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LET Reviewer-ENGLISH
LECTURE NOTES
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
The communication process is indeed a paradox. We always communicate with each other, yet defining the
process itself seems to be a very difficult task. Language of different historical periods, in their dire attempts to
bridge the gap, were able to formulate their own theories to explain the process of communication, Since the
linear representation of Aristotle to the complex depiction of modern linguist, we can say that this endeavor has
come a long way.
Renowned linguist have different points of view about the communication process, and this diversity proves to
be the fuel that keeps linguist of today on taking forward steps en route to the better understanding of this process.
Two to be discussed in this chapter, each representing the traditional and the contemporary schools of thought
as regards communication. Berio’s representation, being the most widely cited and extensively use model, will
be discussed to explain in the basic components of the communication cycle, while the Dance Helix model will
be clarified to give a fresh and novel perspective on the practice of other long-standing theories.
Berios’Model
David Berios’s paradigm of the communication process is considered one of the most recognizable
representations. It has four major components: source, receiver, message, and the channel. That is why at times
this model is also called SMRC.
SOURCE MESSAGE
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
CONTENT
ATTITUDES
TREATMENT
KNOWLEDGE
CODE
SOCIAL SYSTEM
CULTURE
RECEIVER
CHANNEL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
SEEING ATTITUDES
HEARING KNOWLEDGE
TOUCHING SOCIAL SYSTEM
SMELLING CULTURE
TASTING
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SMRC’s linearity is oftentimes criticized, but Berio’s elucidations regarding the significance of each component
redeem it all. According to him, the interlocutors’ ( source and receiver) , and attitude are
communication skills, knowledge, socio-cultural system, and attitude are important for successful
communication to take place ( Berio, 1960). For example, if the source has a higher level of language proficiency
compared to the receiver, or vice versa, then problems are expected. Refer to the sample conversation below and
then try, to figure out what caused the lapse in communication.
Conversation Sample
Situation: The immigration officer is interviewing a tourist about the latter’s whereabouts.
Specifications: The immigration officer is a native speaker, while tourist is a beginner learning of English
language.
Immigration Officer: Good morning, Miss! May I know your travel itinerary?
Tourist: Oh, I see. Actually I plan to go to the Metropolitan Museum and to the Museum of Modern Art, and
maybe stay for another two days in New York City before flying to Florida.
In the sample conversation above, the difference between the proficiencies of the interlocutors led to lapses in
communication. It is also noticeable that success of the process relies largely on the one who has higher
proficiency. Since the tourist has limited vocabulary (being a beginner), the immigration officer paraphrased
the statement to fit the level of the tourist.
Discrepancy between knowledge of the interlocutors also poses great treat. Read the sample conversation below
and try to cite some reasons for the communication breakdown.
Conversation Sample
Specifications: Both the client and the technician have the same language of proficiency.
Client: Good morning! May I ask why my laptop shouts down automatically just right after turning it on?
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Technician: I think your laptop has been infected by Trojans and worms…
Technician: Yes. By the way, do you do defragmentation every once in a while? Doing so greatly helps the
performance of your computer.
Technician : Defragmentation. Anyway, to fix your laptop, I will just rebot and reformat everything, is that ok
with you?
Client: I am not really familiar with you are saying. So fix it and send me the Bill Ok?
In conversation above, the technician uses jargon exclusive to those who are adept in the computers and
information technology. For someone who is not really into the technicians of computer software and hardware
nomenclature, understanding what the technician is saying poses great difficulty that can later on lead to
communication breakdown.
Learning the English language circles around the Three Sets of Four, and below is a table that summarizes these
sets.
LISTENING
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Experts say that listening is the first language skill that students learn. If we are to think about it, this
claim may be true. Upon hearing things, the one can speak-just like how we learned our first utterances.
Parents keep on repeating words until the babies initiate and repeat the utterances successfully (
behaviorist). But is listening as easy as it may sound?
Reacting Responding
The receiving of the message from the source signals is the start of listening process. The listener, then, will
decode the message and select important parts of the message that will help the listener in interpreting it. Based
on the interpretation, the receiver now comprehends the message and retains information needed for him to react
and respond.
Kinds of Listening
This type of listening is very common at times done in an informal setting. This happens when
persons listen to each other for the purpose of communicating and empathizing. At times, the aim
of this type of listening is to accomplish tasks or to come up with something.
In classroom setting, this is when students listen to each other for them to able to accomplish given
tasks and activities.
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Transactional/Critical Listening
In this type of listening, the listener is concerned with acquiring new knowledge for the purpose of
improving his skill in generalizing and decision making.
In a classroom setting, this is when the students listen to their teacher to gain more knowledge
Joan Morely in her essay “Aural Comprehension, instruction: principles and Practices” made mention of the
three modes of listening, namely: Undirectional, Birectional, and Autodirectional.
Bidirectional If the listening process is reciprocal-meaning, two way ( indicated by prefix “bi”)
SPEAKING
Language and language learning developed as fast as civilization. In the olden times, man used language merely
for survival-now, language functions as one important medium of change and innovation.
But the question still remains… what is language? Language was defined by Webster as the expression and
communication of emotions or ides between human beings by means of speech and hearing that is systematized
and confirmed by usage among a given people over a period of time. If we are to look a Webster’s definition can
infer that there are only two functions of language.
The first one is to express how one feels ( emotions); and the second one is to express how one thinks (ideas).
He also mentioned two important factors of language speaking (speech) and listening (hearing). The two word
systematized in Webster’s definition can also be related to grammar-meaning it follows certain rules and
systems, and lastly, he also mentioned”period of time”, which can be interpreted as the changes language goes
through with me.
Webster’s definition is in line with the structurist’s. For them language follows a system-meaning, one cannot
just mix letters to form words. X,Y, K, and D cannot be combined to form a meaningful word-well, at least in
English. In the sentence” she is pretty,”it will be erroneous if one will change “is” to “are”. These instances are
the bases of the structurist in saying that language is a system. They also believes that language is primary vocal,
is another claim of the structurists. For them, and other Webster, speaking and listening are important language
skills. They also adhere to the concept that language is arbitrary. For them, language constantly goes through
series of innovations developments, and changes. The word “thee”, “thou”, “growist”, and hath” are no longer
used today. This is one proof that language, just as other things, constantly changes.
The cognitivist, however, believe that language is a mental phenomena. For them, language learning is innate
in the individual. According to them, there is one part in our brain called LAD (language acquisition device) that
is responsible for language acquisition. If we are to analyze their definition, we can infer that language (for them)
is not learned but acquired. The difference of learning from acquiring is that learning is voluntary while acquiring
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is involuntary. We choose to learn, but we no choice what to acquire. We acquire traits from our parents, but we
learn how to solve math problems.
The functionalist have rather functional definition about language. For them language performs specific
functions, such as to express, to persuade, to give or ask information, and to make someone to do something.
Most people will agree with this definition, because practically these functions are what language is really for.
The behaviorists also have their own definition of language. For them, language is learned through imitation,
repetition, and reinforcement. If a teacher teaching grade one pupils will ask her students to say word the she
does, then pupils learned( imitation). If the teacher will ask the same pupils to repeat saying the world over and
over again, then the pupil will be punished. On the other hand, if the pupil were able to say it correctly, then
he/she will receive a prize. Given the two instances above, then the pupils learned ( reinforcement)
THE SEGMENTALS
According to the structurist, language is primarily vocal, but the question is-how to speak properly? Is it merely
opening and closing the mouth? Or is there a complex process that guides speech production? In this action, you
will know how the speech mechanism works.
Consonant sounds can be classified according to the three dimensions: the place of articulation (where the sounds
is made), the manner of articulation (how the sounds is made), and voicing (voiceless or voiced).
Manner of Articulation
Stops/Plosives
These are sounds produced when the air stream is compressed and passes through a small creating friction. The
sounds F,V,S,Z,H,TH ( voiced) and voiceless), Sh Zh, are the members of this group.
Affricates
These are sounds produced when a plosive is followed by a fricative. Ts ( Ch), and Dz (J) are the members of
this group.
Nasals
Nasal sounds are produced when the oral cavity is blocked, and so the air passes through the nose. N, M, and Ng
are nasal sounds.
Liquid/Lateral
Sounds are produced when air stream moves around the tongue in an unobstructed manner. Sounds like L and R
are examples.
Glides
Glides are sounds that are close to vowel sounds, like W and Y.
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Point of Articulation
Voiced or Voiceless
A sound is voiced if the vocal cords vibrate, whereas a sound is voiceless if the vocal cords are not vibrating
upon the production of sounds.
Consonant Chart
Place of Articulation
Manner
Bilabial Labio Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Dental
Stop TD KG
Fricative FV Th SZ SH ZH H
(voiced
and
voiceless
Affricate TS DZ
Nasal M N NG
Loud L R
Glide W Y
VOWELS
Vowels sounds are produced with one’s mouth open. It is also a fact that all vowel sounds are voiced sounds can
be classified according to the height of the tongue and jaw, and the way the mouth opens.
SPREAD
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/i/ Long/i/sound as in “phoenix” and “beat”
/l/ Short /l/ sound as in “bit”, “captain”, “pin”, and “maariage”
/e/ Soft /e/ sound as in “hate”, “mate”, “grape”, and “gate”
/E/ Hard /E/ sound as in “let”, “set”, “any”, and “ jeopardy”
/ae) Combination of /a/ and /e/ as in “family”, “man”, “anger”, and
“hamburger”
NEUTRAL
ROUND
Juncture
Juncture is defined as the pauses and rests in a given speaking discourse. It is commonly represented by a single
slash(/) for short pauses, double slashes (//) for long pauses, and three slashes(///) for rests at the end of the
paragraph
Pitch
This is the highness or lowness of sound
Volume
This is the loudness or softness of sound
Intonation
This is the rising and falling sound
Stress
This is the placement of emphasis or force on certain words or syllables
READING
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Jean Chall, Proposes skills that are essential for real reading to take place. She said that there are five skills that
a student must have like.
Chall also constructed a matrix of stages of reading development. She states that there are six stages namely:
Stage 4 Multiple Viewpoint Stage and Stage 5 Construction and Judgment Stage
After reading a text, if students were able to give their opinions they belong to the fourth stage. On the other
hand, if students were able to criticize a particular text, and in turn were able to write their own, they belong to
fifth stage
Purpose of Reading
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WRITING
The Paragraph
The paragraph is defined as a group of unified, coherent, well-developed sentences that are properly and logically
organized to support one specific idea or topic.
Based on the given definition, we can infer that it is important for a paragraph to have Unity, Coherence, logical
Organization, support or Development, proper Emphasis, and one governing and limiting topic sentence-
“UCODE TS”
Based on the diagram below, we can say that a paragraph is unified if all the sentences are about the topic
sentence. It has coherence if all the sentences are connected with each other properly and logical and coherent
order.
S2
S1 Topic Sentence
S3
S4
GRAMMAR
Part of Speech
NOUNS
A noun names something- person, place, things, events, phenomena, emotions, etc.
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Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper nouns- names of specific persons, things, or places
2. Common nouns- refer to any one of a class of persons, places, or things
3. Count nouns- nouns that can be counted and quantified using numbers
4. Non count nouns Mass nouns- nouns that cannot be counted and quantified using measurements
- Mass nouns, abstract nouns, events, occasions and phenomena are under noon count nouns.
5. Collective nouns- nouns that name a group of persons or things
6. Compound nouns- nouns that are made up of two words acting as a single unit.
- Compound nouns may be written as separate words hyphenated words, or combined words.
PRONOUNS
Kinds of Pronouns
1. Personal pronouns- these are pronouns that refer to the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the
person or thing spoken about.
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I ( Subjective) WE ( Subjective)
ME ( Objective) US ( Objective)
SECOND PERSON YOU YOU
Examples:
Possessive Adjective: This is my book ( “my” qualifies the book)
Possessive Pronoun: This book is mine. (‘mine” represents the owner of the book)
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SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON MYSELF OURSELVES
SECOND PERSON YOURSELF YOURSELVES
THIRD PERSON HIMSELF THEMSELVES
ITSELF
ONSLELF
Example:
REFLEXIVE INTENSIVE
The pronoun refers to the subject The pronoun shows emphasis
a. I see myself in his actions a. I, myself is the culprit
b. Did you teach yourself? b. You, yourself teach
c. He cut the paper himself c. He, himself cut the paper
d. They were shocked about themselves d. They themselves were shocked
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
WHO HOW TO WHOM
WHAT WHOM TO WHAT
WHICH WHOSE TO WHICHWHERE
WHY WHEN
ADJECTIVES
An adjective qualifies and tells something about a NOUN or PRONOUN through descriptions.
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How much?
Comparison of Adjectives
Order of Adjectives
Descriptive Adjectives
determiner observation origin material qualifier noun
size shape age color sports Car
An Expensive Red European Necklace
An Extrai- Daisies
ordinary
Six Long White american Hair
stemmed
Her shiny Short Black Dog
My Big Old German Boxes
Those Long Ceramic jewelry Locket
That Smooth Big Insects
Few Tiny African gold Films
Some Erotic Indian
VERBS
Oftentimes. Verbs are defined as action words. But reality, verbs are far more than that. Verbs also link ideas in
a sentence, help other verbs, and state conditions. We can classify verbs into (1) verbs actions, (2) linking/be
verbs, (3) helping verbs, (4) emphatic verbs, and of course, (5) modals.
Action Verbs
These are verbs that express action. A majority of verbs are of this nature, and that is why most of the time,
learners tend to define verbs as action words. Words like run, walk, talk, sing, dance, etc. are common examples
of action verbs. We can further classify actions verbs into two more sub classifications-Regular and Irregular
verbs.
Regular verbs
Action verb is considered regular if its past form is derived by adding d or ed. Let us take the word walk for an
example; the past form of walk is walked.
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Pick Picked
Save Saved
Irregular verbs
Action verb is considered irregular if its past form is derived not by adding d or ed, but through a change or
through retention in spelling.
Linking verbs
Examples:
She is beautiful---She is a pronoun, and beautiful is an adjective.
She is beautiful---She is singular, that is why we used “is”
Examples:
Appear Seem Feel Look
Smell Sound Taste
Examples:
Lie Remain
Rest Stand
Examples:
Become Come Fall
Get Go Grow
Turn
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These are also called helping verbs because they always appear with another verb in a sentence ( main verb).
Linking verbs such as is, was, were, are considered auxiliary verbs if they appear together with a for a s verb in
progressive form. Other helping verbs are has, have, and had.
The verb has is used for singular subjects in the present tense. The verb “have” is used for plural subjects in the
present tense, and had is used doe both singular and plural subjects in the past tense. Has, have and had, are also
considered Auxiliary verbs if they appear in a sentence with another verb( main verb) in the past participal form.
Example:
She has taken a bath already the verb”has” functions as an auxiliary
Emphatic Verbs
Emphatic verb are used to give certain emphasis. These verbs are do, does, and did. Do is used for plural subjects
in the present tense. DOES is used for singular subjects in the present tense, and DID for both plural and singular
in the past tense.
The verbs, DO,DOES, and DID can also be used as main verbs. They are only considered em phatic verbs if
they appear in a sentence with another verb in its base form.
Example:
She did not drink her milk ----- DID is used as an emphatic verb
Modals
According to Celece-Muria, modals are helping verbs that are used to give a proposition. A degree of probability,
to express one’s attitude, and to perform various social functions such as expressing politeness or indirectness
when making request, giving advice, or grabting permission. It is always couples with a verb on its base form.
a. Stating Ability
I can do anything
b. Expressing Regret
I should have loved you
c. Giving warning
You may be in danger
e. Expressing observation
You must do this
ADVERBS
Adverb of Manner
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This answers the question how a thing is done
Example:
He did the job poorly
Question: How did he do the job?
Answer: Poorly
Adverb of Time
Adverb of Frequency
PREPOSITION
A preposition links words with a sentence. It also states how two separate things are related. A preposition may
indicate a location, direction, possession, or cause.
Common Prepositions
CONJUNCTION
If prepositions link words within a sentence, conjunctions relate or join words into single unit.
Correlative Conjunctions- connect words under the same grammatical structure, but they always appear in pairs.
Examples: either….or, neither… nor
Subordinating Conjunctions- connects two complete ideas to make one dependent to other.
Examples: inasmuch as, whenever, unless
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INTERJECTION
These are words that express strong feelings or emotions. They may function as an independent sentence with
the speaker as the subject.
Examples: ouch, aha, alas, oh, hurray
Collective Nouns
These nouns can either take a singular or plural verb depending on how they are used in a sentence. On the other
hand, if a collective noun is perceived as one entity, then it would take a singular verb. On the other hand, if a
collective noun is perceived as individuals the group, it will take a plural verb.
Examples: Our debate team has won the competition
Our debate team have won all their battles
Nouns ending in s and ics are always paired with verbs in the singular form
Examples: Mathematics is my favorite subject
Measles is a dangerous disease
Compound Nouns
Compound subjects joined by a conjunction take plural verbs.
Examples: Paul and Robin are brothers
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As well and Together with
The verb must agree with the first noun (subject).
Example: the president, together with his advisers, is leaving tomorrow
Tenses
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Past Perfect Progressive Tense
This expresses two past actions, where the first one was still happening when the second one transpired.
Example: She had been singing before the bomb exploded.
SUMMARY SUMMARY
Present I dance
Past I danced
Future I will dance
Present Progressive I am dancing
Past Progressive I was dancing all afternoon yesterday
Future Progressive I will be dancing
Present Perfect I have danced
Past Perfect I had danced before I sang
Future Perfect I will have danced before I sing
Present Perfect Progressive I have been dancing since then
Past perfect Progressive I had been dancing when the bomb exploded
Future Perfect Progressive I will have been when the party ends
Faulty Modifiers
Sentence
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Interrogative- used in asking questions
- Ends with a question mark
Example:
Who are you?
What is the capital city of Hungary?
Example:
Go away
Turn around
Write your name
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Compound- Complex- composed of two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses
Examples:
LITERATURE
Introduction to Fiction
FICTION
Fiction is a prose imaginative composition which may or may not be based on history or fact.
Short story- a relatively brief prose fictional composition based in a single main incident which is designed to
produce a single dominant impression.
Novel- a prose fictional work of considerable length that deals with a series of complications involving characters
in a particular setting.
Drama- a composition in prose or verse designed for stage performance through mine and dialogue.
Element of Fiction
Plot
The plot is a series of events knit together following the principle of cause and effect. It is also deemed to be an
arrangement of incidents, the narrative structure, the organization of a narrative, and the logical sequence of
actions. A plot can be arranged and organized in two ways, the first one is through Chronology-which means
that the events are arranged according to time and space, and the second one is through Climax-which means
that the events are organized according to order of suspense.
There are also two types of plot, the first one is called organic, which means the story sprouted from just one
conflict; and the second one is episodic, which means there are two or more sources of conflicts.
Conflict
Conflict is considered as the soul of the plot, and it is the tension between opposing forces in the story. It can be
external, which means that conflict is from outside forces; or internal which means the conflict resides the main
character.
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Social- man vs. man
Psychological- man vs. self
Cosmic- man vs. God
Character
Characters in the story are the moral agents of actions. They are the invented personages in fiction.
There are two types of characters namely major and minor. Under major characters, we have the protagonist,
who is the central character where the story revolves; and the antagonist, who prevents the protagonist in solving
the conflict. Under minor characters we have foil, who has the opposite traits of the main protagonist; the
confidant, who serves as the friend of the protagonist; and the background characters, who are not closely related
with the protagonist.
We also have two kinds of character. The first one is round, which means the character was able to undergo
change, while the second one is called flat, which means there was no change in the outlook and action of
character.
Setting
The setting serves as the background of the story, may it be physical, mental, or spiritual. It serves as the backdrop
and sets the mood of the characters. There are three elements of setting. The first one is time, which sets the
duration of the events; next is place, which talks about the locally; and the third one is atmosphere, which is the
emotion or the mood.
Theme
Theme is considered as the central message of the story. It is the universal truth expressed in the text.
Point of View
This pertains to the vantage point where the story is narrated. Below are the different types;
FIRST person- a principal character in the story is the one narrating it.
SECOND person (unlimited)- an indirect disclosure of the narrating self for characterization and analysis
THIRD person-(limited) also known as the central intelligence point of view; the author choose a character from
whose consciousness the entire story is told
CAMERA EYE- presents the dialogues, and the incidents of a narrative like a mechanical recording device.
REVOLVING-characterized by a narrative shift from one point of view to another
COMPOSITE point of view-gives a comprehensive view of the events and incidents in the story through the
different angles adapted by several narrating characters
Figurative Language
1. Synecdoche-an association of some important part with the whole it represents.
Example: the face who launched a thousands ships
2. Simile- an indirect association
Example: she like a flower
3. Personification-given human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc.)
Example: the sun is looking down on me.
4. Oxymoron- a self-contrasting statement
Example: Loud silence
5. Metonymy- an association wherein the name of something is substituted by something that represents it.
Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate
6. Metaphor- a direct comparison
Example: you are the sunshine of my life
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7. Irony- the contrast between what was expected and what actually happened
Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break
8. Hyperbole- an exaggeration
Example: Cry me a river
9. Euphenism- Creating a positive connotation out of something negative.
Example: Loved child (illegitimate child)
10. Ellipsis- omission of words in a sentence
Example: She walked away and so the world turns…
11. Asyndeton- Not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions)
Example: No retreat, no surrender
12. Apostrophe- A direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away
Example: Love, please come and take me.
