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Substation Grounding Design

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1. AC Substation 6
2. Substation Grounding 14
3. Safety in Grounding 17
4. Range of Tolerable Current g 22
5. Tolerable Body Current Limit 25
6. Accidental Ground Circuit 27
7. Criteria of Tolerable Voltage 41
8. Principal Design Considerations 47
9. Selection of Conductors and Connections 56
10. Soil Characteristics 64
11. Soil Structure and Selection of Soil Model 69
12. Evaluation of Ground Resistance 75
13. Determination of Maximum Grid Current 81
14. Design of Grounding System 101
15. Refinement of Preliminary Design 121
16. Special Areas of Concern 124
17. Sample Calculations 129
18. Substation Grounding Sulotion 162
Substation Grounding Design
to IEEE 80
By
Asst Prof Prasit Pittayapat
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Contents
1 AC Substation
2 Substation Grounding
3 Safety in Grounding
4 Range of Tolerable Current g
5 Tolerable Body Current Limit
6 Accidental Ground Circuit
7 Criteria of Tolerable Voltage
8 Principal Design Considerations
9 Selection of Conductors and Connections
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5
10 Soil Characteristics
11 Soil Structure and Selection of Soil Model
12 Evaluation of Ground Resistance
13 Determination of Maximum Grid Current
14 Design of Grounding System
15 Refinement of Preliminary Design
16 Special Areas of Concern
17 Sample Calculations
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1 AC Substation
1. Definition
- Transform voltage from high to low or low to high
- Perform any several other functions
Connect , Disconnect
Protection , Monitoring
Metering
etc
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6
2. Types
- Generation Substation
Generator voltage 10 - 20 kV to 230 kV
- Transmission Substation
Transmission voltage 230 kV to 115 kV , 500 kV
- Distribution Substation
Subtransmission voltage 69 kV , 115 kV to 24 kV , 22 kV

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3. Equipment
- Transformer
- CB
- VT , CT
- Isolating Switch
- Bus
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4. Basic Designs
- Air – insulated Substation
- Gas – Insulated Substation
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5. Bus Arrangement
- Single Bus , Single Breaker

- Two Bus , One Breaker
- Two Bus , Two Breaker
- Ring Bus
- Breaker and a Half
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Single Bus , Single Breaker
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Two Bus , One Breaker

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Ring Bus
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Breaker and a Half

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13
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 19
2 Substation Grounding
- Substation Grounding very important
for safety of personal and equipment operation
- The most important standard
IEEE 80 Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
- First Edition IEEE 80 std 1961
- Major Revision IEEE 80 std 1986
- Copies Available IEEE 80 std Edition 1986 , 2000 , 2013
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14
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«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 23
Chulalongkorn University
Thesis , Master of Engineering
1 Unequally Spaced Ground Grid Analysis

For Electrical Power Stations BE 2540
Mr Worawit Kangsamut
Advisor Asst Prof Prasit Pittayapat
2 Substation Grounding System Design

with Layers of Soil Consideration
Mr Chanchai Laopongpaisan BE 2543
Advisor Asst Prof Prasit Pittayapat
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3 Safety in Grounding
1. Basic Problem
A safe grounding design has 2 objectives
- To provide means to carry electric current into the earth
under normal and fault conditions without exceeding
any operating and equipment limits or adversely affecting
continuity of service .
- To reduce the risk of a person in the vicinity of grounded
facilities being exposed to the danger of critical electric shock
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- People often assume that

any grounded object can be safely touched.
Not true
- A low substation ground resistance
is not a guarantee of safety
- No simple relation
between resistance of the ground system
and maximum shock current
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17
- A substation of relatively low ground resistance
may be dangerous
- Another substation with very high ground resistance

may be less dangerous.
or can be made less dangerous by careful design
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- Eg. If a substation is supplied

from OH line with no shield or neutral wire
A low grid resistance is important
Most or all of the total ground fault currant

enter the earth
causing the steep rise of the local ground potential
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Figure 2
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- If a shield wire , neutral wire are used
provide a low impedance

parallel path to the return circuit
The rise of local ground potential is of lesser magnitude
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Figure 2
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- In either ease
the effect of that portion of fault current
that enters the earth within the substation area
should be further analyzed
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2. Conditions of Danger
- During typical ground fault condition

the flow of current to earth
will produce potential gradients
within and around a substation
- Fig 3 shows the effect for a substation

with a simple rectangular ground grid
in homogenous soil
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- The maximum potential gradients along the earth’s

surface may be of sufficient magnitude
during ground fault to endanger a person in the area
- The dangerous voltage

may develop between grounded structures
or equipment frames
and the nearby earth
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Figure 3
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4 Range of Tolerable Current
- Effects of an electric current

passing through a human body depend on
- Frequency
- Magnitude
- Duration
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Frequency
- Frequency of 50 Hz , current of approx 0.1 A
can be lethal
- Human body can Tolerate a slightly higher current
at 25 Hz and approx 5 times at D.C.
- At Frequency of 3000 Hz to 10000 Hz
higher currents can be tolerated

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Magnitude
- Current of 1 mA , Threshold of perception
- 1 mA - 9 mA , let - go currents , unpleasant to sustain do not
impair the ability of a person to control muscles and release it
- 9 mA - 15 mA , may be painful , impossible to release energized
objects muscular contractions could make breathing difficult
- 60 mA - 100 mA , Ventricular fibrillation , stoppage of the heart
cause injury or death
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This Guide emphasize
the importance of fibrillation threshold
The shock currents must be kept below this value
by a carefully designed grounding system

Injury or death may be avoided
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Duration
The non - fibrillating current magnitude IB
at duration ranging from 0.03 s - 3.0 s
is related to the energy absorbed by the body
SB = ( IB )2 x t s
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SB = ( IB )2 x t s
Where
IB = rms current through the body ( A )
tS = duration of the currant exposure ( S )
SB = Empirical Constant related to the electric shock
energy tolerated by a current percent of a given
population
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5 Tolerable Body Current Limit
The magnitude and duration of current
conducted through a human body at 50 Hz
should be less then the value
than can cause ventricular fibrillation of the heart
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Duration Formula
Dalziel studies Assume 99.5 % of all person can safety
withstand without ventricular fibrillation
Determined by the following formula
and
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Dalziel found that for

50 kg , SB = 0.0135
k50 = 0.116
For tS = 1s , IB = 116 mA
tS = 0.1 s , IB = 367 mA
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26
Provided that the average population weight
can be expected to be at least 70 kg
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6 Accidental Ground Circuit

1. Resistance of the Human Body
- For DC or 50 Hz Currents ,
the human body can be approx by a resistance
- The Current path
From one hand to both feet
From one foot to other
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- The internal resistance of the body
is approx 300
Where as values of body resistance including skin
range 500 to 3000
- For the purpose of this guide ,
the following resistance is series
with body resistance are assumed as follows

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a) Hand and foot contact resistance = 0

b) Glove and Shoe resistances = 0
- A value of 1000 which represents

the resistance of a human body from hand to feet
also from hand to hand or from one foot to other foot
RB = 1000
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2. Accidental Circuit Equivalents
- Using the value of tolerable body current

and the appropriate circuit constants
it is possible to determine the tolerable voltage
between any 2 points of contact
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Exposure to Touch Voltage
- Figure show the fault current If

being discharged to the ground
by the grounding system of the substation
and a person touching
a grounded metallic structure at H
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29
- Terminal H is a point in the system
at the same potential as the grid
into which the fault current flows
and the terminal F is the small areas a the surface of the earth
That is in contact with the person’s 2 feet
- The current Ib flows from H Through the body of the person
to the ground at F
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Touch Voltage
Figure 6
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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Figure 7
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Touch Voltage Circuit
Figure 8
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31
- The Thevenin Voltage VTh
is the voltage between terminals H , F
when the person is not present ( open circuit )
- The impedance ZTh is the impedance of the system

as seen from point H and F
with Voltage sources of the system Short- Circuited
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- The current Ib through the body of a person coming in

contact with H and F is
VTh
Ib = Z Th RB
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- For most practical cases
Zsys , grid resistance and the mutual resistance
can be neglected
ZTh is represented by
the equivalent impedance of the person’s feet
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Exposure to Step Voltage
- Figure show the fault current If

being discharged to the ground
by the grounding system
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33
- The current Ib flows from one foot F1
Through the body to other foot F2
- Terminal F1 and F2 are the areas

on the surface of the earth
that are in contact with the 2 feet
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Step Voltage
Figure 9
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Step Voltage Circuit
Figure 10
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- The Thevenin Voltage VTh is the voltage

between terminals F1 and F2
- Thevenin ZTh is the impedance of the system
as seen from Terminals F1 and F2
with the Voltage sources of the system Short - Circuited
- The current Ib through the body
VTh
Ib = Z Th RB
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Calculation
For touch voltage accidental circuit
ZTh = Rf / 2
And for step voltage

