0.9IT).
While designing gate thyristor triggering circuit following points should be kept in mind.
1. When thyristor is turned on the gate signal should be removed immediately. A continuous application
of gate signal even after the triggering on and thyristor would increase the power loss in the gate junction.
2. No gate signal should be applied when thyristor is reversed biased; otherwise thyristor
3. The pulse width of the gate signal should le longer than the time required for the anode current to rise
to the holding current value IH.
Thyristor can not be turned off by applied negative gate signal. To stop the conduction of the thyristor we
have to bring the anode current flowing through the thyristor to a level below holding current level.
Holding current may be defined as the minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor in the
on state without gate signal below which the thyristor stops conduction.
If we want to turn on the thyristor, the current flowing through the thyristor must be greater than
latching current of the thyristor. Latching current is the minimum anode current required to maintain
the thyristor in the on state with at gate signal. Here we should note that even thethyristor anode current
falls below latching current (once it is turned on and gate signal is removed) thyristor does not stop
conduction. But if it falls below holding current (Latching currentis more than holding current)
then thyristor turn off.
 LECTURE 5

Thyristor Protection

 For reliable operation of SCR, it should be operated within the specific ratings.

 SCRs are very delicate devices and so they must be protected against abnormal operating
conditions. Various protection of SCR are

a. di/dt Protection

b. dv/dt Protection

c. Over voltage Protection

d. Over Current Protection

di/dt Protection:-

 di/dt is the rate of change of current in a device.

 When SCR is forward biased and is turned ON by the gate signal, the anode current flows.

 The anode current requires some time to spread inside the device. (Spreading of charge carriers)

 But if the rate of rise of anode current(di/dt) is greater than the spread velocity of charge carriers

then local hot spots is created near the gate due to increased current density. This localised heating
may damage the device.

 Local spot heating is avoided by ensuring that the conduction spreads to the whole area very rapidly.
(OR) The di/dt value must be maintained below a threshold (limiting) value.

 This is done by means of connecting an inductor in series with the thyristor .

 The inductance L opposes the high di/dt variations.

 When the current variation is high, the inductor smooths it and protects the SCR from damage.
 (Though di/dt variation is high, the inductor 'L' smooths it because it takes some time to charge). L ≥
[Vs / (di/dt)]

dv/dt Protection:-

 dv/dt is the rate of charge of voltage in SCR.

 We know that iC=C.dv/dt. ie, when dv/dt is high, iC is high.

 This high current(iC) may turn ON SCR even when gate current is zero. This is called as dv/dt turn ON
or false turn ON of SCR.

 To protect the thyristor against false turn ON or against high dv/dt a "Snubber Circuit" is used.

SNUBBER CIRCUIT:-

 The snubber Circuit is a series combination of resistor 'R' and capacitor 'C'.

 They are connected across the thyristor to be protected.

 The capacitor 'C' is used to limit the dv/dt across the SCR.

 The resistor 'R' is used to limit high discharging current through the SCR.

 When switch S is closed, the capacitor 'C' behaves as a short-circuit.

 Therefore voltage across SCR is zero.

 As time increases, voltage across 'C' increases at a slow rate.

 Therefore dv/dt across 'C' and SCR is less than maximum dv/dt rating of the device.

 The capacitor charges to full voltage Vs; after which the gate is triggered, and SCR is turned ON and
high current flows through SCR.

 As di/dt is high, it may damage the SCR.To avoid this, the resistor R in series with 'C' will limit the
magnitude of di/dt.
 The technique of 'snubbing' can apply to any switching circuit, not only to thyristor/triac circuits.

 The rate of rise of turn-off voltage is determined by the time constant

RLC. Where RL is the circuit minimum load resistance, for instance the cold resistance of a heater or
lamp, the winding resistance of a motor or the primary resistance of a transformer.

Overvoltage Protection:-
 Overvoltage may result in false turn ON of the device (or) damage the device.

 SCR is subjected to internal and external over voltage.

Internal Overvoltage:

 The reverse recovery current of the SCR decays at a very fast rate. ie, high di/dt.

 So a voltage surge is produced whose magnitude is L(di/dt).