WORD LITERATURES
WORKS AUTHORS
The Epic of Gilamesh LEQI-UNNINNI, SCRIBE (700BCE)
Lliad HOMER, (800 BCE)
Odyssey
The Analects CONFUCIUS (551-479 BCE)
The Oresteia AESCHYLUS (496-406 BCE)
Agamemnom
Theban Plays: SOPHOCLES (496-406 BCE)
Oedipus Rex
Oedipus at Colonus
Antigone
Alcestis EURIPIDES 9484-406 (BCE)
Medea
Hippolytus
The Trojan Women
Electra
The Histories HERODOTUS (484-425 BCE)
The History of the Pelipennesian War THUCYDIDES (470-400 BCE)
The Art of War SUN-TZU (450-380 BCE)
Lysistrata ARUSTOPHANES (448-388 BCE)
The Clouds
The Birds
The Republic PLATO (428-348 BCE)
Ethics ARISTOTLE ( 384-322 BCE)
Politics
Poetics
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The Aeneid VIRGIL (70-19 BCE)
Mediations AURELIUS, MARCUS (121-180)
The Confessions SAINT AGUSTINE (354-430)
The Cloud Messenger KALIDASA (400)
Sakuntala/Shakuntala
The Koran MUHAMMAD (650)
The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriach HUI-NENG (638-713)
Shah Nameh FIRDAUS (940-1020)
The Pillow Book SEI SHONAGON (965-1035)
The Tale of Genji ( First Novel in the world) MURSAKI, LADY SHIKIBU (976-1015)
The Rubaiyet KHAYAM, OMAR (1048)
The Divine Comedy ALIGHIERI, DANTE (12655-1321)
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms KUAN-CHUNG, LUO (1330-1400)
The Canterbury Tales CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (1342-1400)
1001 Nights/Arabian nights ANONYMOUS (1500)
The Prince MACHIAVELLI, NICOLO (1469-1527)
Gargantua and Pantagruel RABELAIS, FRNCOIS (1483-1553)
Journey to the West WU CHE’ENG-EN (1500-1582)
Essays-Apology for Raymond Sebond MONTAIGNE, MICHEI (1533-1592)
Don Quixote SAAVEDRA. MIGUEL DE CERVANTES (1547-1616)
Romeo and Juliet SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)
Much Ado About Nothing
Twelfth Knight
Merchant of Venice
Devotions DONNE, JOHN (1573-1631)
Sermons
First and Second Anniversaries
Dialogue Concerning The Two Chief World GALILEI, GALILEO (1574-1642)
Systems
Leviathan HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1
Discourse on Method DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)
Paradise Lost MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674)
Lycidas
Areopagitica
The School for Wives MOLIERE (1622-1673)
Rartuffe
The Would-Be Gentleman
Thoughts PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
Pilgrims BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688)
Second Treatise of Government LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
The Narrow Road to the Deep North BASHO, MATSU (1644-1694)
Robinson Crusoe DEFOE, DANIEL (1660-17310
Gulliver’s Travel SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667-1745)
Candid VOLTAIRE (1694-17178)
An Enquiry Concerning Human HUME,DAVID (1711-1776)
Understanding
Tom Jones FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754)
Confessions ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
The Social Contact
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Tristram Shandy STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768)
The Life of Samuel Johnson BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795)
Basic Documents in American History JEFFERSON, THOMAS
Faust WOLFGANG VON GOETHE, JOHANN
A Poison Tree BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827)
The Prelude WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770-1850)
The Ancient Mariner COLEERIDE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834)
Christabel
Kublai Khan
Pride and Prejudice AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817)
Emma
The Read and the Black STENDHAL (1783-1842)
Pere Goriot DE BALZAC, HONORE (1799-1850)
Eugenie
Cousin Bette
Self Reliance EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882)
The Scarlet Letter HAWTHORNE,NATHANIEL (1804-1864)
Democracy in America DE TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS (1805-1859)
On Liberty MILL.JOHN STUART (1806-1873)
The Subjection of Women
The Voyage of the Beagle DARWIN, CHARLES (1809-1859)
The Origin of the Species
Dead Souls GOGOL, NIKOLAI (1809-1882)
The Cask of Amontillado POE, EDGAR ALLAN (1809-1849)
Annabel Lee
Vanity Fair THACKERY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE (1811-1863)
Pickwick Papers DICKENS, CHARLES (1812-1870)
The Tale of Cities
A Christmas Carol
David Copperfield
Great Expectations
The Warden TROLLOPE, ANTHONY (1815-1882)
Jane Eyre BRONTE, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855)
Wuthering Heights BRONTE, EMILLY (1818-1848)
Walden THROREAU, HENRY DAVID (1817-1862)
Civil Disobedience
Fathers and Sons TURGENEY, IVAN (1818-1883)
The Communist Manifesto MARX, KARL (1818-1883)
Moby Dick MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1891)
The Mill on the Floss ELIOT, GEORGE (1819-1880)
Middlemarch
Silas Marner
Leaves of Grass WHITMAN, WALT (1819-1892)
Madame Bovary FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880)
Crime and Punishment DOSTOYEVSKY, FYDOR (1821-1880)
Brothers Karamazov
War and Peace TOLSTOY, ELO (1828-1910)
Annakarenina
The Soul Selects Her Society DICKENSON, EMILY (1830-1886)
26
A Dimple in the Tomb
Huckleberry Finn TWAIN, MARK (1835-1910)
Tom Sawyer
The Mayor of Casterbridge HARDY, THOMAS (1840-1928)
The Interpretation of Dreams FRUED, SIGMUND (1856-1939)
Uncle Vanya CHEKOV, ANTON (1860-1904)
Three Sisters
The Cheery Orchard
The Age of Innocence WHARTON, EDITH (1862-1937)
The House of Mirth
The Road Not Taken FROST, ROBERT (1874-1963)
Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening
A Passage of India FORSTER, E.M (1879-1970)
Ulysses JOYCE, JAMES (1882-1941)
Mrs. Dalloway WOOF, VIRGINIA ( 1882-1941)
To the Lighthouse
Orlando
Sons and Lovers LAWRENCE, DFAVID HERBERT (1885-1930)
Lady Chatterley’s Lover
The Fox
A long Day’s Journey into the Night O’NEIL, EUGENE (1888-1953)
Mourning Becomes Electra
Waste Land ELIOT,T.S (1888-1965)
Brave New World HUXLEY, ALDOUS ( 1894-1963)
The Sound and the Fury FAULKNER, WILLIAM (1897-1962)
A Rose for Emily
Old Man and the Sea HEMINGWAY, ERNEST (1899-1962)
1984 ORWELL, GEORGE (1903-1950)
Animal Farm
The English Teacher NARAYAN, R.K
Waiting for Godot BECKETT, SAMUEL (1906-1989)
One Hundred MARQUEZ, GABRIEL GARCIA (1928-PRESENT)
Love in the Time of Cholera
Things Fall Apart ACHEBE, CHINUA (1930-PRESENT)
No longer At Ease
Sula MORRISSON (1931-PRESENT
The Beloved
Jazz
Song of Solomom
WORKS AUTHORS
Magnificence and other stories ALFON, ESTRELLA
The Knifed Horizon ANGELES, CARLOS
A Stun of Jewels
How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife ARGUILLA, MANUEL
and Other Stories
27
Sunflower Poems AYALA, TITA LACAMBRA
The Archipelago BAUTISTA, CIRILO
Telex Moon
Sunlight on Broken Stones
What is an Educated Filipino BENITEZ, FRNCISCO
Dead Stars BENITEZ, FRNACISO
Stepping Stories
Half a Life
The Living and the Dead BRILLANTES, GREGORIO
A Wind Over the Earth
Distance to Andromeda
America is in the Heart ( Autobiographical) BULOSAN, CARLOS
The Laughter of My Father
The Voice of Bataan
The Power of the People
People in the War CORDERO-FERNANDO, GILDA
The Visitation of the Gods
The Butcher, The Baker, and the Candlestick
Maker
The Wedding Dance DAGUIO, AMADOR
No Certain Weather DEMETILLO, RICARDO
Barter in Panay
Daedalus and OtherPoems
Masks and Signatures
The Devil Flower ENRIQUEZ, EGMIDIO ALVAREZ DEMETILLO,
House of Images RICARDO
Palabas: Essays on Philippine Threater FERNANDEZ, DOREEN
Poems in Spanish and Ilocano FLORENTINO, LEONA
Now and at the Hour FORD, AIDA RIVERA
Fire Poem/Rain Poem GAMALINDA, ERIC
Popular Delusions
Planet waves
Poems GLORIA, ANGELA MANALANG
The Winds of April GONZALES N.V.M
A Season of Grace
Seven Hills Away
Children of the Ash-Covered Loam
The Bamboo Dancers
Children of the City GUERRERO, AMADIS MA
Dogeaters HAGEDOREN, JESSICA
Gangster of Love
Encanto IGLORIA, MARIA LUISA
Blood Sacrifice
Juanita Crus JALANDONI, MAGDALENA
Ang Dalaga sa Tindahan
Ermita JOSE, FRANCISO SIONIL
Poon
My Brother, My Executioner
The Woman Who Had Two Navels JOAQUIN, NICK
Summer Soistice
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May Day Eve
Small Key LATORENA, PAZ
Desire
Sunset
Literature and Society LOPEZ, SALVADOR
Reevaluation LUMBERA, BIENVENIDO
Abot-Tanaw
My humble Opinion NAKPIL, CARMEN GUERRERO
Women Enough
The Virgin POLOTAN-TUVERA-KERIMA
The Hand of the Enemy
IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
EXPRESSION MEANING
Come hell of high water I am by your side come hell or high water.
This means the speaker would not leave the one he/she
is speaking with no matter what happens
Put your finger in the pie To finish the task at a much earlier time, everyone must
put his/her finger in the pie.
It means they must do their share in a particular task.
Be in the limelight The soprano did her best to be in the limelight.
It means to be at the center of everybody’s attention.
Flogging a dead horse Rallies and mass demonstrations against the RH law are
like flogging a dead horse.
It means that the work being done is futile.
Bring home the bacon The speech coach cheered his contestants. He said
“Bring the bacon!”
It means that he wants the team to win.
29
Between the devil and the deep blue sea This situation is hopeless!. It is like the devil and the
deep blue sea.
This situation is at its worst and the resolution is seen to
be unpleasant.
In your face The debater was criticized straight in her face.
To state something in an aggressive manner.
Under the weather She did not attend her class. She said that she feels under
the weather.
The person is sick.
Back to square one Her efforts are wasted since she is back to square one.
The person has to start again from the beginning.
Hold your horses The commandant reminds his team hold their horses
until the right time comes.
Be patient.
Tickled your horses The news tickled her pink.
Made one every happy.
When pigs fly There is no chance of us being husband and wife, unless
when pigs fly.
Impossible to happen.
At the pink of health She looks beautiful and well rested. I assume she is at
the pink of health
Good health.
Phrasal Verbs
Add up Add
Bring about Cause to happen
Bring up Raise
Call off Cancel
Carry on Continue
Back up Support
Bring off Accomplish
Carry out Complete
Count in Include
Cut down Reduce
Fill out Complete (printed form)
Fill up Complete ( container0
Hang up Suspend
Hold up Rob
Pay off To complete payment
Touch up Repair
Turn down Refuse
Throw over Reject
Save up Accumulate
Put off Postpone
Down play Diminish
Figure out Understand
Breakdown Analyze
30
Practice Test
Vocabulary:
31
b. at ease d. inspired
Subject-Verb Agreement
16. Everybody in the gymnasium _____ frustrated when the candidate did not appear in public.
a. was b. were
17. A bag of candies and a bottle of coke ____ on the table.
a. Is b. are
18. That _____ seem correct.
a. don’t b. doesn’t
19. Either the boys or girls _____ here.
a. is b. are
20. The number of teacher in the school ____ from year to year.
a. vary b. varies
21. One-third of the classroom_____ under water.
a. was b. were
22. She is one of those honor pupils who always _____ into confusion.
a. get b. gets
23. Each of the members of the club _____ a duty to perform.
a. Have b. Has
24. Mrs. Tecson’s creativeness and concern _____ well appreciated.
a. is b. are
25. There ____ many pupils here.
a. Is b. are
26. Many years of his life _____ spent in province
a. Was b. were
27. No one ____ at home.
a. is b. are
28. My leg and my arm _____ aching.
a. Is b. are
29. She _____ to read novels.
a. like b. likes
30. There _____ eight men in the game.
a. is b. are
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36. Chris was a limb in the group during the disco party.
a. simile c. hyperbole
b. metaphor d. litotes
37. Her lips are as cold as ice
a. simile c. personification
b. metaphor d. synecdoche
38. James was crushed by the death of Kris.
a. simile c. hyperbole
b. personification d. metaphor
39. Her skin is as white as onion
a. simile c. hyperbole
b. metaphor d. litotes
40. She has the King Solomon ideas.
a. Simile c. metaphor
b. Hyperbole d. personification
IV. Vocabulary
33
51. He hasn’t come yet
a. he’ll come later c. he won’t come
b. we won’t wait for him d. he will never come
52. You will sprinkle the flower once a day
a. change c. cut
b. water d. throw
53. These fish are fresh
a. cooked c. cheap
b. newly caught d. rotten
54. The light is dim
a. off c. colored
b. not bright d. very bright
55. The ants are motile
a. small c. numerous
b. movable d. big
56. How do you address a Christmas card where the husband is a Doctor of Philosophy and the wife is an
attorney? Which is the right form?
a. Dr. and Atty. Ben Marquez
b. Dr. Ben Reyes and Atty. Rose Reyes
c. Dr. Reyes and Atty. Reyes
d. Dr. and Mrs. Ben Reyes
57. Writing to your superior, what complimentary wending should be used?
a. truly yours, c. Yours truly,
b. very truly yours, d. Truly very your’s
58. Choose the proper use of everyday.
a. You find this headline everyday.
b. You find this headline everyday in the newspapers.
c. You don’t find the issue clear everyday.
d. I read the issue everyday
59. Which declaration shows determination?
a. What an embarrassing situation!
b. I have good words for you.
c. This time, I won’t stop teaching.
d. I will still think about it.
60. When you are writing to someone you hardly know, the salutation should be
a. My dear Mrs. Ponce
b. Dear Mrs. Ponce
c. To ever dearest Mrs. Ponce
d. My ever dearest Mrs. Ponce
61. “Early to bed, early to rise, keeps a man healthy, wealthy, and wise” means
a. sleep early and wake up early so you will become wealthy
b. Develop healthy habits of going to bed early and getting
c. Sleeping is the root of making wealth
d. Sleeping will give you a healthy mind.
62. “Tell me who your friends are and I’ll tell you who you are” means
a. You are the judges as to who your peers are.
b. Your friends are your everyday companions.
c. You choose your friends.
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d. Tell me who you to be with.
63. Which of this word are synonymous with settlement?
a. Autonomy c. Accord
b. Breakthrough d. Policy
64. What does it mean by saying “Not all close eyes are asleep”.
a. Not all eyes are blind.
b. The eyes seem to be closed, yet she knows what’s going on.
c. When we sleep sometimes we open our eyes.
d. Sleeping is not always closing our eyes.
65. What is meant by live within your means?
a. Grow as your live
b. Liking is the means of growing.
c. Spend according to your income.
d. Growing is the means to live.
66. “ I am the master of my fate, I am the captain of my soul” was written by
a. Henley c. Elliot
b. Dickens d. Shelley
67. “ A thing of beauty is a joy forever” expressed the philosophy of
a. Spencer c. Elliot
b. Keats d. Tennyson
68. America’s greatest humorist
a. Benjamin Franklin c. Washington Irving
b. Mark twain d. Samuel Clemens
69. A long narrative poem dealing with persons of heroic proportion and actions of great significance
a. Ballad c. Sonnet
b. Epic d. Elegy
70. Considered the father of the modern American short story
a. Shakespeare c. Edgar Allan Poe
b. Bacon d. Robert frost
71. It is a Japanese poem with 17 syllables.
a. Niponggo c. Canto
b. Haiku d. Tanaga
72. A collection of literary pieces
a. Prose c. Anthology
b. Biography d. Diary
73. Verse with 14 iambic pentameter lines
a. Epic c. Verse
b. Sonnet d. Prose
74. Longest epic ever written
a. Invictus c. Mahabharata
b. Lam-ang d. Lament
75. Stories that reflect people’s beliefs and are handed from generation to generation
a. Prose c. Poetry
b. Folktales d. Ballad
76. These are not tales making use of animals as characters
a. Myths c. Fables
b. Legends d. Fiction
77. Known for his pen name “Dolores Manapat”
a. Antonio Luna c. Gracianio Lopez Jaena
b. Marcelo H. del Pilar d. Andres Bonifacio
78. Filipino essayist an Patriots who edited and published “La Solidaridad”
35
a. Apolinario Mabini c. Jose Rizal
b. Andres Bonifacio d. Marcelo H. del Pilar
79. His words were the source of inspiration for the poem “ Like the Molave”
a. Mabini c. Quezon
b. Carlos Romulo d. Rizal
80. A poem lamenting the dead
a. Sonnet c. Elegy
b. Ode d. Satire
81. Represent of a thing or ideas of a person
a. hyperbole c. Heroic Couplet
b. Allusion d. Personification
82. A speech by a person who reveals his thoughts
a. Sonnet c. soliloquy
b. Metaphor d. simile
83. Figure of speech where two different things are compared thru the use of “as” and “like”
a. simile c. facsimile
b. allegory d. epic
84. Author of “ how My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife”
a. Manuel Arguilla c. Paz Benitez
b. Fernando maramag d. None of these
85. These stories, which reflect the people’s belief, are handed down from one generation to another by
word of mouth.
a. novels c. prose
b. folktales d. poetry
86. A type of literature which narrates heroic deeds and supernatural happenings with local color and
which people sing or chant
a. epic c. verse
b. poetry d. riddles
87. He wrote the famous letter “ To the Women of Malolos”
a. Gregorio del Pilar c. Jose Rizal
b. Andres Bonifacio d. Emilio Jacinto
88. A kind of literary piece which moralizes and was written in letter from between two sisters dwelling in
the city ad the other in the province.
a. urbana at Felisa c. Manang Biday
b. Pasyon, religious play d. None of these
89. How is the author of “The legend of sleepy Hollow” which revolves around a headlines horseman’s tale
a. George Washington c. Washington Irving
b. Robert Surtess d. Shakespeare
90. Considered as one of the world’s greatest short stories and it is Edgar Allan Poe’s story of terror about a
hypochondriac living in morbid fear.
a. Annabel Lee c. Macbeth
b. The fall of the house of Usher d. The Raven
91. He is Edmond Rostand’s famous character who is a poet and a soldier noted for his peculiar nose.
a. Roxanne c. Ichabod
b. Don Quixote d. Cyrano de Bergerac
92. “If eyes are made for seeing, then beauty is its own excuse for being “- is taken from the poem’
a. The bells c. Don juan
b. Sonnet d. Rhodora
93. A great epic poem whose plot centers around the anger and wrath of Achilles against Agamemnon, a
geek leader
a. Bernardo Carpio c. The Odyssey
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b. The Iliad of Homer d. Myth
94. “I am the master of my fate, I am the captain of my soul”,, is taken room the poem
a. O Captain, my captain
b. Invictus
c. The arrow and the Song
d. None of these
95. He was the American President who said: “Ask not what America will do for you, but what together we
can do for the freedom of man.”
a. Gerald Ford c. Harry Truman
b. F. Roosevelt d. Abe Lincoln
96. The speech of Abe Lincoln which end, thus; “That the government of the people, by the people, for the
people, shall not perish from the earth.” – is in his famous
a. farewell Address at Sprinfield
b. Inaugural Address
c. Address at Gettysburg
d. None of these
97. The figure of speech, which uses exaggerated statement for aesthetic reason.
a. Alliteration c. Hyperbole
b. Onomatopoeia d. Metaphor
98. His famous work is Mona Lisa
a. Jose Rizal c. Juan Luna
b. Leonardo da Vinci d. Pavarotti
99. The famous painting Juan Luna made
a. Spolarium c. Rice Paddies
b. Bahag-hari d. Sunset
100. The stature of David was created by
a. Sigfried Vandike c. Michelangelo
b. Vincent Gogh d. Andre Warbol
LET Reviewer-Filipino
LECTURE NOTES
Wika
“…Maari nating hiramin sa loob ng isang panahon ang wika ng ibang bayan, ngunit hindi tayo tunay na
makapag-aangkin ng isang wikang pambansa maliban sa pamamagitan ng pagpapatibay, pagpapaunlad at
paggamit ng isang wika na sariling atin.” (Manuel L. Quezon)
Parang hininga ang wika, sa bawat sandali ng buhay natin ay nariyan ito. Palatandaan ito na buhay tayo, at may
kakayahang umugnay sa kapwa nating gumagamit din nito. (Bienvenido L. Lumbera)
37
Ang wika ay isang panlipunang penomenon. Ibig sabihin, mahalaga ito hindi lamang s indibidwal kundi lalo na
sa lipunang kanyang kinabibilangan. (Pamela C. Constantino)
Mahalagang kasangkapan ng panlipunang kapital ang wika na ang gamit ay gawing episyente o mabisa ang mga
transaksyon sa isang ekonomiya. (Tereso Tullao, Jr.)