ZTh = 2 Rf
Rf = The ground resistance of one foot
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For the purpose of circuit analysis

The human foot is represented by
A Conducting Metallic Disc Radius 0.08 m
on the surface of a homogeneous earth U ( .m )
The resistance given by Laurent

Rf = U / 4 b
b = radius (m)
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The ZTh can be obtained in terms of U
For Touch Voltage
ZTh = Rf / 2 = U / ( 2 x 4 x 0.08 ) = 1.56 U
= 1.5 U
For Step Voltage
ZTh = 6.0 U
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The permissible Total Equivalent Voltage
Etouch = IB ( RB + 1.5 U )
and
Estep = IB ( RB + 6.0 U )
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3. Effect of a Thin Layer of Surface Material
- Surface Material Layer of high resistivity material

layer 0.08 m to 0.15 m
spread on the earth’s surface
above ground grid
- Increase the contact resistance

between the soil and the feet of person
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- The soil has a lower resistivity than the surface material

Only some grid current will go upward
into the thin layer of the surface material
- The current through the body will be lowered considerably
- The reduction effect for surface material resistivity

represented by a factor CS
CS is the surface layer derating factor

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38
Without surface material
Rf = U / 4 b
With surface material

Rf = ( U / 4 b ) CS
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CS can be calculated as follow
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Graphs from computer
Figure 11
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The following empirical equation
give the value of CS
Within 5 % of the value by analytical method
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Ex 1 Calculate Cs From the following data
U = 60 - m , Us = 3000 - m
hS = 0.06 m , 0.10 m
K = ( U –U s ) / ( U + U s )
= - 0.96
From Graph
h S = 0.06 m Cs = 0.52 h S = 0.10 m Cs =0.68
From Equation
h S = 0.06 m Cs = 0.58 h S = 0.10 m Cs =0.70
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7 Criteria of Tolerable Voltage
1. Definitions
Ground Potential Rise ( GPR )
- The maximum electrical potential that
a substation ground grid may attain to remote earth
GPR = IG x Rg
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Mesh Voltage ( Em )
- The maximum touch voltage
within a mesh of a ground grid
Metal - to metal Touch Voltage

- The difference is potential between metallic object
or structure within the substation site
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Step Voltage
- The difference is surface potential
experienced by a person
bridging a distance of 1 m
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Touch Voltage
- The potential difference

between the Ground Potential Rise ( GPR )
and the surface potential at the point
where a person is standing while at the same time
having a hand in contact with a grounded structure
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Transferred Voltage
- A special case of the touch voltage

where a voltage is transferred
into or out of the substation
from or to a remote point external
to the substation site
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Figure 12
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Figure 13
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3. Step Voltage Criteria
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4. Touch Voltage Criteria
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Ex 2 Find the step and touch criteria for person 50 kg
CS from Ex 1 t S = 0.5 s
For h S = 0.06 m CS = 0.58
EStep50 = 1877 V
Etouch50 = 592 V
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For hS = 0.10 m , CS = 0.70
EStep50 = 2231 V ( 1877 V )
Etouch50 = 681 V ( 592 V )
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8 Principal Design Considerations
1. Definitions
Auxiliary Ground Electrode
- A ground electrode with certain design
or operating constraints.
Its primary function may be other than conducting
the ground fault current into the earth
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Ground Electrode
- A Conductor imbedded in the earth and used for collecting

ground fault current from or dissipating ground current
into the earth

Ground Grid
- A system of interconnected ground electrodes arranged
in a pattern over a specified area
and buried below the surface of the earth
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Ground Mat
- A solid metallic plate or a system of closely spaced bare conductors
that are connected to and often placed in shallow depths above a
ground grid, in order to obtain an extra protective measure minimizing
the danger of the exposure to high step or touch voltage in a critical
operating area or places that are frequently used by people.
- Grounded metal grating or wire mesh
are common forms of a ground mat
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Grounding System
- Comprises all interconnected ground facilities
in a specific area
Primary Ground Electrode
- A ground electrode specifically designed or adapted
for discharge the ground fault current into the ground.
Often in a specific discharge pattern
as required by the grounding system design
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2. General Concept
- A grounding system will limit
the effect of ground potential gradients
- That will not endanger the safety of people or equipment
under normal and fault conditions
- The grounding system in substation has the form of
a grid of horizontally buried conductors , supplemented
by a number of vertical ground rods connected to the grid
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- Some reasons for using the combined system of

Vertical rods and Horizontal conductors
1) Horizontal ( grid ) Conductors

Most effective in reducing
the high step and touch voltages
on the earth’s surface a shallow depth 0.3 m to 0.5 m
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49
2) Rods penetrating the lower resistivity soil
more effective in dissipating fault current
3) If the rods are installed along the grid perimeter

will considerably moderate the steep in crease of
the surface gradient near the peripheral mesh
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3. Basic Aspects of Grid Design

Guidelines for a typical ground grid design
a) - A continuous conductor loop should surround the perimeter

to enclose as much area as practical this measure helps
- To avoid high current concentration high gradients
both in the grid and near the projecting cable ends
- Enclosing more area also reduce the resistance of the ground grid
b) - Within the loop, conductors are laid in parallel lines ,

along the structures or rows of equipment
to provide for short ground connections
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c) A typical grid system
- Bare copper conductors 4/0 ( 107 mm 2 )

buried 0.3 m to 0.5 m below grade
- Spaced 3 m to 7 m apart
- At cross - connections,
the conductors would be securely bonded together
- Ground rods may be installed at the grid corners

and at junction points along the perimeter
- In multilayer or high resistivity soils it might be useful
to use longer rods or rods installed at addition junction points
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d) - This grid system would be extended

over the entire substation switchyard
and often beyond the fence line
Multiple ground leads or larger conductors used where high
may occur , neutral of generators , transformers , capacitor banks
e) - The ratio of the sides of the grid mesh usually is from

1 : 1 to 1 : 3
- Frequent cross - connections
have small effect on lowering the resistance of a grid
Their primary role
to control the surface potentials
to provide multiple paths for the fault current
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51
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4. Design in Difficult Conditions
- In areas where soil resistivity is rather high
substation space is at a premium

- Not possible to obtain
a low impedance grounding system
GIS installations
Industrial substations
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Some of the Solutions

a) Connection(s) of remote ground grid(s)
and adjacent grounding facilities
b) Use of deep-driven ground rods
c) Various additives and soil treatments
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d) Use of wire mats
Typical wire mat wires No 6 AWG ( 13 mm 2 )
size 0.6 m x 0.6 m installed on the earth’s surface
and below the surface material
and bonded to the main grid
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e) Use of other available means

to lower the overall resistance of a ground system
- Connecting static wires and neutrals to the ground
- Use of metallic objects on the site
serve as auxiliary ground electrodes
f) A nearby deposit of low resistivity material
of sufficient volume can be used
to install an extra (satellite) grid
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5. Connections to Grid
Conductors of adequate ampacity and mechanical strength
should be used for the connections between
a) All ground electrodes, metal, water, or gas pipes, etc
b) All above-ground conductive metal parts
c) All fault current sources such as Surge Arresters,
Capacitor Banks , Transformers , etc
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- Exothermic weld should be used

for underground connections
- Those facilities likely to supply a high current

Transformers , CB tanks , Switch frames arrester pads
Should be connected to grid
with more than one ground leads
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9 Selection of Conductors and Connections
1. Basic Requirements
- Proper selection of conductor material

will maintain
the integrity of a grounding system for years
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Considerations
Grid conductors , connections , connecting leads
primary electrodes should be designed to
a) Have sufficient conductivity
b) Resist fusing and mechanical deterioration
c) Be mechanically reliable and rugged to a high degree
d) Be able to maintain its function
even when exposed to Corrosion or Physical Abuse
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2. Choice of Material for Conductors
1) Copper
- Copper is a common material used
- High conductivity
- Resistant to most underground corrosion
because copper is catholic with respect to most other
metals buried in the vicinity

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2) Copper - clad and copper - plated steel

- Are common materials used for grounding system
- cheaper then copper
3) Aluminum
- Aluminum has rarely been used for ground grids
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4) Steel
- Steel or stainless steel conductors and ground rods
may be used
- Where the soil conditions may be detrimental to copper
- Use of zinc coated steel or stainless steel
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3) Conductor Sizing Factors
- The required conductor size depends on