External Overvoltage:

 These are caused by the interruption of current flow in the inductive circuit and also due to lightning
strokes on the lines feeding the SCR systems.

 The effect of overvoltage is reduced by using Snubber circuits and Non-Linear Resistors called Voltage
Clamping Devices.

Voltage Clamping Device:

 It is a non-linear resistor called as VARISTOR (VARIable resiSTOR) connected across the SCR.

 The resistance of varistor will decrease with increase in voltage.

 During normal operation, varistor has high Resistance and draws only small leakage current.

 When high voltage appears, it operates in low resistance region and the surge energy is dissipated
across the resistance by producing a virtual short-circuit across the SCR.

Over Current Protection:

 In an SCR due to over-current, the junction temperature exceeds the rated value and the device gets
damaged.

 Over-current is interrupted by conventional fuses and circuit breakers.

 The fault current must be interrupted before the SCR gets damaged and only the faulty branches of
the network should be isolated.
 Circuit breaker has long tripping time. So it is used for protecting SCR against continuous over loads
(or) against surge currents of long duration.

 Fast acting current limiting fuse is used to protect SCR against large surge currents of very short
duration.

Electronic Crowbar Protection:

 SCR has high surge current ability.

 SCR is used in electronic crowbar circuit for overcurrent protection of power converter.

 In this protection, an additional SCR is connected across the supply which is known as 'Crowbar SCR'.

 Current sensing resistor detects the value of converter current.

 If it exceeds preset value, then gate trigger circuits turn ON the crowbar SCR.

 So the input terminals are short-circuit by SCR and thus it bypass the converter over current.

 After some time the main fuse interrupts the fault current.
 LECTTURE 6

COMPARISION OF THYRISTORS AND TRANSISTORS

S.NO. TRANSISTORS THYRISTORS

(I) In transistors a continuous base current It need a pulse to make it conducting and
is needed to keep transistor in the thereafter it remains conducting
conducting state.

(ii) Commutation circuit is not needed Commutation circuit is needed.

(iii) Transistor is a two junction three layer It is a three junction four layer device.
device.

(iv) The current and voltage ratings of the Due to the difference in fabrication and
transistor available at present are not operation, thyristors with very high voltage
as high as those of thyristors and current ratings are available.

(v) When transistors conduct appreciable The forward voltage drop across the device
current and forward voltage drop is of is of the order of 1.2 to 2V.
the order of 0.3 to 0.8 V.

(vi) Power transistors have no surge current Thyristors have surge current rating and
capacity and can withstand only a low therefore can withstand high rate of
rate of change of current. change of current compared to transistors.

Thermal characteristics of SCR

Fabrication technology determines various properties of the device. The voltage rating of a device can be
increased by lightly doping the inner two layers and increasing their thickness. But due to this increased
resistance, forward voltage drop increases and large triggering currents are required causing greater
power dissipation accompanied by smaller current ratings. The heat dissipation of silicon falls from 1.5
W/cm2 at 25° C to 1.25 W/ cm2 at 125° C. A high voltage power device can seldom be used beyond 125° C.
Series and parallel connections of an SCR
In many power control applications the required voltage and current ratings exceed the voltage and
current that can be provided by a single SCR. Under such situations the SCRs are required to be connected
in series or in parallel to meet the requirements. Sometimes even if the required rating is available,
multiple connections are employed for reasons of economy and easy availability of SCRs of lower ratings.
Like any other electrical equipment, characteristics/properties of two SCRs of same make and ratings are
never same and this leads to certain problems in the circuit. The mismatching of SCRs is due to differences
in
(i) turn-on time
(ii) turn-off time
(iii) leakage current in forward direction
(iv) leakage current in reverse direction and
(v) recovery voltage.