Ponolohiya
Patern o kumbinasyon ng mga tunog sa loob ng isang wika
Ponema – pinakamaliit ngunit pinakamakahulugang yunit ng tunog ng isang wika.
Mataas i () u
Gitna e o
Mababa a
Ang /i/, halimbawa, ay tinatawag na mataas-harap sapagkat kapag binibigkas ito, ang harap na bahagi ng dila
ang gumagana na karaniwan ay umaarko nang pataas.
38
May limang pangunahing patinig ang wikang Filipino: ang /a/. /e/, /i/, /o/, at /u/. Gayon man, mapapansing
isinama sa tsart ang ponemang () (schwa) na gamitin sa Pangasinan, ilang pook sa Ilokos, Maranaw, at iba pang
lugar sa Pilipinas.
Sa maraming katutubong wika ng Pilipinas at maging sa wikang Filipino, mga allophone, o maaaring
mapagpalit-palit, ang mga tunog ng /e/ at /i/, gayon din ang mga tunog ng /o/ at /u/. Tulad nito:
Mga Diptonggo
Tumutukoy ang diptonggo sa mga pinagsamang tunog ng isang patinig (a, e, i, o, u) at isang malapatinig (w, y).
Nasa ibaba ang tsart ng mga diptonggo sa wikang Filipino.
Mataas iw, iy uy
Gitna ey oy, ow
Mababa ay, aw
Mga Klaster
Ang mga klaster o kambal-katinig sa Filipino ay dumarami dahil sa pagpasok ng ng mga salitang Ingles sa sa
wikang Filipino. Ang klaster ay ang magkakabit na dalawang magkaibang katinig sa isang pantig.
Mga halimbawa:
39
Tono
Tinutukoy ang tono sa paraan ng pagbigkas na maaaring malambing, pagalit, mabilis na parang nagmamadali,
mahina at iba pa. Naiiba-iba ang tono o pagtaas at pagbaba ng tinig sa wikang Filipino batay sa iba’t ibang
layunin at damdamin ng nagsasalita. Halimbawa maiiba-iba ang intonasyon sa sumusunod na pangungusap ayon
sa inihahayag na emosyon ng nagsasalita. Basahin ang mga pangungusap batay sa ipinahahayag na emosyon:
Diin
Ginagamit sa gramatikang ito ang dalawang magkahiwalay na bar (/ /) upang maglaman ng notasyong ponemik
na sisimbolo sa paraan ng pagbigkas ng isang salita. Ginagamit din ang tuldok / . / upang matukoy ang pantig o
silabol ng isang salita na may diin (stress). Ito ay nangangahulugan naman ng pagpapahaba ng pantig na laging
may kasamang patinig. Tulad ng sumusunod kung saan may diin at pinahahaba ang pantig na sinusundan / . /:
/kasa.ma/* = companion
/kasama/ = tenant
/magnana.kaw/ = thief
/magna-na.kaw/ = will steal
/magna.nakaw/ = will go on stealing
Punto at Intonasyon
Tumutukoy ang punto sa kakaibang pagbigkas ng isang grupo ng mga tao. Halimbawa sa rehiyong Tagalog,
iba-iba ang punto ng mga Batangenyo, Kabitenyo, taga-Quezon, Rizal, Bataan, at iba pang nasa Katagalugan.
Sa pagsasalita pa lamang, madaling matukoy kung saan nagmula ang isang tao, lalo pa’t gumagamit siya ng “Ala
e!” kung taga-Batangas, ng “Aru!” kung taga-Queson at iba pa. Ang ilang lugar naman sa Cebu na gumagamit
ng “Agi!”
Hinto
Ito ay ang pagtigil sa pagsasalita na maaaring panandalian (sa gitna ng pangungusap), o pangmatagalan (sa
katapusan ng pangungusap). Sa pasulat na komunikasyon, sinisimbolo ng kuwit (,) ang panandaliang paghinto
at ng tuldok (.) ang katapusan ng pangungusap.
Halimbawa
(Tinutukoy si Juan Carlo Jose at sinasabi ang kanyang buong pangalan. Maaaring itinuturo lamang si Juan Carlo
Jose, o maaari rin namang kaharap siya ng mga nag-uusap.)
(Kausap ang isang lalake na Juan Carlo ang pangalan. Ipinakikilala sa kanya si Jose, o kaya’y itinuturo si Jose.)
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Alpabetong Filipino
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, Ň, NG, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z,
Sa 28-letrang ito ng alpabeto, 20 letra ang nasa dating ABAKADA (A, B, K, D, E, G, H, I, L, M, N, NG, O, P,
R, S, T, U, W, Y), at 8 letra ang dagdag dito (C, F, J, Ň, Q, V, X, Z) na galing sa mga umiiral na wika ng
Pilipinas at sa iba pang wika.
Ang ngalan ng mga letra. Ang tawag sa mga letra ng alpabetong Filipino ay ayon sa tawag-Ingles maliban sa Ň
(enye) na tawag-Kastila.
Silabikasyon
Sa kasalukuyan ay may mga kayarian ng pantig na ambag ng mga lokal na wika at panghihiram.
Ang pagtukoy sa pantig, gayundin sa kayarian nito, ay sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng simbolong K para sa
katinig at P para sa patinig. Narito ang ilang halimbawa ng mga pantig.
Kayarian Halimbawa
P u-pa
KP ma-li
PK is-da
KPK han-da
KKP pri-to
PKK eks-perto
KKPK plan-tsa
KKPKK trans-portasyon
KKPKKK shorts
Palabuuan ng Salita
1. Morpolohiya – ito ay sistema ng pagsasama-sama ng mga morpema sa pagbuo ng mga salita sa isang
wika. Pag-aaral ng mga morpema ng wika.
Payak ang anyo ng salita kapag binubuo ito ng salitang-ugat lamang, tulad nito:
41
Maylapi ang anyo ng salita kapag binubuo ito ng salitang-ugat at panlaping maaaring ilagay sa unahan
o hulihan ng salitang-ugat. Dahil sa panlaping nag-uuri, nagkakaroon ng iba’t ibang kahulugan ang
salita, tulad ng makikita sa loob ng parentesis:
-an
4. gantihang kilos
Halimbawa: tulakan, tulungan, kuwentuhan
-in
ka-
tag-
1. nagsasaad ng panahon
Halimbawa: tag-init, tag-ulan, tag-araw
42
-in / -hin + su : silanganin, kanluranin, artistahin
(nangangahulugan ng pagtataglay ng katangiang
inihuhudyat ng salitang-ugat ang lahat ng panlaping ito)
maka- + su : makabayan, makabago, makamanggagawa
(mahilig, kampi, may malasakit)
mala- + su : malabituin, malasanto, malatelenobela
(tila, parang, halos)
pala- + su : palaluto, palabasa, palabati, palakain
su + -in : sakitin, bugnutin, magagalitin
(may tendensi, ugali o pagkamahilig)
ka- + su : kalahi, kasukat, kakulay
(kaisa, katulad)
su + -an/-han : noohan, pangahan, ilongan, matahan
(labis ang laki, malaki sa karaniwan)
-al : emosyonal
uwal/-wal : aktuwal/aktwal
-ante : importante, bastante
Inuulit ang anyo ng salita kapag inuulit ito ng parsyal o buo, tulad nito:
Tambalan ang anyo ng salita kapag binubuo ito ng dalawang salitang maaaring magkaroon ng ibang
kahulugan kapag pinagsama. May gitling (-) sa pagitan ng dalawang salitang pinagtambal subalit taglay
pa rin nito ang kani-kanilang kahulugan. Wala nang gitling ang dalawang salitang pinagtambal kung
nagkaroon na ito ng pangatlong kahulugan.
Halimbawa:
balat + sibuyas : balat-sibuyas (sensitibo)
ningas + kugon : ningas-kugon (mabuti lamang sa simula)
kapit + tuko : kapit-tuko (di humihiwalay)
palabat + bunga : pabalat-bunga (pakitang-tao)
isip + lamok : isip-lamok (kahinaan ng pag-iisip, di nag-iisip)
boses + ipis : boses-ipis (mahinang-mahina ang boses)
bahaghari
dalagambukid
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Mga Panlaping Makadiwa o Panlaping Ginagamit sa Pagbuo ng Pandiwa
Pagbabagong Morpoponemiko
Karamihan sa mga pagbabago sa anyo at bigkas ng mga salita ay sanhi ng pagdaragdag ng panlapi o
pagsasama ng dalawa o higit pang morpema upang bumuo ng salita. Ang nagaganap na pagbabago ay
tinatawag na pagbabagong morpoponemiko.
44
Pagdaragdag paalala + han = paalalahan; paalalahan + an = paalalahanan
Pag-aangkop hintay + ka = teka
Maaari rin ang katamtamang antas sa pamamagitan ng pag-uulit ng salitang-ugat o dalawang unang
pantig nito.
Halimbawa: Malayu-layo rin ang kanilang bagong bahay.
Sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga salitang lubha, masyado, totoo, talaga, tunay, ubod ng, hari at
iba pa.
Halimbawa: Talagang maaasahan ang kaibigan kong iyon.
Tunay na mahal ang mga bilihin ngayon.
Antas ng Hambingan
2. Pasukdol – panlaping ginagamit sa pagbuo ng pasukdol na anyo ng pang-uri ay ang pinaka- at ka- -
an.
Halimbawa: Pinakamabili ang tinda nilang paputok.
Kasuluk-sulukan ang kanilang pinuntahang bahay.
Pokus ng Pandiwa
Ito ay tumutukoy sa makahulugang ugnayan ng pandiwa at ng paksa ng pangungusap. May pitong (7)
uri ng pokus ang pandiwa.
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1. Pokus sa Tagaganap/Aktor – ang paksa ay ang tagaganap ng kilos na ipinahihiwatig ng pandiwa.
Mga panlaping ginagamit: mag-, um-/um, mang-, maka-, at makapag-
Halimbawa: Sumalok ng tubig ang bata.
2. Pokus sa Layon – binibigyang-diin sa pangungusap ay ang layon. Mga panlaping ginagamit: i-, -
an, ma, ipa, at –in.
Halimbawa: Isinalok ng bata ang timba.
3. Pokus sa Ganapan – binibigyang-diin ng paksa ay ang lugar o ang ganapan ng kilos. Mga panlaping
ginagamit: pag-…-an/-han, mapag-…-an/-han, at pang-..-an/-han
Halimbawa: Pinagsalukan ng bata ng tubig ang balon.
4. Pokus sa Tagatanggap – ang paksa ay ang tagatanggap o ang pinaglalaanan ng kilos na ipinahahayag
ng pandiwa. Mga ginagamit na panlapi: i-, ipang-, at ipag-.
Halimbawa: Ipinangsalok niya ng tubig ang ama.
6. Pokus sa Direksyon – ang paksa ng pangungusap ay ang direksyon o tinutungo ng kilos na isinasaad
ng kilos. Mga panlaping ginagamit: -an/-han.
Halimbawa: Pinagsalukan ng bata ng tubig ang balon.
7. Pokus sa Sanhi – ang paksa ng pangungusap ay ang dahilan o sanhi ng kilos. Mga panlaping
ginagamit: i-, ika- at ikapang-.
Halimbawa: Ikinatakot ng bata ang pagkaubos ng tubig.
Aspekto ng Pandiwa
Ang aspekto ay ang katangian ng pandiwa na nagsasaad kung nasimulan na o hindi pa ang kilos. Ang
mga pandiwa sa Filipino ay nababanghay sa tatlong aspekto.
1. Perpektibo/Pangnagdaan – ang kilos ay nasimulan na o natapos na. Maaari rin itong magsaad ng kilos
na katatapos lamang. Nabubuo ito sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng unlaping ka- at pag-uulit ng unang
katinig at unang patinig o unang patiniog lamang ng salitang-ugat.
Halimbawa: Nagtinda siya ng isda sa palengke.
Katitinda lang niya ng isda sa palengke.
2. Imperpektibo/Pangkasalukuyan – ang kilos ay nasimulan na at ipinagpapatuloy pa.
Halimbawa: Nagtitinda siya ng isda sa palengke.
3. Kontemplatibo/Panghinaharap – ang kilos ay di pa nasisimulan.
Halimbawa: Magtitinda siya ng isda sa palengke.
Ang paningit o ingklitik ay katagang isinisingit sa pangungusap upang higit na maging malinaw ang
kahulugan nito.
Halimbawa: ba, kasi, kaya, daw/raw, din/rin, ho, lamang/lang, man, muna, na, naman, nga, pa, pala,
sana, tuloy, at yata.
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Ang batayang pangungusap sa Filipino ay binubuo ng dalawang panlahat ng bahagi—ang panaguri at
ang paksa.
2. Panaguring Panghalip
Halimbawa: Sila ang kamag-anak ko.
Tayo ang maghahatid ng sulat.
3. Panaguring Pang-uri
Halimbawa: Malungkot ang buhay sa Dubai.
Mahal ang nabili kong damit.
4. Panaguring Pandiwa
Halimbawa: Tumalon ang bata.
Pumitas ng talbos si Joan.
5. Panaguring Pang-abay
Halimbawa: Ngayon ang alis namin.
Ganito ang paluluto ng yema.
Ng at Nang
Gamit ng NG
47
ginagamit bilang pang-ukol na ang katumbas ay sa
Halimbawa: Magsisiuwi ng Pilipinas ang magagaling na doktor.
Gamit ng NANG
ginagamit bilang pang-abay na nanggaling sa “na” na inangkupan ng “ng” kayat nagiging “nang”
Halimbawa: Nagbalita nang malakas ang aking kaibigan sa opisina.
May at Mayroon
Gamit ng May
Pangngalan
Halimbawa: May batang nahulog.
Pandiwa
Halimbawa: May sasayaw na babae mamayang gabi.
Pang-uri
Halimbawa: May bagong bahay na nasunog.
Panghalip na paari
Halimbawa: May kanya-kanya tayong alam.
Pantukoy na mga
Halimbaa: May mga batang pupunta dito mamaya.
Pang-ukol na sa
Halimbawa: May sa-kalabaw ang boses ng taong iyan.
Gamit ng Mayroon
Subukin at Subukan
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subukin – “pagsusuri o pagsisiyasat sa uri, lakas o kakayahan ng isang bagay o tao.”
subukan – “tingnan kung ano ang ginagawa ng isang tao o ng mga tao.”
Halimbawa: Subukin mong gamitin ang sabon na ito.
Sunubukan nila ang disiplina ng mga mag-aaral.
Pahirin at Pahiran
Walisin at Walisan
Maliban at Bukod
maliban – (except o aside) may kahulugang matangi sa bagay na binanggit ay wala nang iba.
bukod – (in addition to o besides) karagdagang sa mga bagay na binanggit.
Halimbawa: Maliban sa lupa, wala na siyang maiiwan sa nag-iisang anak.
Bukod sa lupa, may bahay pa siyang maiiwan sa nag-iisang anak.
Kung at Kong
Gamit ng Kung
Gamit ng Kong
49
ginagamit kapag ang nauunang salita ay nagtatapos sa patinig. Ang w at y ay itinutuing na malapatinig.
Samakatuwid, ang rin, raw, roon ay ginagamit kapag ang sinusundang salita ay nagtatapos sa mga titik
na ito.
Halimbawa: Himala rin ang kailangan niya.
Kaliwete raw ang dalaga.
Umuwi roon ang kanyang asawa.
Ika at Ika-
Gamit ng ika
Gamit ng ika-
ginagamit ang ginitlingan na “ika” bilang panlapi kung mismong bilang ang isusulat.
Halimbawa: ika-25 ng Enero
Ika-5 taon
Maka at Maka-
Gamit ng maka
ginagamit ang “maka” na walang gitling kung pangngalang pambalana ang kasunod na salita
Halimbawa: Naglunsad ng poetry reading ang mga makabayan.
Gamit ng maka-
ginagamit ang may gitling na “maka-“ kapag sinusundan ng pangngalang pantangi
Halimbawa: Maka-Nora ang mga nanonood ng kanyang mga pelikula.
Gawin at Gawan
Wika
Seksyon 6. Ang wikang pambansa ng Pilipinas ay Filipino. Samantalang nalilinang ito, ito ay dapat na
payabungin at pagyamanin pa salig sa umiiral na wika sa Pilipinas at sa iba pang mga wika.
Alinsunod sa mga tadhana ng batas at sang-ayon sa nararapat na maaaring ipasya ng Kongreso,
dapat magsagawa ng mga hakbangin ang Pamahalaan upang ibunsod at puspusang itaguyod ang paggami ng
Filipino bilang midyum ng opisyal na komunikasyon at bilang wika ng pagtuturo sa sistemang pang-edukasyon.
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Seksyon 7. Ukol sa mga layunin ng komunikayon at pagtuturo, ang mga wikang opisyal ng Pilipinas ay Filipino
at, hangga’t walang ibang itinatadhana ang batas, Ingles.
Ang mga wikang panrehiyon ay pantulong na mga wikang opisyal sa mga rehiyon at magsisilbi na
pantulong na mga wikang panturo roon.
Dapat itaguyod nang kusa at opsyonal ang Kastila at Arabic.
Seksyon 8. Ang Konstitusyong ito ay dapat ipahayag sa Filipino at Ingles at dapat isalin samga pangunahing
wikang panrehiyon, Arabic at Kastila.
Seksyon 9. Dapat magtatag ang Kongreso ng isang komisyon ng wikang pambansa na binubuo ng mga
kinatawan ng iba’t ibang mga rehiyon at mga disiplina na magsasagawa, mag-uugnay at magtataguyod ng mga
pananaliksik sa Filipino at iba pang mga wika para sa kanilang pagpapaunlad, pagpapalaganap at pagpapanatili.
Pagbasa
Ang pagbasa ay isang masalimuot na prosesong pangkaisipan kung saan ang mambabasa’y aktibong
nagpaplano, nagdedesisyon at nag-uugnay ng mga kasanayan at istratehiyang nakatutulong sa pag-
unawa.
Ang pagbasa ay isang kompleks na gawaing kinapapaloooban ng may kamalayan at walang kamalayang
paggamit ng iba’t ibang estratehiya, kasama na ang mga estratehiya sa paglutas ng suliranin upang
makabuo ng modelo ng kahulugang ninanais ipahatid ng awtor (Jonhston, 1983).
Ang pagbasa’y proseso ng pamimili ng mga pahiwatig pangwika batay sa ekspektasyon ng bumabasa.
Habang ang bahagi ng impormasyon ay nakikilala, nakagagawa ang mambabasa ng pansamantalang
desisyon o hinuha na patutunayan niya, iwawaksi o pagtitibayin habang bumabasa (Kenneth Goodman,
1976).
Dahil magkaugnay ang pagbasa at pag-iisip, binanggit ni Mikuleckey (1990) ang ginawang pagtutulad
nina Kintsch at Van Dijk (1978), Rumelhart at Ortony (1977) at Winograd (1977), sa pagbasa sa
pagpoproseso ng impormasyon upang maunawaan kung paano nag-iisip at umuunawa ang isang tao.
Ayon sa kanila, dalawang aspekto ng “human information processing system” ang nagkakatulungan
kapag nagbabasa ang isang tao:
o Concept Driven o Itaas-Pababa – kapag ang bumabasa ay higit na nakatuon sa kug ano ang alam
niya upang maintindihan ang binabasa.
o Data Driven o Ibaba-Pataas – kapag higit na umaasa ang bumabasa sa mga impormasyong
tekstwal.
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5. Pagbuo ng konklusyon
6. Pagbibigay ng sanhi at bunga
7. Pagkakasunud-sunod ng mga ideya
8. Paglalagom
9. Pagtukoy at pagpapahalaga sa katangian ng tauhan
10. Pagsusuri ng mga impormasyon
11. Pagpapakahulugan sa matatalinghagang pahayag
12. Pagpapakahulugan sa mga pahiwatig ng pahayag
13. Pagtukoy sa magkakaugnay na ideya/konsepto
14. Pagtukoy sa suliraning tinutukoy sa binasa
15. Pagbibigay reaksyon sa himig at tono ng seleksyon
Proseso ng Pagbasa
Ginagalugad ng mambabasa ang mga nakaimbak o nakalagay niyang network ng mga abstraktong ideya
sa kanyang isipan upang humanap ng iskema na tumutugma sa mga elemento o impormasyong taglay
ng teksto (Anderson, 1985).
Habang bumabasa, patuloy na naaapektuhan ng makabuluhang iskemang nagising ang pagpoproseso ng
impormasyon. Sa pamamagitan ng nagising na iskema, naghihinuha ang mambabasa ng mga
impormasyong semantika, sintaktika at leksikal upang makabuo ng kahulugan.
Metakognisyon sa Pagbasa
Komunikasyon
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Aktibong proseso ng paghahatid at pagkuha ng mensahe at tugon (feedback) sa pamamagitan ng
interaksyon ng tagahatid at tagatanggap.