The short time temperature rise , conductor current
and conductor constants
can be obtained from equation
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Conductor Current ( RMS ) Equation
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For USA , Conductor cross sectional area in cmil or kcmil , AWG

cmil = circular mil 1 mil = 1 / 1000 inch
cmil = area of circle , diameter 1 mil
kcmil = 1000 cmil
250 kcmil = 126.70 mm 2
1.0 mm 2 = 1.9732 kcmil , 1.0 kcmil = 0.5068 mm 2
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59
AWG mm 2
250,000 cmil ( 250 kcmil ) 127

4/0 107
3/0 92
2/0 67
0 54
1 42
2 34
3 27
4 21
6 13
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Conductor Cross Sectional Area Equation
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Material Constant use in Grounding
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Ex 3 Calculate the size of grounding conductor ,

Annealed Copper
t c = 0.7 s, a20 = 0.0039, U20 = 1.7241 ,
K o = 245, Ta = 40 , Tm = 1083 ,
TCAP = 3.422
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61
IG = 31.5 kA , 40 kA
IG = 31.5 kA
A mm2 = 93.2 mm2 95 , 120 mm²
IG = 40 kA
A mm2 = 118.4 mm2 120 mm²
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4. Formula Simplification
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62
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10 Soil Characteristics
1. Soil as a Grounding Medium
- Soil can be represented as circuit
Figure 16
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- Most soils behave both as

a conductor of resistance r, and as a dielectric
- Except for high-frequency and steep-front waves
the charging current is negligible
- The earth can be represented as
a pure resistance
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 36

64
2. Effect of Voltage Gradient
- Soil resistivity is not affected by a voltage gradient

unless the latter exceeds a certain critical value
- The value varies with the soil material,
usually has the magnitude of several kV / cm
- Once exceeded, arcs would develop at the electrode
surface and progress into the earth so as
to Increase the effective size of the electrode
- Until gradients are reduced
to values that the soil material can withstand
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 37
- This condition is illustrated by the presence of gaps

in Figure 16
- Because the substation grounding system

normally is designed with lower step and touch voltage
The gradient can always be assumed
to be below the critical range
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 38

65
3. Effect of Current Magnitude
- Soil resistivity in the vicinity of ground electrodes

may be affected by current flowing
from the electrodes into the surrounding soil
- High current will causes drying

and thus increase the effective soil resistivity
- A conservative value not to exceed 200 A/m2 for 1 s .
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 39
4. Effect of Moisture , Temperature,

and Chemical Content
- Electrical conduction is essentially electrolytic
- For moisture content for less than 15% of the weight

The resistivity rises abruptly
- The amount of moisture further

depends on grain size, compactness
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 40

66
Figure 17
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 41
- The effect of temperature on soil resistivity

is nearly negligible for temperatures
above the freezing point.
At 0 °C, the water in the soil
starts to freeze and the resistivity increases rapidly
- To determine the actual resistivity only by tests

IEEE Std 81 Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity ,
Ground Impedance , and Earth Surface Potentials
of a Grounding System
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 42

67
5. Use of Surface Material Layer
- Gravel or surface material coverings

usually about 0.08 m to 0.15 m in depth
- Very useful
a) in retarding the evaporation of moisture
thus limiting the drying of topsoil layers
b) reducing shock current
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 43
- Table 7 gives typical resistivity

for different types of surface material
- Tests should be performed to determine

the resistivity of the stone used
IEEE std 81
Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity ,
Ground Impedance , and Earth Surface Potentials
of a Grounding System
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 44

68
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 45
11 Soil Structure and Selection of Soil Model
1. Investigation of Soil Structure
- Resistivity investigations of substation site are essential

- To determine
General soil composition and degree homogeneity
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 46

69
2. Classification of Soil and Range of Resistivity
- Tabulation from Rudenberg
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 47
3. Resistivity Measurements
- IEEE std 81
- Werner Four-pin Method
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 48

70
The apparent resistivity can be calculated from the equation
If b is small compared to a
Ua = 2 S a R
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 49
- The current tends to flow near the surface

for small probe spacing
For more of large spacing
Current penetrate deeper soil
- At a spacing a
Apparent resistivity to a depth of a
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 50

71
4. Interpretation of Soil Resistivity measurements
- Basic objective is to derive a Soil Model

that is a good approximation of the actual soil.
- Most commonly used Soil Resistivity Model
The Uniform Model

and
The Two-layer Model.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 51
a Uniform Soil assumption
- The approximate uniform soil resistivity

may be obtained by taking an arithmetic average
of the measured apparent resistivity data
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 52

72
Uniform Soil
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 53
B Non-uniform soil assumptions

- situations where resistivity markedly with depth
1) Two-layer soil model
- upper layer soil of a finite depth U1
- Low Lager soil of a infinite depth U2
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 54

73
Two – Lager Soil
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 55
2. Multilayer soil model
- Highly non-uniform soil conditions
- Use if an equivalent two-layer soil model is not feasible.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 56

74
12 Evaluation of Ground Resistance
1. Simplified Calculations
A Circular metal plate at zero depth
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 57
An upper limit of Substation Ground Resistance
Sverak equation
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 58

75
Ex 4 Calculate Substation Grid Resistance for
A = 12000 m²
L T = 1800 m
h = 0.5 m
U = 400 ɏ - m
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 59
= 1.62 ɏ
= 1.84 ɏ
= 1.84 ɏ
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 60

76
Soil Treatment to Lower Resistivity
- If it is not possible to reduce ground resistance

by adding more grid conductors or ground rods
- An alternate solution is to effectively

increase the diameter of the electrode
by modifying the soil surrounding the electrode
- The inner shell of soil closest to the electrode

normally comprises most of the electrode
ground resistance to remote earth
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 61
Method to Reduce Ground Resistance
a) Use of Salt
- Use of sodium chloride, magnesium, and copper sulfates,
or calcium chloride
- Increase the conductivity of the soil immediately
surrounding an electrode
- Possible leaching to surrounding areas
- The salt treatment must be renewed periodically
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 62
77
b) Use of Betonites
- Betonites is a natural clay was formed

by volcanic action years ago
- It is Non-corrosive, stable,
has a resistivity of 2.5 ɏ - m at 300% moisture
- The low resistivity results mainly from

an electrolytic process with water
- It acts as a drying agent drawing any available moisture
from the surrounding environment
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 63
- Betonites when installed ,

relies on the presence of ground moisture
to maintain its characteristics
- It may not function well in a very dry environment

because it may shrink away from the electrode
increasing the electrode resistance
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 64

78
c) Use of Chemical - type Electrodes
- Consist of a copper tube filled with a salt

- Holes in the tube allow moisture to enter,
dissolve the salts
- Salt solution allow to leach into the ground

- These electrodes are installed in an augured hole
and typically back-filled with soil treatment.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 65
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 66

79
d) Use of Ground Enhancement Materials
- Resistivity of less than

0.12 ɏ - m about 5% of Betonites
- Placed around the rod in an augured hole

or around grounding conductors in a trench
- In either a dry form or premixed in a slurry
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 67
- Permanent and will not leach

any chemicals into the ground
- Other available GEM are mixed with local soil

in varying amounts
and will slowly leach into the surrounding soil
lowering the earth resistivity.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 68

80
Soil Treatment to Lower Ground Resistance
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«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 69
13 Determination of Maximum Grid Current

1. Definitions
DC offset
- Difference between the symmetrical current wave
and the actual current wave
during a power system transient condition
- The actual fault current can be broken into 2 parts
1. A symmetrical AC component
2. A unidirectional (DC) component
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 70
81
Decrement Factor
- A adjustment factor used in conjunction with
the symmetrical ground fault current parameter
in safety-oriented grounding calculations
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 71
Fault Current Division Factor

- A factor representing the inverse of a ratio
of the symmetrical fault current to that portion of
the current that flows between the ground grid
and surrounding earth
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 72

82
Maximum Grid Current
- A design value of the maximum grid current
- IG is the portion of fault current that flow into the soil
this current will responsible for the potential on
the earth surface
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 73
Symmetrical Grid Current

- That portion of the symmetrical ground fault current
that flows between ground grid and surrounding earth
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 74

83
2. Procedure
- The following steps are involved in determining
the correct design value of maximum grid current IG
a) Assess the type and location of those ground faults
that are likely to produce the greatest flow
of current between the ground grid
and surrounding earth,
Hence the greatest GPR
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 75
b) Determine, by computation, the fault current division factor