Series Connection of an SCR

When the required voltage rating exceeds the SCR voltage rating, a number of SCRs are required to be
connected in series to share the forward and reverse voltage. As it is not possible to have SCRs of
completely identical characteristics, deviation in characteristics lead to the following two major problems
during series connections of the SCRs:
(i) Unequal distribution of voltage across SCRs.
(ii) Difference in recovery characteristics.
Care must be taken to share the voltage equally. For steady-state conditions, voltage sharing is achieved
by using a resistance or a Zener diode in parallel with each SCR. For transient voltage sharing a low non-
inductive resistor and capacitor in series are placed across each SCR, as shown in figure. Diodes
D1 connected in parallel with resistor Rl, helps in dynamic stabilisation. This circuit reduces differences
between blocking voltages of the two devices within permissible limits. Additionally the R-C circuit can
also serve the function of‘snubber circuit‘. Values of R1 and C1 can primarily be calculated for snubber
circuit and a check can be made for equalization. If ΔQ is the difference in recovery charge of two devices
arising out of different recovery current for different time and ΔV is the permissible difference in blocking
voltage
then C1 = ΔQ/ ΔV.
The value of resistance Rx should be sufficient to over damp the circuit.
Since the capacitor C1 can discharge through the SCR during turn-on, there can be excessive power
dissipation, but the switching current from C1 is limited by the resistor R1 This resistance also serves the
purpose of damping out ‘ringing’ which is oscillation of C1 with the circuit inductance during commutation.
All the SCRs connected in series should be turned-on at the same time when signals are applied to their
gates simultaneously.

Parallel Connection of an SCR

When the load current exceeds the SCR current rating, SCRs are connected in parallel to share the load
current. But when SCRs are operated in parallel, the current sharing between them may not be proper.
The device having lower dynamic resistance will tend to share more current. This will raise the
temperature of that particular device in comparison to other, thereby reducing further its dynamic
resistance and increasing current through it. This process is cumulative and continues till the device gets
punctured.
Some other factors which directly or indirectly add to this problem are difference in turn-on time, delay
time, finger voltage* and loop inductance. Arrangement of SCRs in the cubicle also plays vital role. When
the SCRs are connected in parallel, it must be ensured that the latching current level of the all the SCRs is
such that when gate pulse is applied, all of them turn-on and remain on when the gate pulse is removed.
Further the holding currents of the devices should not be so much different that at reduced load current
one of the device gets turned-off because of fall of current through it blow its holding current value. This
is particularly important because on increase in load current, the device which has stopped conducting
cannot start in the absence of gate pulse.
Another point to be considered is the on-state voltage across the device. For equal sharing of currents by
the devices voltage drop across the parallel paths must be equal. For operation of all the SCRs connected
in parallel at the same temperature, it becomes necessary to use a common heat sink for their mounting,
as illustrated in figure. Resistance compensation used for dc circuits is shown in figure. In this circuit the
resistors Rx and R2 are chosen so as to cause equal voltage drop in both arms. Inductive compensation
used for ac circuits is shown in figure The difference in characteristics due to different turn-on time, delay
time, finger voltage, latching current, holding current can be minimized by using inductive
compensation. Firing circuits giving high rate of rise can be used to reduce mismatch of gate
characteristics and delay time.
Current sharing circuits must be designed so as to distribute current equally at maximum temperature
and maximum anode current. This is done to ensure that the devices share current equally under worst
operating conditions. Mechanical arrangement of SCRs also plays an important role in reducing mismatch-
ing. Cylindrical construction is perhaps the best from this point of view.
 LECTURE 7

OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION OF SCR

SCRs are sensitive to high voltage, over-current, and any form of transients. For satisfactory and reliable
operation they are required to be protected against such abnormal operating conditions. Because of
complex and expensive protection, usually some margin is provided in the equipment by selecting devices
with ratings higher (3 or 4 times higher) than those required for normal operation. But it is always not
economical to use devices of higher ratings, hence their protection is imperative.

High forward voltage protection is inherent in SCRs. The SCR will breakdown and start conducting before
the peak forward voltage is attained so that the high voltage is transferred to another part of the circuit
(usually the load). The turn-on of SCR causes a large current to flow and poses a problem of over-current
protection.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD [June 2014, 7]

HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH INDUCTIVE LOAD
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Describe half wave controlled rectifier with resistive load with June 7
waveforms and circuit diagram 2014
Q.2
 LECTURE 8

SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH INDUCTIVE LOAD [ June 2014, 7]
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Describe single phase full wave controlled rectifier with June 7
inductive load. Draw the circuit diagram and waveform. 2014
Q.2