Ang komunikasyon ay ang pagpapahayag, pagpapahatid o pagbibigay ng impormasyon sa mabisang
paraan. Ito ay isang paraan ng pakikiugnayan, pakikipagpalagayan, o pakikipag-unawaan.
Ang komunikasyon ay proseso ng pagbibigay (giving) at pagtanggap (receiving).
Kung kahulugang komunikatibo ang susuriin sa isang pahayag, tiyak na iuugnay ito sa tungkulin ng
komunikasyon at ang kaugnay na gawi ng pagsasalita tulad ng ipinakikita ng sumusunod na tsart ni
Gordon Wells.
Panitikan
Ang salitang Tagalog na “panitikan” ay galing sa unlaping PANG- (na nagiging PAN- kapag ang
kasunod na ugat ay nagsisismula sa d, l, r, s, t); sa ugat ng TITIK (letra) na nawawalan ng simulang T
sa pagkakasunod sa PAN-; at sa hulaping –AN, samakatwid: pang * titik * an.
Ang salitang ito ang panumbas ng Tagalog sa “literatura” o “literature” na parehong batay sa ugat na
Lating “litera” na ang kahuluga’y “letra” o titik.
Ayon kay Hno. Azarias, sa kanyang aklat na “Pilosopia ng Literature”, ang Panitikan ay pagpapahayag
ng mga damdamin ng tao hinggil sa mga bagay-bagay sa daigdig, sa pamumuhay, sa lipunan at
pamahalaan, at sa kaugnayan ng kaluluwa sa Bathalang lumikha.
“Nasusulat na tala ng pinakamabuting kaisipan at damdamin ng tao.” (W.J. Jong)
Anyo ng Panitikan
Matandang Panitikan
Pasalita – kabilang sa panitikang hindi nakasulat ang mga pahayag na binubuo ng maiikling taludturan
tulad ng salawikain, kasabihan, bugtong, mga talinghaga at mga awiting-bayan.
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Pasulat – sa paglipas ng panahon, ang panitikang ito’y nagpasalin-salin sa bibig ng mga mamamayan;
ito ay napagyaman, hanggang sa naging maunlad ang panulatan at palimbagan at napatala na sa mga
aklat – mga akdang kababakasan ng nakalipas na panahon..
Salawikain o Sawikain at Kasabihan – karamihan sa mga ito ay may impluwensya ng Arabe, Malay at ng
Indo-Tsina.
Salawikain o Sawikain – nagtataglay ng talinghaga. Nagsisilbing mga panuntunan sa buhay – mga bata ng
kaugalian at patnubay ng kagandahang-asal. Binubuo ito ng mga taludtod na karaniwa ay dadalawa, may sukat
at tugma at nagbibigay-aral.
Halimbawa:
Sabi o Kasabihan – hango sa karunungan ng matatandang may mga karanasan sa buhay. May himig paalaala,
kung minsa’y parang nanunudyo, ang mga ito’y hindi gumagamit ng malalalim na mga talinghaga. Payak
lamang ang kahulugan ng mga ito na kasasalaminan din ng gawi at ugali ng tao.
Halimbawa:
Kuwalta na
Naging bato pa.
Bugtong, Talinghala, Tanaga – sa aklat na Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (1754) nina Padre Juan de Noceda
at Pedro de San Lucar, maraming maiikling matulaing pagpapahayag na kinabibilangan ng bugtong, talinghaga,
at tanaga.
Bugtong – tugmang naghahamon sa tao na mag-isip nang madalian nang walang pagbabatayan kundi ang
inilalarawan ng mga salita. May layunin itong mapasigla ang guniguni at mapatalas ang isip.
Halimbawa:
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Magdamag inilibot. Punung-puno ng patalim.
(BUWAN) (BIBIG)
Talinghaga – isang payak na metaporang may walong pantig sa bawat taludtod. Ito ay may sukat at tugma.
Halimbawa:
Tanaga – ayon kina Noceda at Sanlukar, isang tulang may apat na taludtod na pipituhing-pantig at naghahamon
din sa isip.
Halimbawa:
Halimbawa:
Awiting-bayan – tulad ng alinmang tula, ang mga ito ay may sukat at tugma. Di nakilala ang mga kumatha ng
maraming awiting bayan.
Epiko – mga tulang-salaysay tungkol sa mga bayani at sa kanilang kabayanihan. Ang mga bayaning ito ay tila
mga bathala sa pagtataglay ng kapangyarihan. Ang mga epiko ay paawit kung isalaysay. Sinasabing ang mga
epiko ng mga Bisaya, Tagalog, Iluko, Ifugao, at Bikol ay napasulat sa Alibata, samantala ang epiko ng Mindanao
ay nakasulat sa Sanskrito.
Halimbawa:
1. Hudhud (Ifugao)
55
2. Ibalon (Bikol)
3. Biag ni Lam-ang (Ilokano)
4. Maragtas (Hiligaynon-Iraya)
Akdang Panrelihiyon
1. Doctrina Cristiana – Ito ang kauna-unahang aklat na nilimbag sa Pilipinas. Nilimbag ito sa
pamamagitan ng silograpiya noong 1593.
2. Nuestra Señora del Rosario – sinulat ito at inilimbag ni Pari Blancas de San Jose, O.P., noong 1602 sa
Imprenta ng Santo Tomas.
3. Barlaan at Josaphat – sinulat ito ni Pari Antonio de Borja, S.J., at inilathala noong 1708 at muli noong
1712. Ito ay batay sa sa mga salaysay mula sa Bibliya. Ipinalalagay na ito ang kauna-unahang nobelang
Tagalog kahit salin lamang.
4. Pasyon – sa panahon ng kuwaresma, ang buhay at pagpapakasakit ng Panginoong Hesukristo ay inaawit.
5. Mga Dalit kay Maria – sabayang inaawit bilang handog kung buwan ng Mayo sa pag-aalay ng bulaklak
sa Mahal na Birhen.
Pari Modesto de Castro – dahil sa kanyang Urbana at Feliza, tinagurian siyang “Ama ng Tuluyang Klasika sa
Tagalog.”
Ang Dula
Panunuluyan – isang uri ng dulang pangrelihiyon na namalasak noong panahon ng Kastila. Ang pinakadiwa
nito ay ang paghahanap ng bahay na matutuluyan ng mag-asawang San Jose at Birheng Maria noong bisperas
ng Pasko.
Senakulo – isang uri ng dulang makarelihiyon na ang pinakamanuskrito ay ang pasyon. Itinatanghal ito kung
Mahal na Araw, kadalasa’y nagsisimula sa Lunes Santo at nagtatapos ng Biyernes Santo, kung minsan pa’y
umaabot ng Linggo ng Pagkabuhay. Ito ay itinatanghal sa entablado. Tinatawag din itong “pasyon sa
tanghalan”.
Moro-Moro – itinatanghal sa entablado. Dalawang pangkat ang naghaharap dito: ang mga Kristiyano at ang
mga moro. Tinawag itong comedia de capa y espada na sa kalauna’y naging kilala sa palasak na tawag na “moro-
moro”. Nasusulat sa anyong tula, pumapaksa sa paglalaban ng mga Kristiyano at mga di-Kristiyanong tinawag
ng mga Kastilang “moro”. Laging magtatagumpay ang mga Kristiyano sa mga paglalaban.
Tibag – ito ay may kaugnayan sa senakulo sapagkat ito ay nauukol sa paghanap sa krus na kinamatayan ni Kristo
sa bundok ng Kalbaryo. Ang mga tauhan dito ay sina Emperatris Elena at ang kanyang anak na si Emperador
Constantino. Tinawag na tibag sapagkat ito ay nauukol sa pagtibag ng bundok ng Kalbaryo sa paghanap ng
krus.
Ang unang tula sa Tagalog ay sinulat ni Tomas Pinpin at kasamang inilimbag sa kanyang aklat na Librong Pag-
aaralan nang manga Tagalog sa Uicang Castila. Ang tula ay binubuo ng magkasalit na taludtod sa Tagalog at
Kastila sa layuning matutuhan ang Kastila.
Felipe de Jesus – ipinalalagay ng mga mananaliksik na ang kritikong si Felipe de Jesus ng San Miguel, Bulakan,
ang unang tunay na makatang Tagalog.
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Mga Tulang Romansa
Kurido - tulang pasalaysay na may sukat na walong pantig sa taludtod at may mga paksang kababalaghan at
maalamat (karamiha’y halaw at hiram sa paksang galing sa Europa) na dala rito ng mga Kastila. Inaawit ito
nang mabilis o “allegro”. May walong pantig ang taludturan. (Halimbawa: Ibong Adarna).
Awit – isang uri ng tulang binubuo ng labindalawang pantig bawat taludtod ng isang saknong at kung inaawit
ay marahan o “andante”. (Halimbawa: Florante at Laura)
Jose de la Cruz (1740 – 1829) – kilala sa sagisag na Huseng Sisiw. Siya ang kauna-unahang mag-aayos ng
tula. Tinawag siyang Huseng Sisisw sapagkat sisiw ang karaniwang pabuya na ibinibigay ng nagpapagawa sa
kanya ng mga tula ng pag-ibig at ng mga nagpapaayos sa kanya ng tula. Kumatha ng Historia Famosa ni
Bernardo Carpio, Doce Pares de Francia, Rodrigo de Villas, Adela at Florante at Flora at Clavela.
Francisco Baltazar (Balagtas) 1788 -1862 – Isinilang sa Panginay. Bigaa, Bulacan noong ika-2 ng Abril, 1788.
Sumulat ng Florante at Laura na inialay niya sa kanyang iniibig na si Maria Asuncion Rivera (M.A.R.) na
tinawag niyang si “Celia” sa akda.
Karagatan – isang paligsahan sa tula na nilalaro bilang parangal sa isang namatay. Ang mga kasali rito ay
umuupo nang pabilog at nasa gitna ang hari.
Duplo – isa pang paligsahan sa pagtula na karaniwang ginaganap sa bakuran ng namatayan, sa ikasiyam na gabi
matapos mailibing ang namatay, bilang panlibang sa mga naulila.
Ensilada – isa pang paligsahan sa pagtulana ginagawa bilang pang-aliw sa namatayan. Ito ay ginagawa gabi-
gabi habang nagsisiyam ang namatay.
Herminigildo Flores – isang manunulat sa panhon ng himagsikan. Sa kanyang mga sinulat ay lalong bantog
ang mahabang tulang may pamagat na, “Hibik ng Pilipinas sa Inang Espanya”.
Jose P. Rizal (1861 – 1896) – Naipalimbag niya sa Berlin ang nobelang Noli Me Tangere (1887). Noong 1890,
tinapos niya ang ikalawang nobela, ang El Filibusterismo sa Ghent, Belgium. Gumamit si Rizal ng mga sagisag
na “Dimas-Alang” at “Laong-Laan”. Si Rizal ay nakapagsasalita ng dalawampu’t dalawang wika.
Marcelo H. del Pilar – bilang pangunahing pinuno ng Kilusang Propaganda, ipinakita niya kaagad ang pagtutol
sa mga pamamalakad ng mga Kastila. Lantad ang gayon niyang damdamin sa pahayagang Diariong Tagalog,
na itinatag at pinamatnugutan niya noong 1882. Noong Nobyembre 15, 1889, napasalin sa kanya ang pagiging
patnugot ng La Solidaridad. Gumamit siya ng mga sagisag tulad ng “Dolores Manapat”, “Piping Dilat”,
“Maitalaga”, “Kupang”, “Carmelo”, “L.O. Crame” at “Pupdoh”.
57
2. Caiigat Cayo (1888)
3. Dasalan at Tocsohan (1888)
4. Ang Kadakilaan ng Dios
5. Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Pilipinas (1889)
6. Dupluhan…Dalit…mga Bugtong…
Graciano Lopez Jaena (1856-1896) – itinatag niya sa Espanya ang Circulo Hispano-Filipino; sumulat ng mga
ulat para sa Circulo. Noong 1889, itinatag niya ang La Solidaridad at naging unang patnugot nito. Nang
mapalipat kay M. del Pilar ang tungkulin ng patnugot, naging manunulat na lamang siya ng pahayagan. Nagkubli
siya sa pangalang “Diego Laura”. Sa kanyang panahon, higit siyang kinilalang orador kaysa manunulat. Sinulat
niya ang Fray Botod, isang maikling nobelang mapang-uyam na naglalarawan sa “kasibaan ng mga prayle”.
Ang Fray Botod ay prayleng napakalakas kumain.
Mariano Ponce (1863-1899) – gumamit ng mga sagisag na “Naning”, “Tikbalang”, “Kalipulako”. Kabilang sa
mga akda niya ang “Mga Alamat ng Bulakan”, at ang dulang “Pagpugot kay Longino”.
Antonio Luna (1866-1899) – parmasyutikong gumamit ng sagisag na Taga-ilog sa kanyang pag-akda. Marami
siyang naiambag sa La Solidaridad. Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang “Noche Buena”, “La Tertulia Filipina”, “La
Maestra de Mi Pueblo” at ang “Impresiones”.
Pedro A. Paterno (1858-1911) – may-akda ng Ninay isang nobelang sosyolohiko. Ito ang unang nobelang
sinulat sa Kastila ng isang Pilipino.
Pascual Poblete (1858-1921) – nobelista, makata, mananalaysay at tinaguriang “Ama ng Pahayagan”. Siya ang
nagtatag ng mga pahayagang El Resumen, El Grito del Pueblo at Ang Tinig ng Bayan. Siya rin ang kauna-
unahang nagsalin sa Tagalog ng Noli Me Tangere.
Jose Maria Panganiban (1865-1895) – sumulat ng mga sanaysay, lathalain at mga talumpati sa ilalim ng
sagisag na Jomapa.
Pedro Serrano Laktaw – leksikograpo at manunulat; isa ring pangunahing Mason. Siya ang unang sumulat ng
Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (1889).
Isabelo delos Reyes – nagtatag ng “Iglesia Filipina Independente”; nagtamo ng gantimpala sa Exposisyon sa
Madrid, sa sinulat na “El Folklore Filipino”.
Fernando Canon – kaklase ni Rizal sa Ateneo. Sumulat siya ng tula ukol kay Rizal. Sa mga tulang pang-Rizal
nagsimula ang kanyang katanyagan.
Ang paghihimagsik laban sa mga Kastila ay pinagtampukan ng mga akda nina Bonifacio at Emilio Jacinto, mga
akdang nasulat sa Tagalog, ang wikang opisyal ng Katipunan. Samantala, ang paghihimagsik laban sa mga
Amerikano ay tinampukan naman ng mga akda nina Apolinario Mabini at Jose Palma.
Andres Bonifacio (1863-1897) – kinilalang “Ama ng Demokrasyang Pilipino” kinilala rin siyang “Dakilang
Plebyo”. Siya ay kasal kay Gregoria de Jesus, ang tinaguriang “Lakambini ng Katipunan”. Si Bonifacio ay
gumamit ng mga sagisag na “Agap-ito Bagumbayan” at “May Pag-asa”.
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Mga Akda ni Bonifacio:
Emilio Jacinto (1875-1899) – kinilalang “Utak ng Katipunan” dahilan na rin sa kanyang katalinuhan. Sumulat
ng Kartilya ng Katipunan. Ginamit niya sa pagsulat ang sagisag na “Dimas-Ilaw”; ginamit naman niyang
pangalan bilang kasapi ng Katipunan ang “Pingkian”.
Apolinario Mabini (1864-1903) – kilala sa bansag na “Dakilang Lumpo”. Tinaguriang siyang “Utak ng
Himagsikan”. Bilang manunulat, marami siyang akda sa Kastila – mga akdang pampolitika, sosyolohiko,
pampamahalaan at pilosopiko.
Jose Palma (1876-1903) – kabilang sa mga manunulat sa panahon ng rebolusyon laban sa mga Amerikano. Ang
tulang “Filipinas” ang makabuluhan niyang ambag sa panitikan. Ito ang naging titik ng musikang nalikha ni
Julian Felipe.
Pag-unlad ng Tula
Unang Hati. Sa mga unang tatlumpu hanggang apatnapung taon ng pananakop ng mga Amerikano, ang mga
makatang Pilipino ay mapapangkat sa dalawa: nakatatanda at nakababata.
1. Nakatatanda – kabilang sa nakatatanda sina Lope K. Santos, Pedro Gatmaitan, at Iñigo Ed. Regalado.
Ang unang pangkat na ito ay aral sa Kastila.
2. Nakababata – sa nakababata naman ay sina Jose Corazon de Jesus, Teodoro Gener, Ildefonso Santos,
Cirio H. Panganiban, Aniceto F. Silvestre at Amado V. Hernandez.
Lope K. Santos (1879-1963) – tinatawag na “Ama ng Balarilang Pilipino”. May-akda ng Banaag at Sikat.
Bilang makata, laging mababanggit kaugnay ng pangalan niya ang mga tulang “Ang Pangginggera”, “Puso’t
Diwa”, “Mga Hamak na Dakila,” at “Sino Ka – Ako’y Si…”
Pedro Gatmaitan – Ang kanyang mga tula ay napatanyag dahil sa hindi malayong paggunita sa mga
kabayanihan ng mga bayani ng digmaan at ng himagsikan 1896. Nagkubli siya sa mga sagisag na “Pipit-Puso”,
“Dante”, “Ernesto Salamisim” at “Alitaptap”. Nakilala ang kanyang “Tungkos ng Alaala”, isang katipunan ng
kanyang mga natatanging tula.
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Ikalawang Hati. Sa panahong ito namayani ang mga nakababatang Jose Corazon de Jesus (Huseng Batute),
Cirio Panganiban, Deogracias A. Rosario, Ildefonso Santos, Benigno Ramos at Aniceto Silvestre.
“Ilaw at Panitik” – isang tanyag na samahang pangwika na natatag noon. Ang unang pangulo ng samahan ay
si Jose Esperanza Cruz, naging patnugot ng Liwayway. Panahon din ito ng mga patimpalak sa pagtula at pagsulat
ng tula, at sa mga ganitong pagkakataon ang mga makatang kasapi ng “Ilaw at Panitiki” ay naghali-halili sa
pagkakamit ng unang gantimpala.
Balagtasan – supling ng matandang duplo. Abril 6, 1924, idinaos ang kauna-unahang balagtasan. Ginanap iyon
sa bulwagan ng Instituto de Mujeres, sa Kalye Tayuman, Tondo, Maynila. Ang pamagat ay “Bulaklak ng Lahing
Kalinis-linisan”. Si Jose Corazon de Jesus ang lumagay na “Paruparo” at si Florentino Collantes naman ang sa
“Bubuyog”. Si Sofia Enriquez naman ang mabangong “Kampupot” o Bulaklak ng Kalinisan, samantala si Lope
K. Sntos ang siyang nag-lakandiwa. Si Jose Corazon de Jesus ang nanalo sa labanang iyon, ayon sa pasiya ng
hurado. Naging unang Hari ng Balagtasan si Batute.
Jose Corazon de Jesus – naging “Makata ng Pag-ibig” sa halalan ng mga mambabasa ng pahayagang Mithi
noong 1916. Isa sa mga tanyag niyang tula ang “Isang Punongkahoy”.
Florentino Collantes – naging katunggali ni Batute sa mga pagbabalagtasan. Naibigay sa kanya ang
karangalang “Makata ng Bayan” kapanabay ng pagbibibay kay Lope K. Santos ng karangalang “Paham ng
Wika”. Kabilang sa mga tula niya ang sumusunod: Ang Sawa, Sa Dakong Silangan, Ang Lumang Simbahan at
Ang Tulisan.
Teodoro E. Gener – pangunahing tula niya ang “Subo ng Sinaing”, “Guro” at “Pag-ibig”.
Aniceto F. Silvestre – makata ng damdamin. Ang kanyang tulang “Filipinas” ay ipinagwagi niya ng gantimpala
sa tula sa isang patimpalak na Surian ng Wikang pambansa noong 1946.
Teo S. Baylen – ang mga tula niya sa loob ng tatlumpung taon ay isina-aklat niya sa kanyang Tinig na Darating.
Ang dula ay isang sangay na panitikang naglalahad ng isang pangyayari o mga pangyayaring
kinasasangkutan ng isa o dalawang pangunahing tauhan at ng iba pang mga katulong na tauhan na
itinatanghal sa isang dulaan.
Sarsuwela – bilang panooring panlibangan, ay ipinakilala ng mga Kastila noong mga taong 1878-1879 ngunit
di nagkaroon ng sapat na panahon upang umunlad at lumaganap. Kaagaw pa nito ang moro-moro na mas
dinudunog ng mga mamamayan.
Severino Reyes (1861-1942) – pangunahing manunulat ng sarsuwela si Severino Reyes. Kilala rin siya sa
sagisag na “Lola Basyang” dahil sa kanyang mga kuwentong-bayan na inilathala sa Lingguhang Liwayway.
Ang kanyang sarsuwelang Walang Sugat ang itinuturing na kanyang obra-maestra. Noong 1922, naging
patnugot siya ng Liwayway.