Sf for the faults selected in a), and establish
the corresponding values of symmetrical grid current Ig
c) For each fault, based on its duration time t f ,
determine the decrement factor Df to allow for
the effects of asymmetry of the fault current wave.
Select the largest product Df × Ig
d) Consider future increases in available fault current
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 76
84
3. Types of Ground Faults
- Many different types of faults may occur in the system
- Investigation be confined to single-line-to-ground
and line - to - line - to - ground faults.
- Figure 27, Figure 28, Figure 29, and Figure 30
show maximum grid current Ig
for various fault locations and system configurations
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 77
Figure 27
- SLG within local substation

- A fault current IF will flow through the ground grid
back to Neutral of the Power Source
- No fault current flow into the soil
IG = 0
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 78
85
Figure 28
- SLG within local substation , Neutral grounded at remote location

- The Neutral of the power source not grounded
- Ground fault current flow through the ground grid and
from the ground grid into the soil to the grounded neutral at remote end
IG = IF
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 79
Figure 29
- Fault in substation , system grounded at local substation

and also at other points
- Fault current from local power source and remote power source
IF = IF1 + IF2
Local Remote
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 80
86
- Local fault current IF1 will how through the ground grid
back to neutral of local power source
- Remote fault current IF2 will flow through lines
and through the soil back to grounded neutral
of the remote power source
- Fault current flow into the soil at local and remote substation
IG = IF - IF1
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 81
Figure 30
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 82
87
Fig 30
- Distribution Substation
- Ground fault on HV side of power transformer
- At Power Source , all ground fault current
will flow back to the Neutral
- In Fig 30 IF = 1492 A
Some ground fault current flow back
via OH Ground wire and Tower Footing
IF1 = 444 A
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 83
Some ground fault current

flow through the soil back to the Neutral
Fig 30 IF2 = 1048 A = IG

IF = IF1 + IF2
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 84

88
- At the Distribution Substation
IF = 1492 A
Some ground fault flow back to Power Source

Via OH Ground wire and Through soil
Some ground fault flow to Load Substation
Via OH Ground wire and Through soil
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 85
- Some ground fault flow through

the Substation Ground Grid into the soil
and back to the Power Source
IG = 742 A
- Current Division Factor at Distribution Substation
Sf = 742 / 1492
= 0.4973
= 49.73 %
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 86
89
4. Effect of Substation Ground Resistance
- Most cases to derive Ig can neglect

the system resistance,
the substation ground resistance,
and the resistance at the fault
- The error is usually small, and an side of safety
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 87
5. Effect of Fault Resistance
- Within the local substation

If the fault is an insulation break down
Rf = 0
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 88

90
6. Effect of overhead ground wires and neutral conductors
- Overhead ground wires are connected
to the Substation Ground
- A substantial portion of the ground fault current
is diverted away from the substation ground grid
- The overhead ground wires
should be taken into consideration
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 89
7. Effect of direct buried pipes and cables

- Buried cables with their sheaths or armor
in contact with the earth , and buried metallic pipes
bonded to the Substation Ground System
will have an effect similar to that of
overhead ground wires and neutrals
- By conducting part of the ground fault current
away from the substation
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 90
91
8. Worst Fault Type and Location
- In a given location, usually
A single line to ground fault ( SLG ) will be the worst type
- The worst fault location may be either
on HV Side
or LV Side ( MV Side )
- Either inside the substation or outside on a line
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 91
- Inside the substation

If it is related to a metallic structure
that is connected to the Substation Ground Grid
- For Distribution Substation
The maximum grid current IG usually
occurs for ground fault
on HV terminals of the transformer

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 92
92
- For Transmission Substation
The maximum grid current may occurs
for the ground fault on
either the high or Low side of the transformer
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 93
9. Computation of Current Division

For the flow of the initial ground fault current
can be expressed as
Ig = Sf x ( 3 I 0 )
To determine Ig
the current division factor Sf must be computed
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 94
93
The Process of Computation consists
- Derive an equivalent representation of the OHG wires

neutral wires etc that connected to the grid
- Solving the equivalent

to determine what fraction of the total fault current
flows between the grid and earth and what fractions
flows through the ground wires or neutrals
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 95
The computation of maximum grid current

is quite complex and need
- Good knowledge of Power System Analysis
- Symmetrical Component
- Per Unit
Graphical Methods ( Annex C )

and Computer Programs
have been used to find the Maximum Grid Current
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 96

94
- Sf is dependent on many parameters
a) Location of the fault
b) Magnitude of substation ground grid impedance
c) Buried pipes and cables in the vicinity of
or directly connected to the substation ground system
d) Overhead ground wires, neutrals,
or other ground return paths

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 97
Example Figure 31
- Shows a one - feeder distribution substation
- Fed by single transmission line

- Remote equivalent source
- Transmission line is 20 km long and the distance
between tower grounds is 0.5 km.
- Feeder 4 km , distance between pole grounds is 0.122 km.
- Soil uniform resistivity 200 ɏ-m.
- Annex C equations to calculate line impedances
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 98
95
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 99
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 100

96
)LJXUH
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 101
For Three Phase Fault

I3ph = E / Z1
= ( 115 / 3 ) / ( 3.82 + j 19.01 )
= 3.42 kA
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 102
97
Endrenyi Method
Zeq-l = ( 0.5 Z gi + ( Rix Zgi )
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 103
)LJXUH
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 104

98
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 105
Split Factor is
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 106

99
Effect of Asymmetry
- The design of a ground grid must consider
the asymmetrical current
- A decrement factor Df
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 107
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 108

100
14 Design of Grounding System
1. Design Criteria
Two main design goals
a) To provide means to dissipate electric currents
in to the earth without exceeding
any operating and equipment limit
b) To assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded
facilities is not exposed to the danger
of critical electric shock
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 1
The Design Procedures
- Based on assuring safety from

dangerous Step and Touch voltage
within and immediately outside
the Substation fence area
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 2

101
- Mesh voltage is usually
the worst possible touch voltage inside the Substation
- The mesh voltage will be used as
the basis of this Design Procedure
- Step voltages are inherently less dangerous than

mesh voltages within the grounded area is achieved
with the assistance of a high resistivity surface layer
- Computed Step Voltages should be compared
with the Permissible Step Voltage
after a grid has been designed
that satisfies the Touch Voltage Criterion
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 3
- For equally spaced ground grids

the mesh voltage will increase along meshes
from the center to the corner of the grid
- The corner Em was computed

at the center of the corner mesh
- This guide will use the term

Mesh voltage Em to mean the Touch Voltage
at the center of the corner mesh
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 4

102
2. Critical Parameters
The following site - dependent parameters has been found
to have substantial impact on the grid design
1) Maximum Grid Current IG
2) Fault Duration tf
3) Shock Duration tS
4) Soil Resistivity U
5) Resistivity of Surface Material US
6) Grid Geometry
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 5
1) Maximum Grid Current ( IG )

- Value of ground fault current
that flows through the substation ground grid
into the earth
Not the total ground fault current
I G = Df x I g
Ig = S f x If
- I G will determine the value of GPR

GPR = IG x Rg
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 6

103
2) Fault Duration ( t f ) and Shock Duration ( t S )
- t f and t S normally assumed equal
- Typical values t f and t S 0.25 s to 1.0 s
- t f has the effect on
Touch Voltage Criteria
Step Voltage Criteria
Grounding Conductor
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 7
3) Soil Resistivity U
- The Grid Resistance , Voltage Gradients
directly dependent on Soil Resistivity
- U vary horizontally as well as vertically
Sufficient data must be gathered to
calculate the average apparent resistivity
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 8

104
4) Resistivity of Surface Layer US
- A layer of Surface Material helps

in limiting the body current
- Resistivity and thickness of Surface Material
influence the
Step Voltage Criteria
Touch Voltage Criteria
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 9
5) Grid Geometry
- Physical parameters of a ground grid

are based on economics and the physical limitations
of the installation of the grid
- Typical conductor spacing 3 m to 15 m
- Typical grid depth 0.5 m to 1.5 m

- Typical conductor 2/0 AWG ( 67 mm²) to 500 kcmil ( 253 mm²)
Most popular 120 mm²
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 10

105
3. Design Procedure
- The Block Diagram of Fig 32

the sequels illustrates the sequence of step
to design the ground grid.
- The following describes each step of the procedure.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 11
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 12

106
Step 1 Field Data
- The property map and general location plan

of the substation should provide good estimates
of the area to be grounded.
- A soil resistivity test result

determine soil profile and model
Uniform , Two - layer model
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 13
Step 2 Conductor Size
- The conductor size is determined.
- The ground fault current 3I0 should be

the maximum expected future fault current.
- The time t c , should reflect

the maximum possible clearing time.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 14
107
Step 3 Touch and Step Criteria
- The tolerable touch and step voltages are determined.
- The choice of time t s by the design engineer
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 15
Step 4 Preliminary Design
- The preliminary design should include

a loop surrounding the entire grounded area
- The initial estimates of conductor spacing

and ground rod locations
should be based on IG and the area being grounded
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 16

108
Step 5 Grid Resistance
- Estimates the preliminary resistance

of the grounding system.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 17
Step 6 Maximum Grid Current IG
- Determine grid current IG
- To prevent overdesign
only the current that flows through the grid
should be used in designing the grid
- IG should reflect worst fault type and location

and any future system expansion
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 18
109
Step 7 GPR
- If the GPR of the preliminary design

is below the tolerable touch voltage
no further analysis is necessary.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 19
Step 8 Mesh Voltage
- Calculation of the mesh and step voltages

by approximate analysis techniques for
uniform soil
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 20

110
Step 9 Em vs Etouch
- If the computed mesh voltage

is below the tolerable touch voltage,
the design may be complete.
- If the computed mesh voltage

is greater than the tolerable touch voltage
the preliminary design should be revised
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 21
Step 10 Es vs Estep
- If both the computed touch and step voltages

are below the tolerable voltages
- The design needs only the refinements

to provide access to equipment grounds.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 22

111
Step 11 Modify Design
- If either the step or touch tolerable limits are exceeded.
- Revision of the grid design is required.
- These revisions may

include smaller conductor spacing
additional ground rods, etc.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 23
Step 12 Detailed Design
- After satisfying the step and touch voltage requirements.

- The additional grid conductors may be required
at the base of surge arresters, transformer neutrals, etc.
- The final design should also be reviewed
to eliminate hazards due to
transferred potential and hazards
associated with special areas of concern.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 24

112
Table 12 - Index of design parameters
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‫ ݌݁ݐݏܧ‬͹Ͳ dŽůĞƌĂďůĞƐƚĞƉǀŽůƚĂŐĞĨŽƌŚƵŵĂŶǁŝƚŚϳϬŬŐďŽĚǇǁĞŝŐŚƚ͕s ϴ͘ϯ
‫݄ ܿݑ݋ݐܧ‬ͷͲ dŽůĞƌĂďůĞƚŽƵĐŚǀŽůƚĂŐĞĨŽƌŚƵŵĂŶǁŝƚŚϱϬŬŐďŽĚǇǁĞŝŐŚƚ͕s ϴ͘ϯ
‫݄ ܿݑ݋ݐܧ‬͹Ͳ dŽůĞƌĂďůĞƚŽƵĐŚǀŽůƚĂŐĞĨŽƌŚƵŵĂŶǁŝƚŚϳϬŬŐďŽĚǇǁĞŝŐŚƚ͕s ϴ͘ϯ
‫ ݉݉ܧ‬െ‫݄ ܿݑ݋ݐ‬ͷͲ dŽůĞƌĂďůĞŵĞƚĂůͲŵĞƚĂůƚŽƵĐŚǀŽůƚĂŐĞĨŽƌŚƵŵĂŶǁŝƚŚϱϬŬŐ ϴ͘ϰ
ďŽĚǇǁĞŝŐŚƚ͕s
‫ ݉݉ܧ‬െ‫݄ ܿݑ݋ݐ‬͹Ͳ dŽůĞƌĂďůĞŵĞƚĂůͲŵĞƚĂůƚŽƵĐŚǀŽůƚĂŐĞĨŽƌŚƵŵĂŶǁŝƚŚϳϬŬŐ ϴ͘ϰ
ďŽĚǇǁĞŝŐŚƚ͕s
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 25
݄ ĞƉƚŚŽĨŐƌŽƵŶĚŐƌŝĚĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌƐ͕ŵ ϭϰ͘Ϯ
݄‫ ݏ‬ ^ƵƌĨĂĐĞůĂǇĞƌƚŚŝĐŬŶĞƐƐ͕ŵ ϳ͘ϰ
‫ ܩܫ‬ DĂǆŝŵƵŵŐƌŝĚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƚŚĂƚĨůŽǁƐďĞƚǁĞĞŶŐƌŽƵŶĚŐƌŝĚĂŶĚ ϭϱ͘ϭ
ƐƵƌƌŽƵŶĚŝŶŐĞĂƌƚŚ;ŝŶĐůƵĚŝŶŐĚĐŽĨĨƐĞƚͿ͕;ƐĞĞ͗ŵĂǆŝŵƵŵŐƌŝĚ
ĐƵƌƌĞŶƚͿ
‫ ݃ܫ‬ ^ǇŵŵĞƚƌŝĐĂůŐƌŝĚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚ͕;ƐĞĞ͗ƐǇŵŵĞƚƌŝĐĂůŐƌŝĚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚͿ ϭϱ͘ϭ
‫ܭ‬ ZĞĨůĞĐƚŝŽŶĨĂĐƚŽƌďĞƚǁĞĞŶĚŝĨĨĞƌĞŶƚƌĞƐŝƐƚŝǀŝƚŝĞƐ ϳ͘ϰ
‫ ݄ܭ‬ ŽƌƌĞĐƚŝǀĞǁĞŝŐŚƚŝŶŐĨĂĐƚŽƌƚŚĂƚĞŵƉŚĂƐŝǌĞƐƚŚĞĞĨĨĞĐƚƐŽĨŐƌŝĚ ϭϲ͘ϱ
ĚĞƉƚŚ͕ƐŝŵƉůŝĨŝĞĚŵĞƚŚŽĚ
‫ ݅ܭ‬ ŽƌƌĞĐƚŝŽŶĨĂĐƚŽƌĨŽƌŐƌŝĚŐĞŽŵĞƚƌǇ͕ƐŝŵƉůŝĨŝĞĚŵĞƚŚŽĚ ϭϲ͘ϱ
‫ ݅݅ܭ‬ ŽƌƌĞĐƚŝǀĞǁĞŝŐŚƚŝŶŐĨĂĐƚŽƌƚŚĂƚĂĚũƵƐƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĞĨĨĞĐƚƐŽĨ ϭϲ͘ϱ
ŝŶŶĞƌĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌƐŽŶƚŚĞĐŽƌŶĞƌŵĞƐŚ͕ƐŝŵƉůŝĨŝĞĚŵĞƚŚŽĚ
‫ ݉ܭ‬ ^ƉĂĐŝŶŐĨĂĐƚŽƌĨŽƌŵĞƐŚǀŽůƚĂŐĞ͕ƐŝŵƉůŝĨŝĞĚŵĞƚŚŽĚ ϭϲ͘ϱ
‫ ݏܭ‬ ^ƉĂĐŝŶŐĨĂĐƚŽƌĨŽƌƐƚĞƉǀŽůƚĂŐĞ͕ƐŝŵƉůŝĨŝĞĚŵĞƚŚŽĚ ϭϲ͘ϱ
‫ ܿܮ‬ dŽƚĂůůĞŶŐƚŚŽĨŐƌŝĚĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌ͕ŵ ϭϰ͘ϯ
‫ ܯܮ‬ ĨĨĞĐƚŝǀĞůĞŶŐƚŚŽĨ‫ ܿܮ‬н‫ ܴܮ‬ĨŽƌŵĞƐŚǀŽůƚĂŐĞ͕ŵ ϭϲ͘ϱ
‫ ܴܮ‬ dŽƚĂůůĞŶŐƚŚŽĨŐƌŽƵŶĚƌŽĚƐ͕ŵ ϭϲ͘ϱ
‫ ݎܮ‬ >ĞŶŐƚŚŽĨŐƌŽƵŶĚƌŽĚĂƚĞĂĐŚůŽĐĂƚŝŽŶ͕ŵ ϭϰ͘ϯ͕ϭϲ͘ϱ
‫ ܵܮ‬ ĨĨĞĐƚŝǀĞůĞŶŐƚŚŽĨ‫ ܿܮ‬н‫ ܴܮ‬ĨŽƌƐƚĞƉǀŽůƚĂŐĞ͕ŵ ϭϲ͘ϱ
‫ ܶܮ‬ dŽƚĂůĞĨĨĞĐƚŝǀĞůĞŶŐƚŚŽĨŐƌŽƵŶĚŝŶŐƐǇƐƚĞŵĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌ͕ ϭϰ͘Ϯ
ŝŶĐůƵĚŝŶŐŐƌŝĚĂŶĚŐƌŽƵŶĚƌŽĚƐ͕ŵ
‫ ݔܮ‬ DĂǆŝŵƵŵůĞŶŐƚŚŽĨŐƌŝĚĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌŝŶǆĚŝƌĞĐƚŝŽŶ͕ŵ ϭϲ͘ϱ
‫ ݕܮ‬ DĂǆŝŵƵŵůĞŶŐƚŚŽĨŐƌŝĚĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌƐŝŶǇĚŝƌĞĐƚŝŽŶ͕ŵ ϭϲ͘ϱ
݊ 'ĞŽŵĞƚƌŝĐĨĂĐƚŽƌĐŽŵƉŽƐĞĚŽĨĨĂĐƚŽƌƐ݊ܽ ͕ܾ݊ ͕݊ܿ ͕ĂŶĚ݊݀ ϭϲ͘ϱ
ܴ݊ EƵŵďĞƌŽĨƌŽĚƐƉůĂĐĞĚŝŶĂƌĞĂ͕ ϭϰ͘ϯ
ܴ݃ ZĞƐŝƐƚĂŶĐĞŽĨŐƌŽƵŶĚŝŶŐƐǇƐƚĞŵ͕ɏ ϭϰ͘ϭƚŚƌŽƵŐŚ
ϭϰ͘ϰ
݂ܵ &ĂƵůƚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚĚŝǀŝƐŝŽŶĨĂĐƚŽƌ;ƐƉůŝƚĨĂĐƚŽƌͿ;ƐĞĞ͗ĨĂƵůƚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚ ϭϱ͘ϭ
ĚŝǀŝƐŝŽŶĨĂĐƚŽƌͿ
‫ ܿݐ‬ ƵƌĂƚŝŽŶŽĨĨĂƵůƚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚĨŽƌƐŝǌŝŶŐŐƌŽƵŶĚĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌ͕Ɛ ϭϭ͘ϯ
‫ ݂ݐ‬ ƵƌĂƚŝŽŶŽĨĨĂƵůƚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚĨŽƌĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶŝŶŐĚĞĐƌĞŵĞŶƚĨĂĐƚŽƌ͕Ɛ ϭϱ͘ϭ