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Patricio Mariano – isang mandudula, peryodista, kuwentista, nobelista at makata. Marami siyang nasulat na
dula na kinabibilangan ng Anak ng Dagat, Ang Tulisan, Ang Dalawang Pag-ibigi, Ako’y Iyo Rin, at iba pa. Siya
ng tinaguriang Dekano ng mga Mandudulang Tagalog.
Hermogenes Ilagan – siya ang masasabing kaagaw ni Severino Reyes sa kasigasigan sa paglikha at pagtatanghal
ng sarsuwela. Ang pinakatanyag niyang dula ay ang Dalagang Bukid.
Julian Cruz Balmaseda – namumukod ang kanyang aral sa pag-iimpok sa sulang Ang Piso ni Anita. Ito ang
dulang nagtamo ng unang gantimpala sa timpalak ng Kawanihan ng Koreo; sa kanyang Sa Bunganga ng Pating,
binaka niya ang sakit na nililikha ng salaping patubuan.
Aurelio Tolentino (1868-1913) – dalubhasa sa paggamit ng tatlong wika, Pampango, Tagalog at Kastila.
Maraming dula siyang nasulat tulad ng Bagong Kristo, isang sulang sosyolohiko; Sumpaan, isang romantikong
sarsuwelang may tatlong yugto. Ngunit higit sa lahat ng mga dula niya, ang nakilala’y ang kanyang Kahapon,
Ngayon at Bukas. Isang alegoriya ang dulang ito ay naglalahad sa pamamagitan ng mga simbolikong tauhan na
pinagdadaanan ng Pilipinas.
Juan K. Abad – nang magsimula ang himagsikan sinunog ng lahat ni Abad ang kanyang mga akdang
nanunuligsa sa pamahalaan at sa mga prayle at pagkaraa ay umanib siya sa Katipunan. Hinarap ni Abad ang
pagbaka sa comedia sa paniniwalang ito ay nakakalason sa isipan ng mga Pilipino.
Ang kauna-unahang nobelang Tagalog na ipinalimbag sa anyong aklat ay ang Nena at Neneng ni
Valeriano Hernandez Peña; inilimbag ito noong 1905. Isusunod na sana ang Banaag at Sikat ni Lope
K. Santos, na labis na pinananabikang mabasang muli, subalit dahilan sa kakapalan nito, nauna ang
Miminsan Akong Umibigi ni Valeriano Hernandez Peña na lumabas noong 1906. Sumunod na rin nang
taon din iyon ang Banaag at Sikat ni Santos.
Ang Kathambuhay o nobela ay isang sangay ng panitikang naglalahad ng maraming pangyayaring
kinasasangkutan ng isa o dalawang pangunahing tauhan at iba pang katulong na mga tauhan at ang buong
pangyayari ay sumasaklaw nang higit na mahabang panahon kaysa maikling katha.
Panahong saklaw ng unang dalawampung taon, nasulat ang mga nobelang nagtataglay ng mga
katangiang kasalaminan ng panahon at umayon sa layuning “makapagturo ng mabuti, makapaghimaton
ng pag-iwas sa mga sakuna at kasawian sa buhay, makapagbinhi ng mabuting kaugalian at
makapagpaunlad ng isip.” Sa palagay ni Regalado, “hindi maitatanggi ng sino man na ang nobekang
Tagalog ay nagkaroon ng Panahong Ginto…at ang panahong iyon ay sumasaklaw sa mga taong buhat
sa 1905 hanggang 1921.”
Ang anyo ng maikling kuwento ay nakilala lamang sa Pilipinas ng mgaunang taon ng ika-20 siglo nang
narito na ang mga Amerikano. Ang mga unang anyo ng maikling kuwento ay ang (1) dagli, na ang
himig ay nangangaral. Ang mga ito’y namumuna at nanunuligsa, at (2) pasingaw o munting kasaysayan
na nagpapahayag ng pag-ibig sa mga nililigawan o hinahangaang paraluman.
Ang maikling kuwento ay isang sangay ng panitikang naglalahad ng isang natatangi at mahalagang
pangyayari sa buhay ng isang pangunahing tauhan s aisang takdang panahon.
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Sangkap ng Maikling Kwento:
5. Pahiwatig – nagiging malikhain ang mga mambabasa sapagkat naiiwan sa kanyang guniguni o
imahinasyon sa mga pangyayaring nagaganap o maaaring maganap sa kuwento.
6. Simbolo – ito ang mga salita na kapag binanggit sa isang akda ay nag-iiwan ng iba’t ibang
pagpapakahulugan sa mambabasa. Halimbawa, ang puti ay kumakatawan sa kalinisan o kawagasan.
Sanaysay
Naglalarawan ng mga kuru-kuro at pansariling kaisipan ng isang manunulat. Ang sanaysay ay maaaring
maanyo (pormal) at maaari namang malaya (di-pormal o personal).
Ang salitang sanaysay ay salitang-likha ni Alejandro G. Abadilla (AGA). Ayon sa kanya, ito ay
pinagsanib na mga salitang pagsasalaysay ng isang sanay o nakasulat na karanasan ng isang sanay sa
pagsasalaysay. Di gaya ng maraming salitang-likha, ang sanaysay ay dagling tinanggap ng bayan.
Talambuhay
Naglalahad ng mahahalagang pangyayari sa buhay o kasaysayan ng isang tao. Kapag ang talambuhay
ay nauukol sa taong siyang sumulat, ito ay tinatawag na pansariling talambuhay (autobiography).
Pangulong Tudling
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Naglalahad ng kuru-kuro ng patnugot ng isang pahayagan. Ang mga pitak ng mga kolumnista ay
kahawig ng pangulong tudling, lamang, ang kuru-kuro ng patnugot ay higit na matimbang o may bigat
at siyang kuru-kuro na ng pahayagan.
Marami ang nagsasabing “gintong panahon” daw ng maikling kuwento at ng dulang Tagalog ang
panahong ito. Sa panahong ito, halos ipinagbawal ang Ingles ng mga mananakop kung kaya’t naging
luwalhati naman ng wikaing Tagalog ang pangyayaring ito.
Sa pangangasiwa ng Surian ng Wikang Pambansa, ang pinakamahusay na maikling kuwento ng
panahong iyon ay pinili. Ang tatlong kuwentong nanguna ay ang mga sumusunod: “Lupang Tinubuan”
ni Narciso G. Reyes, “Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa” ni Liwayway Arceo, at “Lunsod, Nayon at Dagat-
dagatan” ni N.V.M. Gonzales.
Tatlong uri ng tula ang namalasak noong panahon ng Hapon: Karaniwang anyo, malayang taludturan,
na ang pinakamarami ay haiku at tanaga.
Tanaga – isang uri ng tulang Tagalog noong unang panahon na sa katipiran ng pamamaraan ay maihahalintulad
sa Haiku ng mga Hapones, bagamat lalong maikli ang haiku. Ang tanaga ay may sukat at tugma. Ang bawat
taludtod ay may pitong (7) pantig.
Halimbawa:
Palay
Teorya
Ito ang pormulasyon ng palilinawing mga prinsipyo ng mga tiyak na penomena, paniniwala, o ideya
upang makalikha ng isang sistematikong paraan ng pagpapaliwanag ng mga ito.
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Teoryang Pampanitikan
Teoryang Klasisismo
Pagtuklas at pagtanaw sa katotohanan, kagandahan, at kabutihan ang nilalayon ng klasisismo.
Hinahangad nito na palawakin ang pananaw at pang-unawa ng matwid na tao, at makamtan yaong
tinatawag na grandeur d’ame o pagkadakila ng pagkatao. At dahil ang tao ay sadyang may katutubong
karupukan, kinakailangan din na ang panitikan ay makatulong sa paglilinis o pagpupurga sa kalooban at
niloloob upang lalong makatulong sa pagkakamit ng kadakilaan ng katauhan.
Teoryang Humanismo
Walang higit pang kawili-wiling paksa kaysa tao. Kung pumasok man ang kalikasan sa sining ay upang
lalong mapalitaw ang mga katangian ng tao. Ang Diyos man ay nagiging makabuluhan sa daigdig dahil
sa tao sapagkat kung walang tao sa daigdig, walang makakaisip ng anuman tungkol sa Diyos. Hindi
nito sinasabi na higit na dakila ang tao kaysa Diyos. Isinesentro lamang nito sa daigdig ang tao.
Teoryang Romantisismo
Higit na pinahahalagahan ang “damdamin” kaysa ideyang siyentipiko o may batayan. Nananalig ang
mga romantisista sa Diyos; naniniwala sila sa katwiran, siyensya, eksperimento at obserbasyon
(empirisismo); materyal din ang tingin nila sa kalikasan at santinakpan. Ngunit para sa kanila, kulang
pa at hindi maipaliliwanag o nasasagot ng mga ito ang mga tanong at mga karanasan tungkol sa puso.
Teoryang Realismo
Higit na mahalaga ang katotohanan kaysa kagandahan. Hinahangad nito ang katotohanan at ang
makatotohanang paglalahad at paglalarawan ng mga bagay, mga tao at lipunan, at alin pa mang maaaring
mapatunayan sa pamamagitan ng ating mga sentido. Ang paraan ng paglalarawan ang susi, at hindi ang
uri ng paksa. Naniniwala ang realismo na ang pagbabago ay walang hinto.
Teoryang Naturalismo
Pinalawak ng naturalismo ang saklaw ng realismo. Tinangka kasi ng naturalismo ang mas “matapat, di-
piniling representasyon ng realidad, isang tiyak na hiwa ng buhay na ipinakita nang walang
panghuhusga”. Dahil sa walang muwang na “scientific determinism,” binigyang-diin ng naturalismo
ang namana (o aksidente) at pangpisikal na likas ng tao kaysa mga katangian niyang pangmoral o
rasyonal. Naipakitang ang mga indibidwal ay produkto ng pinanggalingan at kapaligiran.
Teoryang Formalismo
Ang isang akda ay may sariling buhay at umiiral sa sarili nitong paraan. Nasa porma o kaanyuan ng
isang akda ang kasiningan nito. Ang porma ay binubuo ng imahe (gamit ng lengguwahe na
kumakatawan sa mga bagay, aksiyon at mga ideyang abstrakto), diksiyon (pagpili ng mga salita at paraan
ng pagkakaayos nito), sukat, tugma, at iba pa. Kailangang magkasama ang porma at ang nilalaman
upang magkaroon ng buong kahulugan ang isang akda.
Teoryang Imahismo
Malaya ang makatang pumili ng anumang nais na paksain ng kanyang tula. Gumagamit ng wika o
salitang pangkaraniwan. Kailangang angkop at tiyak ang bawat salita, at walang hindi kinakailangang
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palamuti. Ang imagism, isang tradisyon ng panulaang modernista na sadyang tiwalag sa tradisyon ng
pangangaral o pang-aliw bilang akdang pansining ay may bukod-tanging kairalan, at hindi ito kailangang
ipasailalim sa anumang layuning hindi makasining. Wika nga, “Art for art’s sake”.
Teoryang Siko-Analitika
Masalimuot ang teorya ni Freud. Sa pinakamadaling sabi, ang panitikan sa kanya ay ang kabuuan ng
kamalayan at di-kamalayan: lumalabas dito ang mga bagay na di masasabi o maisusulat ng makata nang
tuwiran sa harap ng ibang tao.
Arketipal na Pananaw
o mitolohikal na oryentasyon. Ito ay isa pang pagdulog na tila kawangis ng sikolohikal na pananaw.
Tulad ng sikolohikal na pananaw, nakapako ang atensiyon nito sa paraan ng paglikha at ang epekto nito
sa mambabasa. Subalit waring higit na malawak ang larangang sinusuyod ng arketipong pananaw
sapagkat buong kalipunan ng mga sagisag at imaheng palagiang lumilitaw sa mga teksto ng
pandaigdigang kultura ang pinagpapakuan nito ng masusing pansin.
Teoryang Eksistensiyalismo
Tulad ng romantisismo, ito ay mahilig sa eksperimentasyon tungo sa “tunay” na buhay at pananalita o
ekspresyon. Sinusuri nito ang lahat ng bagay bilang “lived facts”; wala itong dini-diyos at itinuturing
na dapat igalang (sacred) maliban sa kalayaan, pagka-responsable at indibidwalismo ng bawat tao – ng
manunulat o ng mambabasa. Walang makapagsasabi ng kung alin ang tama o mali, totoo o malikmata,
importante o walang silbi, maliban sa taong nakararanas sa pinag-uusapan.
Teoryang Istrukturalismo
Iisa ang simulain ng teoryang ito: ang pagpapatunay na ang wika o lengguwahe, ay hindi lamang
hinuhubog ng kamalayang panlipunan kundi humuhubog din sa kamalayang panlipunan. Nakabaon ang
panlipunang kamalayan sa paggamit ng wika (social discourse) o paggamit sa mga salita ayon sa mga
kinikilalang tuntunin at pagsasapraktikang panlipunan (social conventions).
Teoryang Dekonstruksiyon
Binibiyang-diin sa teoryang ito ang kamalayan ng manunulat at ng mambabasa bilang mga produkto ng
social discourse na nakasulat. Ito ay naangkop sa panitikang nakasulat bilang produkto ng isang tiyak
na may-akda na tagapagdala o tagapagingat ng isang tradisyong pang-intelektuwal at pampanitikan.
Ang kahulugan ng isang tekto ay nasa kamalayang gumagamit sa teksto, at hindi sa teksto mismo.
Teoryang Moralistiko
Pinalalagay na ang akda ay may kapangyarihang maglahad o magpahayag hindi lamang ng literal na
katotohanan kundi ng mga panghabambuhay at unibersal na mga katotohanan at mga di-mapapawing
pagpapahalaga (values). Pinahahalagahan ang panitikan di dahil sa mga partikular na katangian nito
bilang likhang-isip na may sinusunod na sariling mga batas at prinsipyo sa kanyang pagiging malikhain,
kundi dahil sa mga aral na naidudulot nito sa mga nakikinig o bumabasa.
Teoryang Historikal/Sosyolohikal
Di teksto bilang teksto ang lubusang pinagtutuunan ng pansin kundi ang kontekstong dito’y nagbigay-
daan; hindi ang partikular na kakanyahan lamang ang sinusuri kundi ang mga impluwensiyang dito ay
nagbigay-hugis—ang talambuhay ng awtor, ang politikal na sitwasyon sa panahong naisulat ang akda,
ang mga tradisyon at kombensiyon na maaaring nakapagbigay sa akda ng mga katangian.
Marxistang Pananaw
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Ang panitikan ay tinitignan bilang instrumento ng pagbabago, o bilang behikulo na magagamit upang
mabuksan ang isipan ng tao sa kanilang kalagayang api.
Feministang Pananaw
Pinagtutuunan ng pananaw Feminismo ang kalagayan o representasyon ng kababaihan sa isang akda.
Layunin nito na baguhin ang mga de-kahong imahen o paglalarawan sa kababaihan sa anumang uri ng
panitikan. Layunin ng pananaw na ito na masuri ang mga akdang pampanitikan sa paningin o
perspektiba ng babae. Dahil sa matagal na panahon, halos mga lalaki ang nagsusuri kung kaya hindi
man maka-lalaki ang pananaw, ay nagtatanghal lamang ng mga nagawa ng kalalakihan.
Halimbawa:
Para ng halamang lumaki sa tubig,
Daho’y nalalanta munting di madilig.
Halimbawa:
Sapagkat ang haring may hangad sa yaman
Ay mariing hampas ng langit sa bayan.
Halimbawa:
At ang balang bibig na binubukalan
Ng sabing magaling at katotohanan.
4. Pangitain o Vision
Halimbawa:
Sa sinapupunan ng Konde Adolfo’y
Aking natatanaw si Laurang sinta ko.
Halimbawa:
Kamataya’y nahan ang dating bangis mo?
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6. Pabaligho o Paradox – pahayag na wari’y salungat o laban sa likas na pagkukuro ngunit nagpapakilala
ng katotohanan.
Halimbawa:
Ang matatawag kong palaya sa akin
ng ama ko’y itong ako’y pagliluhin
agawan ng sinta’t panasa-nasaing
lumubog sa dusa’t buhay ko’y makitil.
Halimbawa:
Nanlilisik ang mata’t ang ipinagsaysay
Ay hindi ang ditsong nasa orihinal,
Kundi ang winika’y ikaw na umagaw
Ng kapurihan ko’y dapat kang mamatay!
Halimbawa:
Parang walang malay hanggang sa magtago’t
Humilig si Pebo sa hihigang ginto.
Halimbawa:
Inusig ng taga ang dalawang leon,
si Apolo mandin sa Serpyente Piton.
Halimbawa:
Tapat ang puso ko’y di nagunamgunam
Na ang paglililo’y nasa kagandahan.
Halimbawa:
Kung ang isalubong sa iyong pagdating
ay masayang mukha’t may pakitang-giliw
pakaingatan mo’t kaaway na lihim,
siyang isaisip na kakabakahin.
12. Tanong na Mabisa o Rhetorical Question – tanong na naglalayong magbunga ng isang tanging bisa
at hindi upang magtamo ng kasagutan.
Halimbawa:
Anong gagawin ko sa ganiton bagay
ang sinta ko kaya’y bayaang mamatay?
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13. Pagmamalabis o Hyperbole – pahayag na ibayong maindi kaysa katotohanan o lagpas sa maaaring
mangyari.
Halimbawa:
Bababa si Marte mula sa itaas,
Sa kailalima’y aahon ang parkas.
14. Aliterasyon – paulit-ulit na tunog ng isang katinig na ginagamit sa mga magkakalapit na salita o
pantig.
Halimbawa:
At sa mga pulong dito’y nakasabog, nangalat, nagpunla.
Nagsipanahanan, nangagsipamuhay, nagbato’t nagkuta.
Halimbawa:
Ang buhay ng tao at sa taong palad,
Nasa ginagawa ang halaga’y bigat.
(1) Tuwirang onomatopeya – kapag ginagagad ng ga tunog ng patinig at katinig ang tunog ng inilalarawan
ng taludtod.
Halimbawa:
Ikaw’y iniluwal ng baha sa bundok
Hahala-halakhak at susutsut-sutsot.
(2) Pahiwatig na onomatopeya – kapag ang mga tunog ng patinig at katinig ay hindi gumagagad kundi
nagpapahiwatig lamang ng bagay na inilalarawan.
Ayon kay Lope K. Santos, ang ating mga titik ay nag-aangkin ng sari-sariling pahiwatig na kaisipan.
Ang A ay nagpapahiwatig ng kalakhan, kalinawan, kalawakan, kalantaran, samantalang ang I ay
nagtataglay ng diwa ng kaliitan, labuan, karimlan, kalaliman, kalihiman, at iba pa.
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Ang kahulugan ng mga ito ay di bunga ng pagsasama ng kahulugan ng mga salitang bumubuo sa mga
ito kundi isang natatanging kahulugang naiiba sa mismong parirala.
Malayo ang kahulugang literal o tuwirang kahulugan sa kontekstuwal o tunay na kahulugan.
Matatag na ang pagiging gamitin ng mga pahayag idyomatiko dahil ginagamit na sa mahabang panahon
at bahagi na ng talaslaitaan ng bayan.
Nagpasalin-salin ito sa bibig ng mg tao.
Halimbawa:
alagang ahas – taksil, walang utang-na-loob, kalawang sa bakal
gagapang na parang ahas – maghihirap ang buhay, maghihikahos, magiging miserable ang buhay
parang ahas na kuyog – galit na lahat ang buong angkan sa kagalit ng isa sa kanila
bagong ahon – baguhan sa pook, bagong salta
alanganin – bakla, tomboy
lumilipad sa alapaap – walang katiyakan, alinlangan
inalat – minalas, inabot ng alat
pinakain ng alikabok – tinalo sa isang karera ng takbuhan
nasagap na alimuom – nakuhang tsismis, sabi-sabi, bali-balita, alingasngas
Isang salita o parirala na ang kahulugan ay ipinahihiwatig ng salita o ilan sa mga salita sa parirala.
Nasisinag ang kontekstuwal na kahulugan sa mga salitang ginagamit.
Halimbawa:
magulo pa sa sangkuwaltang abaka – masalimuot, napakagulo, nakalilito, walang-walang kaayusan
abo ang utak – walang pang-intindi, bobo, tanga, mahina ang ulo
anay – lihim na kaaway
anak sa labas – anak sa di tunay na asawa, anak sa ibang babae
parang iniihan ng aso – di mapakali, di mapalagay, balisa
buhol-babae – mahina o madaling makalas ang pagkakatali, di matatag/matibay
agawin ang buhay – iligtas ang buhay sa kamatayan
mag-alsa ng boses – sumigaw (sa galit), magtaas ng tinig
mabigat ang katawan – masama ang pakiramdam o di maganda ang pakiramdam, tamad
Halimbawa:
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pagsisiping o pagtatalik pag-aasawahan
Practice Test
1. May prinsipyo si Daves, kaya nang mabalitaan niyang may tali sa ilong ang kanyang kaibigan dahil
sunud-sunuran sa lahat ng ipinag-uutos ng kanyang hepe, pinangaralan niya ito.
a. nasa ilalim ng kapangyarihan
b. di makahalata
c. kulang ang pagkalalake
d. walang iisang salita
2. Ang lihim na kanyang iniingatan ay nabunyag dahil siya ay nahuli sa kanyang sariling bibig.
a. tsismosa
b. sa sariling bibig nagmula ang katotohanan
c. pagiging totoo
d. di marunong magsinungaling
3. Talagang sakit ng ulo ang pag-aasawa nang wala sa panahon.
a. masasakitin ang ulo
b. di nag-iisip
c. malaking suliranin o alalahanin
d. mahirap isipin
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a. nakakunot ang noo
b. nakangiwi
c. malungkot
d. nakasimangot
10. Lumuha ka man ng bato, di na maibabalik ang buhay ng iyong ama.
a. matinding panangis
b. di makaiyak o makaluha
c. di matinag
d. wala ng pakiramdam
Direksyon: Basahin at unawain ang tula. Sagutin ang mga tanong.