‫ ݏݐ‬
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r
ƵƌĂƚŝŽŶŽĨƐŚŽĐŬĨŽƌĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶŝŶŐĂůůŽǁĂďůĞďŽĚǇĐƵƌƌĞŶƚ͕Ɛ ϱ͘ϮƚŚƌŽƵŐŚϲ͘ϯ
26
113
4. Calculation of
Maximum Step and Mesh Voltages
- Calculation by using approximate equations
- Calculation by using a computer
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 27
Mesh voltage ( Em )
Mesh voltage values as a product of

The geometrical factor Km
A corrective factor Ki
Soil Resistivity U
The average current per length ( IG / L M )
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 28

114
The geometrical factor Km (Sverak ) is as follows:
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 29
For
Grids with ground rods along the perimeter
or Grids with ground rods in the grid corners
as well as both along the perimeter
and throughout the grid area
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 30

115
For
Grids with no ground rods
or Grids with only a few ground rods,
none located in the corners or on the perimeter.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 31
Using four grid shape components developed in

Thapar, Gerez, Balakrishnan, and Blank ,
the effective number of parallel conductors
in a given grid , n can be made applicable to rectangular
or irregularly shaped grids that represent
the number of parallel conductors
of an equivalent rectangular grid.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 32

116
Where
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 33
otherwise
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 34

117
The irregularity factor Ki
used in conjunction with the above defined n is
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 35
Grids with no ground rods ,

or Grids with only a few ground rods
scattered throughout the grid,
but none located in the corners
or along the perimeter of the grid,
The effective buried length, LM
where
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 36

118
For
Grids with ground rods in the corners
as well as along the perimeter and throughout the grid
Where
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 37
Step Voltage (Es)

The step voltage values are obtained
as a product of the
The geometrical factor Ks
The corrective factor Ki
The soil resistivity ʌ
The average current per unit of buried length
of grounding system conductor ( IG / LS )
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 38

119
For
Grids with or without ground rods,
The effective buried conductor length
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 39
The maximum step voltage is assumed to occur

over a distance of 1 m
beginning at and extending outside of the perimeter
conductor at the angle bisecting
the most extreme corner of the grid.
For the usual burial depth of 0.25 m < h < 2.5 m (Sverak ),
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 40

120
15. Refinement of Preliminary Design
- If calculations based on the preliminary design

indicate that dangerous potential differences
can exist within the substation
- Remedies should be studied and applied
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 41
a ) Decrease total Grid Resistance
- Decrease in grid resistance

maximum GPR decrease
maximum transferred voltage decrease
- Most effective way increasing the area
occupied by the grid deep driven rods or well
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 42

121
b) Closer Grid Spacings
- By employing closer spacing of grid conductors,

the condition of the continuous plate
can be approached more closely
- Dangerous potentials within the substation

can be eliminated
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 43
- The problem at the perimeter may be more difficult
- Another effective and economical way

to control gradients is
to increase the density of ground rods at the perimeter
- Another approach is
to vary the grid conductor spacing
with closer conductors near the perimeter of the grid
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 44

122
c) Diverting a greater part of the fault current to other paths
- By connecting overhead ground wires

of transmission lines
- By decreasing the tower footing resistances

in the vicinity of the substation
- Part of the fault current will be diverted from the grid
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 45
d) Limiting total fault current

- Limiting the total fault current will decrease the GPR
e) Barring access to limited areas

- Barring access to certain areas
- Reduce the probability of hazards to personnel
f) Increase the tolerable touch and step voltages

- Increase by reducing the fault clearing time,
use a surface material with a higher resistivity
or increase the thickness of the surface material
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 46
123
16 Special Areas of Concern
Special areas of concern in substation grounding network

- Service Areas
- Switch Shaft and Operating Handle Grounding
- Fence
- Rails , Pipelines
- Cable sheaths and The effects of transferred potentials
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 47
1. Service Areas
- Step and Touch Voltage
within fenced substation areas
- Outside a Substation fence

Cheek for Step and touch voltages
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 48

124
2. Switch Shaft and Operating Handle Grounding
- Represent a significant concern manual operation

of a switch by operator
- Greater Safety switch operating shaft

connect to ground mat
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 49
3. Grounding of Substation Fence
- Fences around substations are usually metallic
- Fence grounding is of major importance

because it is accessible to the general public
- Touch and Step Voltage near fence

should be within the Calculated Tolerable Limit
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 50

125
4. Control Cable Sheath Grounding
- Metallic cable sheaths may attain dangerous voltages

due to insulation failure,
charges due to electrostatic induction
- Cable shield be grounded to provide
Low - resistance bond
and have a continuous short - circuit ampacity
- The sheaths of shielded control cables
should be grounded at both ends
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 51
5. Surge Arrester Grounding
- Surge arresters should always be provided with

a reliable low-impedance ground connection
- Connection as close as possible

to the protected apparatus
and as short and straight as possible
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 52

126
6. Separate Grounds
- Separate grounding electrodes for

Substation Ground Grid
Lightning Protection System
LV System
Communication System
- The practice of having separate grounds

within a substation area is rarely used
as for the following reasons:
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 53
a) Higher resistances
for separate safety and system grounds
are produced than would be the case
for a single uniform ground system.
b) In the event of insulation failures in the substation,

high currents could still flow in the safety ground.
c) Because of a high degree of coupling between

separate electrodes in the same area, the safety objective
of keeping the GPR of the safety grounds low
for line faults would not be accomplished.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 54
127
d) Often dangerous potentials would be possible
between nearby grounded points
because decoupling of the separate grounds is possible,
at least to some extent.
e) Separate grounds can result in

large transient potential differences
between components of electrical equipment
during lightning or other surge events,
causing equipment misoperation or damage.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 55
7. Transferred Potentials
- A serious hazard may result during a ground fault

from the transfer of potential
between the substation ground grid area
and outside locations
- This Transferred Potential may be transmitted by

Communication Circuits,
Conduit, Pipes,
Metallic Fences,
LV Neutral Wires, etc
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 56
128
17 Sample Calculations
The design data
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 1
Example 1 Square grid without ground rods
Step 1 Field Data
- Substation 63 m × 84 m ( 5292 m 2 )
- Initial design assume a square 70 m × 70 m ( 4900 m 2 )
- Average soil resistivity of 400 ɏ - m

«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 2
129
Line to Ground Fault Current Calculation
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 3
For the 13 kV bus fault
- The 115 kV equivalent fault impedances

must be transferred to the 13 kV side
- For delta-wye connection of the transformer

only positive sequence is transferred
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 4
130
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 5
and, hence
3Io = Total Ground Fault Current
The 13 kV bus fault value of 6814 A

should be used to size the grounding conductor
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 6
131
Using Table 10 for fault duration of 0.5 s,
the decrement factor Df is approximately 1.0
thus, the rms asymmetrical fault current is also 6814 A.

This current magnitude will be used
to determine the minimum diameter of ground conductors.
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 7
Assuming the use of copper wire

and an ambient temperature of 40 °C,
Equation (47) and Table 2 are used
to obtain the required conductor cross-sectional area.
For 0.5 s and a melting temperature of 1084 °C
for hard-drawn copper,
the required cross-sectional area in circular mils is
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 8
132
Because
the conductor diameter is approximately 4.7 mm,
or 0.0047 m if it is solid conductor.
Based on this computation, a copper wire
as small as size No. 4 AWG could be used,
but due to the mechanical strength
and ruggedness requirements,
a larger 2 / 0 AWG stranded conductor
with diameter d = 0.0105 m (0.414 in)
is usually preferred as a minimum.
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 9
Consequently, at this stage,

the designer may opt to check if,
alternately, the use of
a less conductive (30%) copper-clad steel wire
and the imposition of a more conservative
maximum temperature limit of 700 °C
will still permit the use of a conductor
with diameter d = 0.01 m.
Using Equation (46) and Table 1 gives
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 10
133
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 11
In this case, d min = 6.2 mm, or 0.0062 m solid conductor,

which is less than d = 0.01 m desired.
Hence, a 30% copper-clad steel wire

of approximately 2 / 0 AWG size is a viable alternative
for grid wires, even if a conservative
maximum temperature limit of 700 °C is imposed.
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 12
134
- For a 0.102 m layer of surface material
Wet resistivity of 2500 ɏ-m
- Earth resistivity of 400 ɏ-m
- The reflection factor K is computed
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 13
Figure 11 indicates for K = – 0.72

the resistivity of the surface layer material
is to be derated by a reduction factor Cs § 0.74.
The reduction factor Cs can also
be approximated using Equation (27)
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 14
135
Assuming that for the particular station
the location of grounded facilities
within the fenced property is such that
the person’s weight can be expected to be at least 70 kg
Equation for 70 kg person may be used
to compute the tolerable step and touch voltages,
respectively, as follows:
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 15
Estep70 = 2686.6 V
Etouch70 = 838.2 V
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 16
136
Step 4 Initial Design
Assume a preliminary layout of 70 m × 70 m grid

with equally spaced conductors, as shown in Figure B.1,
with spacing D = 7 m, grid burial depth h = 0.5 m,
and no ground rods.
The total length of buried conductor,
L T = 2 × 11 × 70 m = 1540 m.
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 17
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 18
137
Step 5 Determination of Grid Resistance
- L T = 1540 m
- A = 4900 m 2
- h = 0.5 m
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 19

- Df = 1.0
- Sf = 0.6
and
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 20
138
Though the 13 kV bus fault value of 6814 A
is greater than the 115 kV bus fault value of 3180 A,
it is recalled from Clause 15 that the wye-grounded 13 kV
transformer winding is a “ local” source of fault current
and does not contribute to the GPR.
Thus, the maximum grid current is based on 3180 A
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 21
Step 7 GPR
- It is necessary to compare the product of IG and Rg
or GPR, to the tolerable touch voltage, Etouch70
- Which far exceeds 838 V

determined in Step 3 as the safe value of Etouch70.
Therefore, further design evaluations are necessary
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 22
139
Step 8 Mesh Voltage
Where
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 23
And
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 24
140
The factor Ki is computed
using Equations
Where
n b = 1 for square grid
n c = 1 for square grid
n d = 1 for square grid
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 25
And therefore
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 26
141
Step 9 Em versus Etouch
- The mesh voltage is higher than
the tolerable touch voltage 1002.1 V
- The grid design must be modified.
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 27
Example 2 Square grid with ground rods
- The preliminary design will be modified

to include 20 ground rods
- Each ground rod 7.5 m
- Around the perimeter of the grid
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 28
142
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 29
Step 1 Field Data
- Substation 4900 m 2
A 2 / 0 AWG ( 67 mm 2 ) Conductor
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 30

143
Estep70 = 2686.6 V
Etouch70 = 838.2 V

with equally spaced conductors, as shown in Figure B.2
and 20 , 7.5 m ground rods along the perimeter
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 31
- For L T = 1540 + (20 x 7.5) = 1690 m

- A = 4900 m 2
- h = 0.5 m
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 32
144
Step 7 GPR
- The revised GPR

GPR = 1908 x 2.75 = 5247 V
- Which is still much greater than 838.2 V.

«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 33
Step 8 Mesh Voltage
Where
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 34
145
And
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 35
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 36
146
Calculation of Step Voltage
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 37
Step 9 Em vs Etouch
- Now the calculation corner mesh voltage
is lower than the tolerable touch voltage
747.4 V vs 838.2 V
Step 10 Es vs Estep
- The computed Es
is well below the tolerable step voltage
548.9 V vs 2686.6 V
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 38
147
- Not necessary

- A safe design has been obtained.
- At this point
all equipment pigtails
additional ground rods for surge arresters
etc
should be added to complete the grid design details
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 39
Example 3 Rectangular grid with ground rods
- The preliminary grid design will be reconciled in terms

of the actual shape of the grounding area
- Full grounding area is only 8 % larger
- Mast of the conclusions from Example 2

can be used for arriving at a suitable final design
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 40
148
- Choosing
Spacing D = 7 m for 63 m × 84 m
- The grid pattern is 10 × 13
- The grid conductor combined length is
(13 × 63) + (10 × 84) = 1659 m
- Assume the use of 38 ground rods

- Ground rods each 10 m long
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 41
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 42
149
Step 1 Field Data
- Substation 63 x 84 = 5292 m 2
with diameter d = 0.0105 m ( 0.414 in )
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 43

Estep70 = 2686.6 V
Etouch70 = 838.2 V

and 38 , 10 m ground rods
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 44
150
- L T = 1659 + 38 x 10 = 2039 m
- A = 63 x 84 = 5292 m 2
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 45
Step 7 GPR
- Using IG = 1908 A
Rg = 2.62 ɏ
GPR = 1908 x 2.62 = 4998.96 V

Which is much greater than 838.2 V
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 46
151
Step 8 Mesh Voltage
- Estimate the corner mesh voltage
n c = 1 for rectangular grid

n d = 1 for rectangular grid
n = 11.29×1.005×1×1 = 11.35
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 47
Now Km is computed using Equation (86) and Equation (88)
Where
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 48
152
Finally, Em
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 49
Step 9 Em vs Etouch
- This calculated mesh voltage is well

below the Etouch70 limit of 838.2 V
- Uses 119 m additional conductor
and 230 m of additional ground rods
- Thus the Mesh Spacing could be increased,
the number and / or length of ground rods
could be reduced,
or both to achieve the same margin of safety as Example 2.
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 50
153
Step 10 Es vs Estep
- The same as demonstrated in Example 2
«¦³· ·Í ¡· ¥¡´ r 51
Example 4 L - shaped grid with ground Rods

- In this example the design of Example 2 is modified
- To illustrate the use of the equations
for an L - shaped grid with ground rods
- The total area and mesh spacing are
the same as that of Example 2
- The ground rods are located only
around the perimeter of the grid
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 52
154
- Figure B.4. L - shaped grid with 24 , 7.5 m ground rods
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 53
- All other parameters are the same

- Thus,
Steps 1 through 4 are the same as Example 2
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 54

155
Step 1 Field Data
- Substation 4900 m 2
- Average soil resistivity of 400 ɏ – m
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 55

Estep70 = 2686.6 V
Etouch70 = 838.2 V

Assume a preliminary layout of 2 ( 35 m × 70 m ) grid
and 24 , 7.5m ground rods along the perimeter
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 56
156
L T = 1575 m + (24)(7.5 m)
= 1755 m
A = 4900 m 2
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 57

Step 7 GPR
The revised GPR
= (1908) (2.74)
= 5228 V
Which is much greater than
The tolerable touch voltage of 838.2 V
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 58

157
Step 8 Mesh Voltage
n , Km , and Ki are computed
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 59
Compute Km
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 60

158
Compute Ki
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 61
Em is computed
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 62

159
Compute Es , Ls and Ks
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 63
Step 9 Em vs Etouch
- The results is close to Example 2

and lower than
the tolerable Etouch70 limit of 838.2 V
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 64

160
Step 10 Es vs Estep
- The computed Es is well

below the tolerable step voltage
determined in Step 3 of Example 1 574.6 V
is much less than 2686.6 V.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 65