Hapunan
Nagdiriwang sa hapag 1
sa nakahaing tinapa.
Salit-salitan
sa pagbubungkal ng lupa.
Tahimik na tahimik 4
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11. Anong larawang-diwa ang ipinakita ng tula?
a. pagsasama ng mag-asawa
b. kahirapan ng buhay
c. payak na buhay sa bukid
d. pagtitipid ng mga magsasaka
12. Iniingatang may lumusot na butil ng pawis sa awang ng mesang kawayan. Ang butil ng pawis ay
nangangahulugan ng/na _________________.
a. pagtiisan ang anumang pagkaing nasa hapag.
b. pagpapahalaga sa pagkaing nasa hapag dahil ito ay kanilang pinaghirapan.
c. pagiging kuntento sa kung anong mayroon.
d. pasasalamat sa biyayang tinanggap.
13. Anong saknong ang nagpapahayag ng positibong pananaw.
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
14. Alin sa mga saknong ng binasang tula ang nagpapahiwatig ng pagkakaroon ng pag-asa ng mag-asawa?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
Direksyon: Basahin ang sanaysay. Sagutin ang mga tanong.
Itanghal nga natin ang nasyonalismong Pilipino. Itambal ang diwang malaya, ang sipag sa
paggawa at taimtim na pagmamahal sa mga likas at pinaunlad na pamana ng ating mga ninuno.
Pagyamanin at pagmalasakitan silang palagi. At huwag limutin na sila ang susing ginto sa tunay
na kalayaan at katubusan ng Pilipinas.
Ating tandaan, na sa sandaling ang Pilipinismo’y maging kalangkap ng ating buhay na pang-
araw-araw, sa ating mga basar, groseri at pamilihan ay mamumutiktik na ang mga produktong
Pilipino at sila ang magiging gamit sa bahay-bahay; hindi na ang mga made in USA, made in
Japan at made in Germany. At mangyari pa, mawawala na ang mga sawimpalad na kababayang
namumulot sa mga basurahan upang makatawid sa gutom.
ni Amado V. Hernandez
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d. Maraming Pilipino ang nagnanais na makapangibang-bansa
17. Ipinaliwanag ng sanaysay na kung ang Pilipinismo’y magiging kalangkap ng pang-araw-araw na
buhay ng mga Pilipino, ______________________.
a. dadami ang mga produkto gawa ng mga Pilipino.
b. mababawasan ang mga Pilipinong kumakalam ang sikmura.
c. hindi na aangkat ng mga banyagang produkto sa ibang bansa.
d. higit na makakamit ang pag-unlad sa buhay ng bawat Pilipino.
18. Ano ang itinuturo ng binasang sanaysay?
a. Pagtatanghal ng nasyonalismong Pilipino.
b. Itambal ang diwang malaya, ang sipag sa paggawa at taimtim na pagmamahal sa mga likas at
pinaunlad na pamana ng ating mga ninuno.
c. Pagyamanin at pagmalasakitang palagi silang susing ginto sa tunay na kalayaan at katubusan
ng Pilipinas.
d. Mawawala na ang mga sawimpalad na kababayang namumulot sa mga basurahan upang
makatawid sa gutom.
Kay Ama niya inihabilin ang paglilibing sa kanya. Dito sa Maynila, sinabi na naman
niya. Mag-iisa akong malilibing dito, Tiyo Julio, ngunit gusto kong dito malibing.
“Magdasal ka,” payo ni Ama, “iyang hinanakit mo’y kalimutan mo na. Masama iyang
babaunin mo pa ang mga iyan.”
“Mahirap makalimutan, Tiyo Julio. Natatandaan ba ninyo noon, noong maliit ako?
Noong hindi ko matagpuan ang libing ni Ama’t Ina? Wala akong mauuwian doon, Tiyo Julio.
Mag-iisa rin ako.”
Tumungo ang maputing ulo ni Ama; pati siya’y ibig na ring maluha sa sinasabi ni Layo.
“Wala ngang hindi umuuwi sa atin, sa kanyang bayan, Layo. Ikaw man ay uuwi rin.”
Lahat ay umuuwi sa kanyang bayan, ibig ko ring sabihin kay Layo. Maaaring narito ka,
ngunit ang iyong kaluluwa ay naglalakbay na pabalik doon. Maaaring naging mapait ang
kabataan mo roon, ngunit huwag mong sabihing ikaw ay di babalik.
Ngayo’y hindi siya nakatingin sa akin, ni kay Ama, ni kay Ising. Nakatingin siya sa
kisame. Nakaangat ang kanyang baba at tila mga mata ng isang bulag ang kanyang mga mata.
Alam kong naglalakbay ang kanyang diwa: marahil, nalalaman ko kung saan naglalakbay iyon.
Gusto kong isipin na ngayo’y naglalakbay ang kaluluwa ni Layo patungo sa aming
bayan; gusto kong isipin na ngayo’y tila mga tuyong dahon nang malalaglag ang kanyang
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hinanakit: gusto kong isipin na sa paglalakbay ng kanyang kaluluwa, sa paglalakbay na iyong
pabalik, ay nakatatagpo siya ng kapayapaan…
Ang sabi sa pahayagan ay ilalagak daw ang kanyang bangkay sa San Roque.
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23. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento?
a. Ang mga sugat ay napaghihilom ng panahon.
b. Ang pakikiramay ay bahagi ng pakikipagkapwa.
c. Lahat ay naghahangad ng isang maayos na libing.
d. Walang hindi umuuwi sa sariling bayan.
Pero sa kawnter ako napunta. Kahit takot akong humawak ng pera, kailangan kong
matutunan ang lahat ng bahagi ng operasyon. Ingat na ingat ako sa pagsusukli dahil kapag
nagkulang ang aking benta, kaltas sa sahod ko.
Habang napupuno ng pera ang lalagyan ng benta at wala namang bumibili, inisip ko ang
una kong sasahurin. Mamaya, pag-out ko, tiyak na may laman na ang ATM ko.
“Siguro konti para sa mga delata’t sabong panligo at panlaba, bayad kay Nanay at ‘yung
matitira, baon at pamasahe ko,” pagkukwenta ko.
Pagkatapos ng anim na oras, ini-remit ko ang benta kay Ma’am Sarri. Naglog-out ako
at kumain. Minadali ko ang pagkain. Sabik na ‘kong makuha ang aking sahod.
Naisip ko, nagiging mabangis pala ang tao kapag nade-delay ang sahod. Siguro, tulad
ko, malaki rin ang pangangailangan niya. May utang din siyang dapat bayaran.
Gusto kong pagsisipain ang machine dahil wala pa rin ang sahod ko. Lumabas na ako’t
sumakay na dyip papuntang Quiapo na dadaan sa eskwelahang pinapasukan ko.
Pagkatapos ng klase ko, pumunta uli ako sa bangkong pinuntahan ko kanina. Ipinasok
ko ang ATM kard ko at pinindot ang PIN. Parang nag-iisip ang machine. At ilang sandali pa,
namilog ang aking mata sa aking nakita.
“Sa wakas!”
Nanginginig kong kinuha ang dadaaning sahod ko. Kay sarap tanggapin ang perang
pinagpaguran. Di ko na binilang dahil alam kong di ito maaaring magkulang. Matatalino ang
mga machine na ‘to. Maggo-groseri ako. Pero di pa ‘ko nakakalayo sa bangko, ay may biglang
umakbay sa akin.
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“Akina! Bilisan mo!” ang mahina ngunit madiin niyang iniutos sa akin.
Mahigpit ang pagkakaakbay niya sa ‘kin. Iginawi niya ako sa madalim na lugar palihis
ng Taft Avenue. At saka niya ako tinutukan ng patalim. Di na ‘ko nakapalag.
‘Nung ibinibigay ko ang unang sahod ko, parang ibinibigay kong buung-buo ang sarili
ko. Habang papalayo ang holdaper lubusan ko siyang nakilala. Siya ‘yung pumasok kanina sa
loob, ‘yung mukhang de-opisina.
Kasabay kong lumuha ng dilim ang buwan. Nagdidilim ang isip ko. Gusto kong
biglang mawala na lang.
- McDonaldisasyon
24. Alin sa sumusunod na pangyayari ang kasukdulan ng kuwentong binasa?
a. Nang ibinibigay niya sa holdaper ang kanyang unang sahod.
b. Nang makuha na niya ang pinakaaasam na sahod na ATM.
c. Nang umuwi na siya at maalala ang kanyang Nanay.
d. Nang may umakbay sa kanyang holdaper at igawi siya sa madilim na lugar.
25. Sa pag-uwi ko, naalala ko si Nanay. Di ko pa siya mababayaran ngayon. At kailangan ko uling
magkaroon ng dagdag na lakas ng loob upang muling mangutang. Ano ang tawag sa bahaging
ito ng kuwento kung saan binibigyang solusyon ang suliranin?
a. wakas
b. kasukdulan
c. kakalasan
d. suluranin
26. Ano ang ipinahihiwatig ng wakas ng kuwento?
a. May mga taong maaaring mautangan sa oras ng kagipitan.
b. Patuloy na pagkakaroon ng pag-asa sa buhay
c. Anuman ang suliraning maranasan, tuloy pa rin ang buhay.
d. Walang magulang ang makatitiis sa kanyang anak.
27. Kasabay kong lumuha ng dilim ang buwan. Nagdidilim ang isip ko. Gusto kong biglang
mawala na lang. Anong damdamin ang mababakas sa pangunahing tauhan sa bahaging ito ng
kuwento?
a. matinding kabiguan
b. panghihinayang
c. paghahanap ng katarungan
d. kawalan ng pag-asa
28. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento?
a. May mga pagsubok sa buhay na kailangang harapin.
b. Di nakakamit ng mahihirap ang katarungan.
c. May mga taong kumakapit sa patalim kapag nagigipit.
d. Talamak ang karahasan sa isang lipunang dumaranas ng kahirapan.
Nang makitang walang-kibo ang maysakit, nabuhos ang loob ni Padre Florentino sa
isang suliranin at naibulong: “Nasaan ang kabataang dapat mag-alay ng kaniyang kasariwaan,
ng kaniyang mga panaginip at sigasig ukol sa kabutihan ng kaniyang Inang Bayan? Nasaan siya
76
na dapat kusang-loob na magbuhos ng kaniyang dugo upang mahugasan ang nakaparaming
kahihiyan, ang napakaraming pagkakasala, ang napakaraming kasuklam-suklam? Dalisay at
walang batik dapat ang alay upang tanggapin ang paghahandog!...Nasaan kayo, mga kabataan,
na magsasakatauhan sa sigla ng buhay na tumakas sa aming mga ugat, sa kadalisayan ng pag-
iisip na nabulok sa aming mga utak, sa apoy ng sigasig na napugto sa aming mga puso?
Hinihintay namin kayo, O mga kabataan! Halikayo, sapagkat hinihintay namin kayo!”
At dahil naramdaman niyang namamasa ang kaniyang mga mata, binitawan niya ang
kamay ng maysakit, tumindig, at lumapit sa bintana upang masdan ang malawak na karagatan.
- El Filibusterismo
Jose Rizal
Sa pagkadalisay at pagdakila
77
Gaya ng pag-ibig sa tinubuang lupa?
a. komparison at kontras
b. enumerasyon
c. order o pagkakasunud-sunod
d. sanhi at bunga
36. Di na naituturo nang maayos ang mga asignaturang tulad ng Araling Panlipunan ay babawasan
pa ang oras ng pagtuturo nito. Kung kaya di nakapagtataka na ang mga istudyante ay nagiging
pasibo sa mga usapin sa eskwela at sa lipunan.
a. komparison at kontras
b. enumerasyon
c. order o pagkakasunud-sunod
d. sanhi at bunga
Direksyon: Basahin ang sumusunod na talata. Tukuyin kung anong uri ng teksto ang mga ito.
Nagkaroon ako ng pasyenteng bata na ang amoy ng sipon ang inirereklamo ng ina. Ayon sa ina,
mabaho raw ang sipon ng bata (hindi mabaho ang karaniwang sipon). Nang sinilip ko ang loob
78
ng butas ng ilong, nakita ko ang waring piraso ng tela na nakasuksok doon. Malalim na ang
pagkakabaon nito sa loob ng ilong. Nang makuha ko ito, nagulat ako na foam pala ito ng sifa
na unti-unting ipinasok ng bata sa loob ng ilong hanggang sa mapipi ito doon.
- Luis P. Gatmaitan, MD
37. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ____________.
a. descriptiv
b. informativ
c. narativ
d. informativ
Ang kompyuter ay produkto ng makabagong teknolohiya. Ito ay isang elektronikong
kasangkapan na ginagamitan ng kuryente. Binubuo ito ng tatlong mahahalagang bahagi:
monitor, keyboard, at CPU (central processing unit). Tumutulong ito sa tao upang mapadali ang
pagmamanipula ng mga datos.
79
d. ek-sklu-si-bo
43. Ang yosi, boylet, jologs ay mga halimbawa ng anong kategorya ng wika?
a. literari
b. kolokyal
c. lalawiganin
d. balbal
44. Ito ay itinuturing na mahalagang ambag sa palatunugang Filipino. Ang tunog na ito ay maaaring
nasa unahan, gitna at hulihang posisyon.
a. Ñ
b. NG
c. C
d. F
45. Alin sa sumusunod ang mali?
a. Ang alpabetong Filipino ay binubuo ng 28 letra.
b. Sa 28 letra ng alpabeto, 20 letra ang nasa dating ABAKADA.
c. 8 letra ang dagdag sa alpabetong Filipino.
d. Ang lahat ng letra sa alpabetong Filipino ay binibigkas nang pa-Ingles.
46. Ito ay mga salitang may pekulyaridad at sa isang lalawigan lamang naririnig.
a. kolokyal
b. literari
c. balbal
d. lalawiganin
47. Filipino ang ating pambansang lingua franca
a. ginagamit mong wika sa klase
b. ginagamit mong wika sa pakikipag-usap sa mga piling tao
c. wikang komon na ginagamit ng dalawang taong nag-uusap na magkaiba ang katutubong
wika
d. wika sa pang-araw-araw na buhay
48. Kinikilala ng Estado bilang pundasyon ng isang matatag na bansa.
a. Wikang Pambansa
b. Pamilya
c. Edukasyon
d. Mag-asawa
49. Romantikong kuwento ng pag-ibig at digmaan ng mga Ifugao na inaawit ng kababaihan.
a. Aliguyon
b. Hudhud
c. Ulpi
d. Mumbaki
50. Alinsunod sa tadhana ng batas at sang-ayon sa nararapat sa maaaring ipasya ng Kongreso, dapat
magsagawa ng mga hakbangin ang ___________ upang ibunsod at puspusang itaguyod ang
paggamit ng Filipino.
a. akademya
b. lipunan
c. pamahalaan
d. mamamayan
51. Ito ay isang uri ng tekstong naglalarawan ng isang biswal na konsepto tungkol sa tao, bagay,
pook, o pangyayari. Maaaring nagbibigay rin ito ng mas malalim na paglalarawan sa kabuuan
ng bagay o ng isang pangyayari.
a. informativ
80
b. deskriptiv
c. narativ
d. argumentativ
52. Ang isang teksto ay ____________ kung ito ay naglalahad lamang ng isang mahalagang
pagkukuro, paniniwala o pananaw. Di ito humihikayat sa mambabasa upang tanggapin ang mga
patotoo ukol sa isang pananaw.
a. informativ
b. deskriptiv
c. narativ
d. argumentativ
53. _____________ ang teksto kung nagtataglay ito ng mahahalaga at tiyak na impormasyon
tungkol sa mga tao, bagay, lugar at pangyayari.
a. informativ
b. deskriptiv
c. narativ
d. argumentativ
54. Hindi, makakapunta si Lee sa ating pulong mamaya.
a. di makakapunta si Lee sa pulong
b. makakapunta si Lee sa pulong
c. di siguradong darating si Lee
d. nakapunta na si Lee sa pulong
55. Pagsunud-sunurin ang sumusunod ayon sa tuntunin sa paghihiram.
1. Bigkasin sa orihinal na anyo ang hiniram na salita mula sa Kastila, Ingles at iba pang wikang
banyaga, at saka baybayin sa Filipino.
2. Gamitin ang kasalukuyang leksikon ng Filipino bilang panumbas sa mga salitang banyaga.
3. Kumuha ng mga salita mula sa iba’t ibang katutubong wika sa bansa.
a. 1,2,3
b. 2,3,1
c. 3,1,2
d. 3,2,1
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c. naputulan ng kamay
d. nawalan ng suwerte
4. Magkasundung-magkasundo sila sa lahat ng bagay, pano’y kumakain sila sa iisang pinggan.
a. magkaibigan
b. ayaw maghugas ng pinggan
c. magkasundo
d. magkasama sa iisang bahay
5. Umuwi siya isang gabi na parang lantang bulaklak.
a. walang lakas
b. hinang-hina
c. nawalan ng puri
d. nanlalata
6. Di dapat silang magsama dahil sila ay parang langis at tubig.
a. may sama ng loob
b. di magkasundo
c. mainit ang dugo sa isa’t isa
d. magkaaway
7. Ayaw kong maniwala na kaya nakakuha siya ng mataas na marka sa pagsusulit ay dahil dinuktor ito ng
iba.
a. minalian
b. winasto kahit mali
c. inayos sa pamamagitan ng pandaraya
d. ipinawasto sa iba
8. Talagang tabla ang mukha mo. Di mo man lang inisip na ako ang nagpasok sa iyo sa trabaho. Bakit
mo ako siniraan sa ating Boss?
a. walang munti mang kahihiyan
b. mukhang tabla ang mukha
c. mahiyain
d. walang utang na loob
9. Kaya nagmamagandang-loob si Paulo ay dahil naghuhugas siya ng kamay. Huwag mo siyang
paniwalaan.
a. takot magkaroon ng kasalanan sa ibang tao
b. nagbabayad ng kasalanan sa isang tao
c. humihingi ng patawad nang di-tahasan
d. umiiwas magkaroon ng pananagutan sa isang naganap na pangyayari
10. Ngayon lang ako nakakita ng labanang ngipin sa ngipin.
a. walang ayawan
b. ubusan ng lahi
c. gantihan nang ubos-kaya
d. lakas sa lakas
Direksyon: Basahin at unawain ang tula. Sagutin ang mga tanong.
SA TABI NG DAGAT
ni Ildefonso Santos
Marahang-marahang 1
82
maglulunoy kitang
di na kailangang
Manunulay kita, 2
na nalalatagan
patiyad na tayo’y
Pagdating sa tubig, 3
gaganyakin kita
Pagdarapit-hapon 4
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kita’y magbabalik sa pinanggalingan,
Talagang ganoon…
1932
Ikalat natin ang aral at kaisipan ni Balagtas. Itanghal natin siya sa kanyang dapat kalagyan.
Siya ang idolo ni Rizal, Mabini, Bonifacio at ng iba pang mga bayani, ang naging bukal ng
kanyang panulat at pakikibaka. Kaya dapat din siyang kilalanin at itanghal, bungkalin at basahin
ang iba pa niyang mga akda. Ipabasa natin sa ating mga kaibigan ng magagandang saknong sa
Florante at Laura. Sumulat tayo ng mga artikulo tungkol kay Balagtas at ipalathala ito sa mga
magasin. Magkaroon ng pagkakataon ang mga hindi Tagalog o ang ibang lahi na makilala siya,
tulad ng mga dakilang makata sa daigdig. Kailangan nating maipakilala si Balagtas sa buong
bansa at sa buong daigdig. Gumawa ng mga sticker, tarpaulin, at iba pa, ng magagandang linya
buhat sa kanyang awit upang ipaskil o idikit sa mga paaralan, pampasaherong dyip, bus, FX,
pedicab, sa mga waiting shed, mall, tambayan, tindahan, palengke, at iba pa o maging palamuti
84
ng mga mug, t-shirt, sombrero, at iba pang ating malimit na isinusuot. Ipabasa sa mga programa
sa telebisyon at radyo ang ilan sa mga linya o bahagi ng kanyang mga akda. At kung maaari ay
maging isang teleserye o fantaserye ang Florante at Laura, tiyak na hahakot ito ng rating. Pero
higit pa sa mga ito, kailangan nating isabuhay ang mga sinabi ni Balagtas. Ang mga pag-alaala
sa kanya tuwing Abril 2 at ang pagsasagawa ng Balagtasan tuwing Buwan ng Wika ay hindi
dapat maging pabalat bunga lamang. Kailangan nating siyang basahin. Kailangang
maisapanahon ang paraan ng paggunita sa kanya lalo na sa ngayong panahon ng makabagong
teknolohiya.
‘Nung gabi, sa gilid ng isang tindahang sarado kami nahiga ni Tatay. Di ako makatulog.
Kahit anong gawin ko, di pa rin ako makatulog. Iniisip ko ang aming bahay, ang aming mga
gamit. Ang dalawa naging pinggan at baso, ang aming kutsara’t platito, ang aming kaldero’t
takure, ang kahon ng aming damit, ang boteng makulay at pati ang mga piktyur.
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Sa buong maghapon, nagkargador si Tatay. Pagkatapos na maibaba ang lahat ng gulay, mga
karne naman, mga damit, mga tela, mga bihon at harina, mga mantel, batya at palanggana. Kaya
paghapon na, hapung-hapo si Tatay. Ako, naiiwan muna sa harap ng simbahan. Tapos ganon
uli kinabukasan. Magkakargador uli si Tatay at maiiwan uli ako sa harap ng simbahan.
“’Wag kang lalayo, pag-uwi ko, masarap na tukneneng ang pasalubong ko sa ‘yo,” ang bilin
lagi sa akin ni Tatay.
Pero iniisip ko pa rin ang aming may gulong na bahay. Mabawi pa kaya namin ni Tatay
ang aming may gulong na bahay?
At isang hapon, laging gulat ko nang iparada ni Tatay sa aking harapan ang aming may
gulong na bahay. Isang drayber na uli ang aking Tatay. Nabawi na rin namin ang aming bahay.
Isa-isa kong tinignan ang aming mga gamit.
Pinasakay ako ni Tatay sa aming bahay at saka niya ito minaneho patungo sa aming
pinagliliguan. Inalis namin ang aming mga gamit at saka inisis ni Tatay ang loob at labas, ako
naman sa manibela. Sinabon at saka binihusan ng tubig. Tapos naging matingkad na asul ang
aming bahay.
Mula noon, lagi kong binabantayan ang aming bahay. Ako na rin ang nagpapaalala kay
Tatay kung bawal itong iparada sa gilid ng kalsada.
Tuwing gabi, di pa rin nauubos ang mga kwento ni Tatay tungkol sa mga may gulong na
bahay.
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21. Ano ang ibig ipakahulugan ng: Habang bumababa ang mga asul na asul na ulap bilang wakas
ng kuwento?
a. Lahat ng problema ay nabibigyang-solusyon.
b. Hindi dapat mawalan ng pag-asa.
c. Maging kuntento sa kung ano ang mayroon.
d. Ang kaligayahan ay hindi matatamo sa mga materyal na bagay.
22. Di ako makatulog. Kahit anong gawin ko, di pa rin ako makatulog. Iniisip ko ang aming bahay,
ang aming mga gamit. Ang dalawa naging pinggan at baso, ang aming kutsara’t platito, ang
aming kaldero’t takure, ang kahon ng aming damit, ang boteng makulay at pati ang mga piktyur.
Anong damdamin ang mababakas sa batang nagkukuwento sa mga pahayag niyang ito?
a. panlulumo
b. pagkabalisa
c. panghihinayang
d. pagkalungko
23. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento?
a. Mahalaga ang bahay sa bawat bata.
b. Tungkulin ng magulang na ipagkaloob sa mga anak ang maayos na buhay.
c. May mga taong kuntento sa kung anong mayroon sila.
d. Di dapat husgahan ang mahihirap.
Direksyon: Basahin ang kuwento. Sagutin ang mga tanong.
“Okey lang,” sabi niya sa sarili. “Sino ba si Eric? Nobyo lang na hanggang ngayo’y
nagdedepende pa rin sa magulang. Okey lang.”
Naghihimagsik ang kanyang damdamin. Parang sasabog ang kanyang dibdib. A, kung
mapaghihingahan lamang niya ng sama ng loob ang mga libro. Kung malulutas lamang ng
psychology books ang kanyang suliranin. Mangyari, kahit anong pag-iwas ang kanyang gawin,
si Eric pa rin ang laman ng kanyang isipan. Kahit ngayong nasa library siya. Wala sa sariling
tinitigan ang hilera ng mga libro sa kabinet. Kanina’y memoryado niya ang call number ng
librong hinahanap. Mangyari’y makalawang ulit na siyang nagpabalik-balik sa card catalogue.
Isinulat sa kapirasong papel ang call number, ang pamagat ng libro at ang may-akda.
Minemorya. Pero nang malingunan kanina si Eric, kinabahan. Namutla. Di makatinag.
Matigas ang leeg na itinuon ang paningin sa hilera ng mga libro. Nasa likuran niya si Eric, at
sa minsang paggalaw niya, presto! A, bakit ba ganoon? Kung sino ang iniiwasan mo ay siya
mong nakikita?
Brag! Nahulog ang hawak niyang libro. Di naman niya makuhang pulutin. Baka
lumingon si Eric.
Kilala niya ang tinig. Bumilis ang tibok ng kanyang puso. Bago nakaiwas, nasa harapan
na niya si Eric. Iniabot ang nahulog na aklat.
“Namatanda ka ba? Naengkanto? Why don’t you speak up?” Hinahabol ni Eric ang
paghinga. “Ang labo mo naman, Gie. Library ‘to. Puwede mo naman akong kausapin, di ba?”
Napalakas ang tinig ni Eric.
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K-R-I-N-G! Bell iyon ng librarian. Napalingon sila sa mesa ng istriktong puno ng
library. Itinuro ng librarian ang malaking sign board: SILENCE.
Napahiya wari, nagkatinginan sila. Si Gie ang unang umiwas. Pilit iniiwas ang mukha
sa binata.
At si Donya Victorina, ang tanging babaeng nakaupo sa piling ng mga Europeo, ang
makapagsasabi kung tamad ang Tabo, matigas ang ulo, at sumpungin. Nerbiyosang tulad ng
dati, nilalait ni Donya Victorina ang mga kasko, bangka, balsang niyog, ang mga
namamangkang Indio, at pati ang mga naglalaba at mga naliligo na ikinayayamot niya ang
katuwaan at tawanan. Oo nga, maaaring bumuti ang takbo ng Tabo kung walang mga Indio sa
ilog, walang mga Indio sa bayang ito! Oo nga, kung wala na kahit isang Indio sa mundong ito.
88
Nawala sa isip niya na pawang mga Indio ang nagtitimon, Indio ang mga marino, Indio ang mga
makinista, Indio ang siyamnapu’t siyam na bahagi ng mga pasahero, at isa rin siyang Indio kung
kakayurin ang kulapol niya sa mukha at huhubarin ang mayabang niyang damit.
- El Filibusterismo
Jose Rizal
malamay:
89
diyan din sisibol
36. Anong mga panandang diskurso ang dapat ilagay sa mga patlang?
a. una, Ikalawa
b. noon, Ang sumunod
c. sinimulan, Pagkatapos
d. bago, Nang lumaon
Direksyon: Basahin ang sumusunod na talata. Tukuyin kung anong uri ng teksto ang mga ito.
90
Nagbago ang mukha ng Tondo. Tapos na raw ang masasayang araw ng mga “halang ang
kaluluwa” dahil ang mga dating siga, ngayon ay nagtataguyod na ng mga proyekto para sa mga
kabataan. Ito raw ay para makaiwas sa mga rambol at droga. Pero sa paglilinis ng Tondo sa
kanyang imahe, may ilang lugar naman sa Metro Manila ang tila nanganganak ng bagong pugad
ng mga siga.
91
a. nagkakaiba-iba ang sistema ng paggamit nito
b. may napagkasunduang sistema ng paggamit nito
c. may mga di sumusunod sa itinakdang sistema ng paggamit nito
d. ginagamit ito sa pakikipag-usap sa ibang tao
43. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang di totoo?
a. Ang wika ay may istruktura.
b. Ang wika ay binubuo ng mga tunog.
c. Ang wika ay di nanghihiram.
d. Ang wika ay may katumbas na simbolo o sagisag.
44. Tawag sa isang taong maraming alam na wika
a. dalubwika
b. polyglot
c. linguist
d. translator
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c. Ang pagsasalin ng mga tekstong Espanyol ang panimulang hakbang sa pag-angkin ng mga
misyonero sa Tagalog.
d. Wikang katutubo ang ginamit ng mga Kastila sa pagpapalaganap ng Kristiyanismo.
52. Ang Florante at Laura ni Francisco Balagtas Baltazae ay isang ___________.
a. diona
b. awit
c. korido
d. romance
53. Sino ang sumulat ng tulang “Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Filipinas”?
a. Jose Rizal
b. Andres Bonifacio
c. Marcelo H. del Pilar
d. Graciano Lopez-Jaena
54. Kinikilalang “Ama ng Maikling Kuwento ng Tagalog”
a. Edgardo M. Reyes
b. Rogelio Sicat
c. Deogracias A. Rosario
d. Genoveva Edroza Matute
55. Alin sa sumusunod ang pangungusap na walang paksa?
a. Maraming salamat!
b. Sasama ka ba?
c. Namili kami sa Divisoria.
d. Alin ang bibilin mo?
III. Tukuyin ang kahulugan ng sumusunod na pahayag idyomatiko sa kahon sa ibaba. Isulat ang titik
ng sagot sa patlang.
93
Pagsasalin. Tukuyin ang katumbas sa salitang ingles ng sumusunod na matalinghagang mga pananalita. Isulat
ang titik ng sagot sa patlang.
a. one who speaks convincingly
b. one who immediately strikes another with his hand or fist when irritated
c. to live in solitude
d. cruel; merciless; ruthless
e. great liking; passionately fond of
f. sterile; unproductive
g. one who has no perseverance; one who just relies on whatever fortunes comes his way
h. very much alike; very similar
i. hard-headed
j. prostitute; whore
____11. Hindi na magkakaanak si Sonia dahil sira ang aparato niya.
____12. Matigas ang ulo ng kanyang anak.
____13. Ang napangasawa niya ay kalapating mababa ang lipad.
____14. Marami siyang naloko dahil matamis ang dila niya.
____15. Walang puso ang pumatay ng aso.
____16. Patay na patay ang binata sa anak na babae ni Mang Gustin.
____17. Nag-ermitanyo si Ruben nang mamatay ang maybahay.
____18. Parang biniyak na bunga ang magkapatid.
____19. Magaan ang kamay ni Sally sa mga anak.
____20. Ang taong parang hipong tulog ay hindi uunlad sa buhay.
Na o Pa (time markers)
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Bata _____ si Tolits.
IV. Tukuyin ang kahulugan ng sumusunod na pahayag idyomatiko sa kahon sa ibaba. Isulat ang titik
ng sagot sa patlang.
Pagsasalin. Tukuyin ang katumbas sa Ingles ng sumusunod na matalinghagang mga pananalita. Isulat ang
titik ng sagot sa patlang.
95
_____18. Ang taong mahaba ang dila ay malimit maging dahilan ng away.
_____19. Makatulo-laway ang katawan ng babaing nakilala nila kanina sa parke.
_____20. Makalaglag-matsing ang tinging iniukol ni Tomas sa nililigawang si Nena.
a. to be scolded; to be reprimanded
b. to open the eyes
c. conveyor of what is heard or seen; talkative; tale bearing
d. substitute
e. an alluring look or a fascinating stare
f. wooing by means of giving gifts and visiting the ladylove at noontime
g. mouth-watering
h. very angry; very much annoyed
i. very dirty ; needs bathing or washing
j. quick and superficial washing of the face
26. Tinutukoy si Maria Josefa Cruz at sinasabi ang kanyang buong pangalan. Maaaring
itinuturo lamang si Maria, o maaari rin namang kaharap siya ng mga nag-uusap.
a. Maria Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
b. Maria/ Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
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c. Maria Josefa/ Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
d. Maria Josefa Cruz/ ang tawag sa kanya.//
28. Kausap ang isang babae na Maria Josefa ang pangalan. Ipinakikilala sa kanya si
Cruz, o kaya’y itinuturo si Cruz.
a. Maria Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
b. Maria/ Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
c. Maria Josefa/ Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
d. Maria Josefa Cruz/ ang tawag sa kanya.//
29. Namili ng mga tela ang nanay sa Baclaran para kay Mely.
a. pokus sa layon
b. pokus sa ganapan
c. pokus sa tagaganap
d. pokus sa tagatanggap
30. Binili ng nanay ang mga tela sa Baclaran para kay Mely
a. pokus sa layon
b. pokus sa ganapan
c. pokus sa instrumento
d. pokus sa tagatanggap
97
LET Reviewer- Mathematics
Lecture Notes
ARITHMETIC
Operation on Integers
Addition
In adding integers with the same sign, add the numbers and copy the sign of the given numbers.
Example:
a) (-3) + (-6) = -9 b) 2 + 5 = 7
In adding integers with opposite signs, subtract the numbers and copy the sign of the larger number.
Example:
a) (-12) + 8 = -4 b) 18 + (-15) = 3
Subtraction
In subtracting integers, change the sign of the subtrahend. Then, proceed to the steps in adding integers.
Example:
Multiplication/Division
The sign of the product/quotient of two integers with the same sign is positive (+).
Examples:
a) (-3) (-3) = 9 b) 4 / 2 = 2
The sign of the product/quotient of two integers with opposite signs is negative (-).
Examples:
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B. Law of Addition and Multiplication
Distributive Law
(A + B) C = AC + BC
The LCM of two or more numbers is the smallest number which is the common multiple among the numbers.
i) 18 = 3 x 3x 2 24 = 3 x 2 x 2 x 2
ii) The common factor is 3 and 2, so delete these in one of the factors
iii) LCM is equal to 3 x 3 x 2 x 2 x 2 or 72
D. Divisibility
A number is divisible by a certain number if the remainder of their quotient is equal to zero.
Example: The last two digits of the number 528 is 28 which is divisible by 4, therefore 528 is divisible
by 4.
Example: 222 is an even number which makes it divisible by 2. The sum of its digits is equal to 6 which
is divisible by 3. Since it is both divisible by 2 and 3, 222 is divisible by 6.
Example: The last three digits of 6328 is 328 which is divisible by 8, therefore 6328 is divisible by 8.
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Example: The sum of 2736 is 18 which is divisible by 9, therefore 2736 is divisible by 9.
((2 x 5) + 3) / 5 = 13/5
Multiplication of fractions
In multiplying fractions, multiply the numerators together for the numerator of the product and the
denominators together for the denominator of he product.
Example:
5/8 x 3/7 = 15/56
Division of fractions
The division of fraction is changed to multiplication of fraction by changing the divisor into its
reciprocal and proceeding as in multiplication.
Example:
¾ / 4/5 = ¾ x 5/4 = 15/16
Addition/Subtraction of fractions
When the fractions have the same denominator, add or subtract the numerators and write the result over
the common denominator.
Example:
2/15 + 6/15 = 8/15
When the fractions have different denominators, express the fraction to equivalent fractions having a
common denominator. Find the Least Common Denominator. The LCD of the desired fraction is the Least
Common Multiple (LCM) of the given denominators.
Example:
100
Example:
3 ½ + 4 2/6 = 3 3/6 + 4 2/6 = 7 5/6
Lowest Term
A fraction is n its lowest term if the numerator and the denominator are prime to each other. Two
numbers are prime to each other when the only common divisor or factor is 1.
To express a fraction in its lowest terms, divide the numerator and denominator by a factor common to
both until the only common divisor is 1.
Example:
24/36 = (24/12) / (36/12) = 2/3
Equivalent Fractions
F. Decimals
Addition of Decimals
In adding decimals, write the given numbers so that the decimal point falls in line or arranged in one
column. Then proceed as in addition of whole numbers and place the decimal point to the sum in the same
column as the other decimal points.
32.8
+ 5.235
122.2
160.235
Subtraction of Decimals
Write the given numbers so that the decimal point falls in line or arranged in one column. Then proceed
as in subtraction of whole numbers and place the decimal point to the difference in the same column as the other
decimal points. If the minuend contains fewer figures after the decimal point than the subtrahend, annex zeroes.
12.50
- 2.34
10.16
Multiplication of Decimals
To multiply a decimal, multiply as in whole numbers; then, beginning from the right of the product,
move the decimal point to the left depending on the number of decimal places of both factors.
Division of Decimals
To divide a decimal, divide as in whole numbers and place the decimal point in the quotient above the
point in the dividend.
When the divisor is a decimal fraction, convert the divisor into a whole number by moving the decimal
point to the right of it, and move also the decimal point of the dividend.
101
Example: Divide 32.2 by .125
G. Percent
Percent is only another name for hundredths. Since percent means hundredths, it can be converted to a decimal or
a fraction.
Fraction to Decimal
Divide the numerator by the denominator.
Decimal to Percent
Move the decimal point two places to the right and write the % sign.
Fraction to Percent
First, change the fraction to decimal by dividing and then change the decimal to percent by moving the
decimal point and writing the % sign.
Percent to Decimal
Move the decimal point two places to the left and remove the % sign.
Decimal to Fraction
Write the decimal number as the numerator of the fraction. The denominator of the fraction will be the
last place value in the decimal.
Percent to Fraction
Write the percent as the numerator of a fraction with a denominator of 100.
Example: In a class of 25 students, 10 are male. We can describe this statement by saying:
NOTE: In verbal problems concerning fractions, decimals and percents, the word “of” usually means multiplication.
102
Finding a percent of a number
To find the percent of a certain number, express the percent as a decimal and multiply.
Example:
a) 5% of 600 = 0.05 x 600 = 30
b) 20% of 50 = 0.20 x 50 = 10
To find what percent one number is of another number, divide the first number by the second and express the
result as percent.
Example:
a) Find what percent 25 is of 625
25/625 = 0.04 or 4%
To find a number when a certain percent is given, express the percent as a decimal and divide the known part of
the number by the decimal.
Example:
a) 15 is 25% of what number?
15 / 0.25 = 60
Example:
a) A farmer harvested 60 cavans of palay last year and 80 cavans this year. What is the percent of increase?
80 – 60 = 20
20/60 = 33 1/3 %
b) A farmer harvested 80 cavans of palay last year and 60 cavans this year. Find the percent of decrease.
80 – 60 = 20
20/80 = 25%
Proportion – formed when we express the fact that one ratio is equal to another
Example:
2:4 = 3:6
2/4 = 3/6
2(6) = 3(4)
12 = 12
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Kinds of Proportion
a) Direct Proportion
If two quantities are related in a manner that an increase or decrease in one will produce the same kind
of change in the other, the two quantities are directly proportional with each other.
Example: Ms. Ramirez used 15 meters of cloth for 6 dresses. How many meters will be used for 10 dresses?
15:6 = n:10
15/6 = n/10
6n = 150
N = 25 meters
b) Indirect Proportion
If two quantities are related in a manner where an increase or decrease in one will produce an opposite
change in the other, then the two quantities are inversely proportional with each other.
Example: If 40 men can build a house for 15 days, how long will 20 men do the same work?
40:20 = n:15
40/20 = n/15
20n = 600
N = 30 days
c) Partitive Proportion
This proportion is used when a number is divided into parts proportional to a given ratio.
3 + 4 + 5 = 12
I. Consecutive Numbers
A collection of numbers is said to be consecutive if each number is the successor of the number which
precedes it.
Example:
a) 1,2,3,4 b) 2,4,6,8
The average of consecutive numbers is the average of the smallest and largest number.
Example:
a) 2,4,6,8
(2 + 8) / 2 = 10 / 2 = 5
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242 -21 + 1 = 222
bn or b^n
where b = base
n = exponent
Example:
3^4=3x3x3x3
= 81
Laws of Exponent
bm x bn = bm+n
Example: 33 x 34 = 3(3+4) = 37
(bm)^n = bmn
ambm = (ab)^m
Example: 22 x 32 = (6)2
NOTE:
a) b0 = 1 , for any non-zero value of b
Example:
10800 = 1
b) b-n = 1/bn
Example:
25-2 = 1/252 = 1/625
2 22
105
Laws of Radicals
> n
a n b n ab
Example: 2
9 2 16 2 9 16 12
n
a n a
>
n
b b
3
216 3 216
Example:
3
2
27 27
K. Multiplication Shortcuts
To save time and effort
a) Multiplying by 10 or a multiple of 10
When a number is multiplied by 10 or by a multiple of 10 (100, 1000, etc.), move the decimal point of
the number as many places to the right as there are zeroes in the multiple of 10.
Example:
22.5 x 10 = 225
22.5 x 100 = 2250
22.5 x 1000 = 22500
Example:
22.5 x 0.1 = 2.25
22.5 x 0.01 = 0.225
22.5 x 0.001 = 0.0225
c) Multiplying two numbers that both end with 5 and whose lefthand digits are the same.
Two numbers ending with five when multiplied shall always have 25 for its rightmost digits. The
lefthand digits of the product will be obtained by multiplying the lefthand digit of the multiplicand by a number
which is the same digit increased by 1.
Example:
25 x 25 = 2<5> x 2<5>
= 6<25>
The rightmost digits, 5 and 5 were multiplied to get 25. The lefthand digit 2, was multiplied by 3 (2
increased by 1) which gives a result of 6. Putting these together, the result is 625.