- Not required
- A safe design has been obtained

and final details can now be added to the design.
«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 66
161
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ʹߨ ͳ͵ ሺͳͲሻ ሺͲǤͳͷሻ Ͷͺ͸ ൌ
ͶǤͶͺ ൅ ͵Ǥ͵͵ െ ʹሺ͵Ǥͺʹሻ
ୖ୭ୢ ൌ ͵Ǥ͵͵ȳ
‫ ׵‬୥ ൌ ͳǤͻʹȳ
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'ƌŽƵŶĚŶŚĂŶĐĞŵĞŶƚDĂƚĞƌŝĂůdĞƐƚŝŶŐ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ
/ϲϮϱϲϭͲϳ͗ZĞƋƵŝƌĞŵĞŶƚƐĨŽƌĂƌƚŚŝŶŐ ŶŚĂŶĐŝŶŐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚ
>ĞĂĐŚŝŶŐdĞƐƚ͗dŚĞĐŽŶƐƚŝƚƵĞŶƚƐŽĨŝŶƚĞƌĞƐƚƐŚĂůů
ŶŽƚĞǆĐĞĞĚƚŚĞƌĞŐƵůĂƚŝŽŶůŝŵŝƚ͘
^ƵůĨƵƌĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĂƚŝŽŶ͗^ŚĂůůďĞůĞƐƐƚŚĂŶϮй͘
ĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĂƚŝŽŶŽĨZĞƐŝƐƚŝǀŝƚǇ
ŽƌƌŽƐŝŽŶdĞƐƚƐ͗dŚĞƉŽůĂƌŝǌĂƚŝŽŶƌĞƐŝƐƚĂŶƚƐŚĂůů
ďĞƉĂƐƐƚŚĞĐƌŝƚĞƌŝĂƚŽĂǀŽŝĚĐŽƌƌŽƐŝŽŶĚĂŵĂŐĞƚŽ
ĞŶĐĂƐĞĚŐƌŽƵŶĚŝŶŐĐŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌ͘
^ŽůƵƚŝŽŶ
D'/ŶĨŽƌŵĂƚŝŽŶ
Kumwell D'ŝƐĂŶĞĂƌƚŚŝŶŐ ĞŶŚĂŶĐŝŶŐĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚ͕

ƚĞƐƚĞĚĂĐĐŽƌĚŝŶŐƚŽ/ϲϮϱϲϭͲϳĐĞƌƚŝĨŝĞĚďǇ<ZĂŶĚ
ƚŚĞĂƉƉůŝĐĂƚŝŽŶŝƐŝŶĂĐĐŽƌĚĂŶĐĞǁŝƚŚƌĞƋƵŝƌĞŵĞŶƚƐŽĨ
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sĞƌǇ>ŽǁZĞƐŝƐƚŝǀŝƚǇϬ͘ϬϯKŚŵͲŵ
3
;ĨƚĞƌŵŝǆĞĚĂŶĚĐƵƌĞĚͿ
3 WĞƌŵĂŶĞŶƚ
3 DĂŝŶƚĞŶĂŶĐĞ&ƌĞĞ
3 WƌŽƚĞĐƚŽŶĚƵĐƚŽƌƐĨƌŽŵŽƌƌŽƐŝŽŶ
3 ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ&ƌŝĞŶĚůǇ;EŽŶͲdŽǆŝĐͿ
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D'/ŶĨŽƌŵĂƚŝŽŶ
WĂƌĂŵĞƚĞƌ ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƌŝƚĞƌŝĂ D'dĞƐƚ ZĞƉŽƌƚ

ƌƐĞŶŝĐфϱ ƌƐĞŶŝĐфϬ͘Ϯ
>ĞĂĚфϭϬ >ĞĂĚфϬ͘Ϯϯ
ĂĚŵŝƵŵфϮ ĂĚŵŝƵŵфϬ͘Ϭϱ
>ĞĂĐŚŝŶŐdĞƐƚ ĂƌŝƵŵфϭϬϬ ĂƌŝƵŵсϯ͘ϱ
;ŵŐͬŬŐƌǇ DĂƚƚĞƌͿ DĞƌĐƵƌǇфϬ͘ϱ DĞƌĐƵƌǇфϬ͘Ϭϱ
ŚƌŽŵŝƵŵфϮϬ ŚƌŽŵŝƵŵфϭ͘ϳ
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Ϭ͘ϬϯKŚŵͲŵ
ZĞƐŝƐƚŝǀŝƚǇ Ͳ
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dŚĞƉŽůĂƌŝǌĂƚŝŽŶƌĞƐŝƐƚĂŶĐĞƐŚĂůůďĞ
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dĞƐƚZĞƉŽƌƚΘĞƌƚŝĨŝĐĂƚĞ
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/ϲϮϱϲϭͲϳ /ϲϮϱϲϭͲϳ ZĞƉŽƌƚ
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ĞƌƚŝĨŝĐĂƚĞŽĨĐĐĞƉƚĂŶĐĞ
sE^ƵďƐƚĂƚŝŽŶ > dƌĂŶƐŵŝƐƐŝŽŶ>ŝŶĞdŽǁĞƌ
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D'ƉƉůŝĐĂƚŝŽŶĨŽƌ^ƵďƐƚĂƚŝŽŶ
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D'ƉƉůŝĐĂƚŝŽŶĨŽƌ^ƵďƐƚĂƚŝŽŶ
sŝĞƚŶĂŵʹ ŶŽŶϭϭϬŬs^ƵďƐƚĂƚŝŽŶ
ĂƚĞϭϬͬϵͬϮϬϬϵ ĂƚĞϴͬϱͬϮϬϭϱ
ZсϬ͘ϯKŚŵ ZсϬ͘ϱKŚŵ
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D'ƉƉůŝĐĂƚŝŽŶĨŽƌdƌĂŶƐŵŝƐƐŝŽŶ>ŝŶĞdŽǁĞƌ
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> ʹ EĂŵEŐƵŵ ϮϮϯϬŬsdƌĂŶƐŵŝƐƐŝŽŶ>ŝŶĞdŽǁĞƌ
^ŽůƵƚŝŽŶ
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D'ƉƉůŝĐĂƚŝŽŶĨŽƌ/ŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůWůĂŶƚ
sŝĞƚŶĂŵͲ >ŽƚƵƐ^ƚĞĞůDŝůů
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dŚĂŶŬzŽƵ
&ŽƌzŽƵƌƚƚĞŶƚŝŽŶ
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5.seminar Substation

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งานสัมมนาเรือ่ ง

Substation Grounding Design

ณ Kumwell Learning Center

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 2

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 3

Generator voltage 10 - 20 kV to 230 kV

Transmission voltage 230 kV to 115 kV , 500 kV

Subtransmission voltage 69 kV , 115 kV to 24 kV , 22 kV

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 6

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 7

- Air – insulated Substation

- Gas – Insulated Substation

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 8

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 10

- Single Bus , Single Breaker

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 11

Single Bus , Single Breaker

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 12

Two Bus , One Breaker

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 14

Two Bus , Two Breaker

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 16

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 17

Breaker and a Half

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 18

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 22

1 Unequally Spaced Ground Grid Analysis

2 Substation Grounding System Design

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 24

- People often assume that

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 26

- Another substation with very high ground resistance

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 27

- Eg. If a substation is supplied

Most or all of the total ground fault currant

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 28

- If a shield wire , neutral wire are used

provide a low impedance

The rise of local ground potential is of lesser magnitude

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 30

the effect of that portion of fault current

that enters the earth within the substation area

should be further analyzed

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 32

- During typical ground fault condition

- Fig 3 shows the effect for a substation

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 33

- The maximum potential gradients along the earth’s

- The dangerous voltage

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 34

4 Range of Tolerable Current

- Effects of an electric current

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 36

- Human body can Tolerate a slightly higher current

at 25 Hz and approx 5 times at D.C.

- At Frequency of 3000 Hz to 10000 Hz

higher currents can be tolerated

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 38

The shock currents must be kept below this value

by a carefully designed grounding system

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 39

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 40

«. ¦³­· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 41

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 2

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 3

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 6

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 7

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 8

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 10

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 11

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 12

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 14

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 16

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 17

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 18

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 22

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 24

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 26

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 27

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 28

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 30

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 32

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 33

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 34

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 36

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 38

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 39

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 40

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 41

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 42

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 45

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 46

range 500 to 3000

- A value of 1000 which represents

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 49

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 50

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 51

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 55

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 56

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 57

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 58

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 59

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 62

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 63

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 65

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 66

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 67

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 69

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 70

«. ¦³· Í · ¡·¥¡´ r 72