45 x 45 = 4<5> x 4<5>
= 20 <25>
The rightmost digits, 5 and 5 were multiplied to get 25. The lefthand digit 4, was multiplied by 5 (4
increased by 1) which gives a result of 20. Putting these together, the result is 2025.
d) Multiplying two numbers whose rightmost digits make a sum of 10 and whose lefthand digits are the same.
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When multiplying such numbers, we multiply the rightmost digits of the two numbers. The other digit
shall be multiplied by a number which is the same digit increased by 1.
Example:
36 x 34 = 3<6> x 3<4>
= 12<24>
The rightmost digits, 6 and 4, were multiplied and gave the result of 24. The lefthand digit 3, was
multiplied by 4 (3 increased by 1) and gave a result of 12. Putting these together, the result is 1224.
*If the rightmost digits are 9 and 1, we will write its product as “09”.
The rightmost digits, 9 and 1 were multiplied to get 09. The other digit 4, was multiplied by 5 (4
increased by 1) to get 20. Putting these together, we get 2009.
Example:
a) 23 x 11 = 2 5 3
For the middle part,
2+3 = 5
b) 59 x 11 = 6 4 9
For the middle part.
5+9 = 14
1 will added to the lefthand digit which is 5
5+1 = 6
The answer will then be 649.
ALGEBRA
ALGEBRA
Algebra is a branch of mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation and quantity. The name is derived
from the treatise written by the Persian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and geographer, Muhammad bin Mūsā al-
Khwārizmī titled Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala (meaning "The Book of Compulsion and Encountering" "The Compendious
Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing"), which provided symbolic operations for the systematic solution of
linear and quadratic equations.
Together with geometry, analysis, combinatorics, and number theory, algebra is one of the main branches of
mathematics. Elementary algebra is often part of the curriculum in secondary education and provides an introduction to the
basic ideas of algebra, including effects of adding and multiplying numbers, the concept of variables, definition of
polynomials, along with factorization and determining their roots.
In addition to working directly with numbers, algebra covers working with symbols, variables, and set elements.
Addition and multiplication are viewed as general operations, and their precise definitions lead to structures such as groups,
rings and fields.
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A variable is a letter that represents a number. Since it represents a number, you treat it just like you do a number
when you do various mathematical operations involving variables.
“x” is a very common variable that is used in algebra, but you can use any letter (a, b, c, d, ....) to be a variable.
An algebraic expression is a number, variable or combination of the two connected by some mathematical
operation like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents, and/or roots.
2x + y, a/5, and 10 - r are all examples of algebraic expressions.
You evaluate an expression by replacing the variable with the given number and performing the indicated
operation.
Sometimes, you find yourself having to write out your own algebraic expression based on the wording of a problem.
Addition: sum, plus, add to, added to, more than, increased by, total
Subtraction: difference of, minus, subtracted from, less than, decreased by, less, diminished by
Multiplication: product, times, multiply, twice, thrice, of
Division: quotient divide, into, ratio
A. To simplify any given expression, it is advised that one should be guided by the acronym, PEMDAS (Parentheses-
Exponentiation- Multiplication-Division- Addition-Subtraction).
C. You may use the following laws of exponents to simplify terms with roots or powers.
POLYNOMIALS
Polynomials are algebraic expressions which is the sum of finite number of terms, each of which is the product
of a finite collection of numbers and variables. A polynomial contains positive integral exponents.
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Polynomials like 3x2 and 5xyz4 which have only one term are called monomials. Those with two terms like x –
4y are called binomials. 5x3- xy2 + 4 in an example of a trinomial; that is, it is composed of three terms.
Binomials as Factors
a) Product of Two Binomials
Illustrative examples:
1. (x + 1) (x + 2) = x2 + 3x + 2
2. (x + 5) (x – 7) = x2 – 2x – 35
Note: When multiplying two binomials with only one variable, the middle term is just the sum of the
constant terms where each one takes the operation that precedes it as its sign (i.e., 1 for x + 1, and -7 for x-
7).
0 1
1 1 1
2 1
2 1
3 1 3
3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
The numbers on the left indicate the value by which the binomial is being raised.
For example,
“3” is for (x + y)3 and the numbers on its right are the coefficients of the expansion.
So that (x + y)3 = 1x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
The literal coefficients are either a single variable raised to the highest exponent or a product of the two
variables whose exponents add up to the original (the exponent of the given).
c. Special Products
For any variable x and a, or any constant a,
(x + a) (x + a) = (x + a) 2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
(x – a) (x – a) = (x - a) 2
= x2 + 2ax + a2
(x + a) (x – a) = x - a 2 2
(x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
(x + a) (x2 - ax + a2) = x3 + a3
(x - a) (x2 + ax + a2) = x3 - a3
(x + a)3 = (x3 + 3ax2 +3a2 x + a3)
3
(x - a) = (x3 - 3ax2 +3a2 x + a3)
The following are some of the points to consider when dividing a polynomial:
109
1. If the divisor is a monomial (a variable, a constant or a product of variable/s and constant) each term is to be
divided one-by- one.
2. If the divisor is a binomial, the dividend should be written in a decreasing order of exponent. In case a
3. The division continues step by step until a remainder is reached whose degree is less than the degree of the
divisor. If the remainder is zero, the division is said to be exact.
2x2 – x + 4
3x + 1 / 6x3 – x2 + 11x + 4
- 6x3 + 2x2 2
- 3x + 11x
- - 3x2 - x
12x + 4
- 12x + 4
0
EQUATIONS
There are two important things to note in solving equations (finding the roots or value of the variable/s that will
satisfy the given):
i) If you add or subtract the same algebraic expression to or from each side of an equation, the resulting
equation is equal to the original equation; and
ii) If you multiply of divide both sides of an equation by a nonzero algebraic expression, still the resulting
equation is equivalent of the original equation.
2x + y = 4 (equation 1)
3x + 2y = 6 (equation 2)
Solution:
Using equation 1, solve for y in terms of x, y = -2x + 4 (equation 3)
Now, substitute the value of y obtained in equation 3 to equation 2, then solve for the value of x.
3x + 2 (-2x + 4) = 6
3x + (-4x) + 8 = 6
-x = 6 - 8
-x (-1) = -2 (-1)
x=2
Since y = -2x + 4 (equation 3) and x = 2, by substitution
y = -2(2) + 4
y=0
B. By Elimination through addition or subtraction
Sometimes we can solve two equations by adding them or subtracting one from the other.
110
4x – 2y = 6
5x = 10
then solve for the value of x,
5x = 10
x = 2.
By subtracting the value of x to either equation 1 or 2 we will be able to find the value of y.
x + 2y = 4 (equation 1)
2 + 2y = 4
2y = 2
y=1
Solving Quadratic Equations
The method is based on the fact that if a product of an expression is zero, then at least one of the expressions
must be zero.
Note: a quadratic equation will usually have two different solutions, but it is possible to have only one solution or even no
real solution or root.
You can also solve for the value of the variable in a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula,
Given ax2 + bx + c = 0 then
x = -b ± √ b2 – 4ac
The quadratic formula will always give you the solution to any quadratic equation, but if you can factor the
equation, factoring will give you the solution in less time. If you can’t find the solution immediately, then use the formula.
2a
Solving Radical Equations
When the given variable in an equation occurs in a square root, cube root, and so on, that is; it occurs in a radical,
the equation is called a radical equation.
In some cases, a suitable operation changes a radical equation into linear or quadratic.
Example: √ 2x – 4 - 2 = 0
3
(3√ 2x – 4 )3 = (2) 3
2x – 4 = 8
2x = 12
x=6
Note that the most commonly used procedure is to isolate the most complicated radical on one side of the
equation and then eliminate it by raising both sides of the equation to a power equal to the index of the radical.
Checking is necessary to identify the solution set of the given equation. Sometimes, the value(s) do not satisfy
the given. Those which satisfy the equation are included in the solution set while those which do not are discarded.
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Inequalities
An inequality is a statement involving two expressions separated by one of the inequality symbols <, ≤, >, ≥ or ≠.
The above principles also applies when the inequality symbol is replaced by >, ≤, >, ≥ or ≠.
As with equations, one method of solving inequalities is to replace it by a series of equivalent inequalities until
an inequality with an obvious solution like x > 5 is obtained. Operations used in solving equations may be used to solve
inequalities.
The following procedure reverses the sense of inequality symbols, thus making it inconsistent:
Solution: 3 (x + 2) ≥ 2 (5 – x)
3x + 6 ≥ 10 – 2x
3x + 2x ≥ 10 – 6
5x ≥ 4
x ≥ 4/5
Solution: 4x – 10 < 5x – 3
-10 + 3 < 5x – 4x
-7 < x or x > -7
VERBAL PROBLEMS
Verbal Problems are solved by translating them into appropriate algebraic equations. These are the general steps
in solving a verbal problem
112
Read the problem carefully
Determine the given and the unknown quantities
Write the working equation
Solve the equation
Check if the answer satisfies the conditions given by the problem
Motion Problems
Example:
Two trains start at the same time and travel toward each other from cities 260 miles apart. How many hours will
it take for them to meet if one train travels at 60 mi/h and the other travels at 70 mi/h?
Given:
Rate of train 1: 60 mi/h
Rate of train 2: 70 mi/h
Distance of Stations from each other = 260 mi
Let:
t = time from when the train starts to when they meet
60t = distance traveled by train 1
70t = distance traveled by train 2
Solution:
60t + 70t = 260
130t = 260
t=2
Work Problems
It is always assumed that workers in the same category work at the same rate.
where:
t1 = time taken by the 1st person
t2 = time taken by the 2nd person
t = time taken by both
the formula can be extended depending on the number of persons involved in the problem
Example
Jamee can clean the house in 6 hours. Christine can do the same job in 5 hours. How long will it take them to clean
the house together?
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5 + 6 = 30/t
11 = 30/t
t = 30/11 or 2 8/11 hours
Counting Problems:
In a public survey done by the SWS 60% owned a mobile phone, 80% owned a landline and 50% owned both a mobile
phone and a landline. What percent of those surveyed owned a mobile phone or a landline?
People who owned a mobile phone or a landline = people who own a mobile phone + people who own a landline – people
who own both a landline and a mobile phone
VARIATION
Direct Variation
If the ratio of two variables is a constant (not zero), then either variable is said to vary directly as the other.
y/x = k
where k is called the constant of variation and can be any constant except zero
Example:
Solution:
If we are given one set of values of x and y, we can solve for the value of k and in turn find the corresponding
value of y at a certain value of x.
y = kx
5 = 13k
k = 5/13
y = 21(5/13)
y = 8 1/13
Inverse Variation
If the product of two variables x and y is constant (not zero), then x and y is said to vary inversely.
xy = k
Example:
114
If the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure and if the gas occupies 20 cubic centimeter at a pressure of 40 lb,
what is the volume of the gas at a pressure of 50 lb?
Solution:
We have two variables, the volume and the pressure. Knowing one set of values of V and P, we can solve the constant k.
xy = k
800 = k
Substituting the value of k in the equation VP = k we can get the new volume of the gas at 80 lb.
VP = 800
V = 800/80
V = 10 cc
A sequence is a set of numbers, which obeys a fixed law. In the sequence 3, 6, 9, 12 … 3, 6, 9, 12 are called terms of the
sequence.
Arithmetic Progression
A sequence of numbers, called terms, in which each term after the first is formed from the preceding term by adding to it a
fixed number called the common difference.
an = a1 + (n-1) d
where:
an = last term n = number of terms
a1 = 1st term in the progression d = common difference
Example
Find the 38th term of the series 7,1,-6 . ..
Given:
a1= 7
n = 38
d = -6
Solution:
an = 7 + (38-1) -6
an = 7 + (37) -6
an = -215
The nth term or the last term of an arithmetic progression can be solved by using the formula:
Example:
Find the sum of the first 100 terms of the progression 10,7,4 …
Solution:
Given:
a1= 10
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n = 100
d = -3
Solution:
Sn = (100/2) (2(10)+ (100-1)-3)
= 50( 20 + 99(-3))
= 78
Geometric Progression
A sequence is a considered a geometric progression when the ratio of two consecutive terms in the sequence is
always the same.
an = a1r(n-1)
where:
r = common ratio
Example:
Write the first 3 terms of the geometric progression in which a n is 5 and r is ½.
a2 = 5(1/2) = 5/2
a3 = 5(1/2)2 = 5/4
the first three terms of the geometric progression are 5, 5/2, 5/4
GEOMETRY
Geometry is an example of a mathematical system. Being a mathematical system, it is characterized by (1) acceptance of
undefined terms on which definitions are based and (2) a set of assumed principles from which other principles can be
deduced. In geometry, the assumed principles are called postulates in geometry while axioms in algebra.
The statements that are deduced (or proved) are known as theorems.
Undefined Terms
“Point”, “line”, and “plane” are terms often used without being defined. Instead, they are simply described and serve as
building blocks for later terminology. A point, which is represented by a dot, has location but not size; that is, a point has
no dimension.
Lines have quality of “straightness” that is not defined but assumed. Whereas a point has no dimensions, a line is one-
dimensional; that is, the distance between any two points on a given line can be measured. Plane, another undefined term
is two-dimensional; that is, it has infinite length and infinite width, but no thickness.
Notations
↔
116
AB “line AB”
→
AB “ ray AB”
Postulate 1
Through two distinct points, there is exactly one line.
Postulate 2
The measure of any line segment is a unique positive number.
Postulate 3
If Z is a point on AB and A-Z-B, then AZ + ZB = AB.
Postulate 4
Through three non-collinear points, there is exactly one plane.
Postulate 5
If two distinct planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.
Postulate 6
Given two distinct points in a plane, the line containing those points also lies in the plane.
Sample Problem:
In the figure on the right, AB and EF are said to be
skew lines because they neither intersect nor are parallel.
How many planes are determined by
(a) parallel lines AB and DC (ans. 1) G F
(b) intersecting lines AB and BC (ans. 1)
(c) skew lines AB and EF (ans. infinitely many) A B
(d) lines AB, BC, and DC (ans. 1)
(e) points A, B, and F (ans. 1) H E
(f) points A, C, and H (ans. 1)
(g) points A, C, F, and H (ans. 4)
D C
ANGLES
If two lines meet at a point, they form an angle. The point is called the vertex of the angle and the lines are called rays
of the angle. Thus, as defined, angle is the union of two rays that share a common endpoint.
Naming Angles
A
(i) ABC
B
(ii) B (Given that B is the vertex Cof the angle)
1 x
Adjacent angles are angles having the same vertex and a common side and one angle is not inside the other.
117
Postulate 7
The measure of an angle is a unique positive number.
Postulate 8
If a point D lies in the interior of , ABC
then m ABD + m DBC = m ABC.
Congruent angles are angles with the same measure.
Complementary angles are pair of angles whose sum adds up to 90 degrees.
Supplementary angles are a pair angles whose measure adds up to 180 degrees.
When two straight lines intersect, the pairs of nonadjacent angles formed are known as vertical angles, and
vertical angles are congruent.
In the figure on the right,
and
s are
u vertical angles s
as and . v t
t v u
Practice on these:
5
1) Consider the figure below, l and m intersect so that m = 2x + 2y
5
m 8 = 2x – y
7 8 m 6 = 4x – 2y
6
2) Given: m RST = 2x + 9 R
m TSV = 3x – 2
m = 67˚ S T
RSV
Find x.
V
3) Suppose that (a) and are adjacent and AF → →opposite rays. What can you say
and AD are
FAC CAD
about and FAC CAD ?
4) The two angles are complementary and one angle is 12 degrees larger than the other. Using the variables x and y, find
the size of each angle.
z
3x + 90
A transversal is a line that intersects two (or more) other lines at distinct points; all of the lines lie in the same
plane.
1 5 3 7, 2 6, 4 8
118
Corresponding angles: and , and and and
Two angles that have different vertices (plural of “vertex”) and lie on opposite sides of the transversal are
alternate interior angles.
Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that do not intersect.
Postulate 9
Through a point not on a line, exactly one line is parallel to the given line.
Postulate 10
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the corresponding angles are congruent.
Try this:
(a) m l 1 2
2 4
(b) m 3
5
(c) m 4
(d) m 8
m 5 6
8
TRIANGLES 7
119
Acute triangle Right triangle Obtuse triangle
100˚
130˚
30˚
3. If two angles of a triangle are congruent to the two angles of a second triangle, the third angles are congruent.
Illustrative example
− ┴
− − − BFE
┴
126˚
F
y x B
A
D
Solution:
90˚ + x = 126˚ ( Since 126˚ is the measure of the exterior angle of the triangle and
by (2) the sum of the remote angles x and the right angle must be equal to it.)
solving for x,
x = 126˚ - 90˚
x = 36˚
Alternative solution:
To solve for y, we can use (1).
y + x + 90˚ = 180˚
y = 54˚
120
Therefore x = 36˚ and y = 54˚.
Right Triangles
In symbols,
a2 + b2 = c2 where a and b are length of the legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse.
Example
x2 = 32 + 52
x2 = 9 + 25
3
x x2 = 34
___
x = √34
Note: we only considered the positive root since the length is nonnegative
Polygons
Polygon is a closed figure in a plane composed of line segments which meet only at their endpoints. The line
segments are called sides of the polygon and a point where two sides meet is called a vertex of the polygon.
B G
A
H
C
D J I
121
ABCD is a polygon while GHIJ is not.
In a parallelogram: M N
a) Opposite sides are parallel.
b) Opposite sides are congruent.
c) Opposite angles are congruent.
d) Consecutive angles are supplementary.
O
e) Diagonals bisect each other. P
f) Each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
The apothem of a regular polygon is perpendicular to a side, bisects that side, and also bisects a central angle.
OX is an apothem.
It bisects AB, and is perpendicular to AB
and bisects AOB .
O
The area of a regular polygon is equal to
one- half of the product of its apothem and perimeter.
CIRCLES A X B
Circle is a set of points equidistant from a fix point called the center.
A tangent is a line that touches a circle at exactly one point; the point of intersection is the point of contact or the point
of tangency.
A secant is a line (or segment or ray) that intersects a circle at exactly two points.
A polygon is inscribed in a circle if its vertices are points on the circle and its sides are chords of the circle. In such case,
the circle is circumscribed about the polygon.
2 6
O
4 5
F 3
B
C
122
Given: m AB = 92◦
m DA = 114◦ TERM
m BC = 138◦
Find the measure of each of the numbered Inscribed angle of a circle is an angle whose
angles. vertex is a point on the circle and whose sides are
chords of the circle.
Solution:
(a) m 1 = 360˚ – ( m DA + m AB + m BC)
2
= 360˚ – ( 114˚ + 92˚ + 38˚ ) THEOREM 1
2
= 360˚ – 344˚ A central angle is equal in degreesAto its
2 intercepted arc.
= 16˚
O B
2
= 8˚
Therefore, angle 1 is equal to 8 degrees.
(Note that Theorem 2 is applied to arrive If AB = 40˚
to the final answer.)
THEOREM
then AOB2 = 40˚
(b) m 2 = ½ AB
= ½ (92˚) The measure of an inscribed angle of a
= 46˚ circle is one-half the measure of its interceptedAarc.
B
C
If AC = 130˚
S = ½ (40˚)
=O20˚
T
R Q
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Theorem 4
An angle formed by two chords intersecting in a circle is equal in degrees to one-half of the
sum of its intercepted arcs. A C
40˚ E 80˚
D
If m AD = 40˚ and m CB = 80˚ B
(f) m 6 = ½ ( m AB) C
= ½ (92˚)
= 46˚
Theorem 6 ↔ ↔
Given that BA and BC
The radius (or any other line through .O
are tangent to circle O,
the center of a circle) drawn to a tangent at
Then BA = BC
the point of tangency is perpendicular to the
FORMULAS
tangent IN FINDING THE AREA, VOLUME, PERIMETER and CIRCUMFERENCE
at that point.
1. Rectangle: AR = lw
PR = 2l + 2w where l is the legnth and w is the width
3. Rhombus: A = ½ d1d2
124
P = 4s
5. Trapezoid: A = ½ h (b1+ b2) where b1 and b2 are length of the parallel sides
6. Circle: A = πr2 where r is the radius and π is the constant (approx. 3.14)
C = 2πr or C = πd where d is the diameter
Exercises
1. If m
1 = 3x – 9, what the value of x?
50˚ 30˚
B
A
4. Find the area of an equilateral triangle with perimeter equal to 9 cm.
__
5. An equilateral triangle has an altitude of 5 √3long. Find its area.
cm
125
Exercises
x
140˚
O
80˚
30˚
(6x + 54) ˚
X2 (4x – 6)˚
180˚
5. In the figure below, if radius OX is 12 and the area of the right triangle OXY is 72, what is the area of the shaded
region?
X
O
126
Y
Note: To be given before the end of the last 2 hours (Session for Geometry)
TRIGONOMETRY
A. Trigonometric Functions
Let P(x,y) be any point other than the origin on the terminal side of an angle θ in standard position. The distance
from the point to the origin is r 2 x2 y2
P(x,y)
r
θ
x
y r y
sin csc tan
r y x
x r x
cos sec cot
r x y
Example:
The terminal side of an angle α goes through the point (5,12). Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of
angle α.
Finding r:
r 2 x2 y2
r 2 52 12 2
r 2 25 144
r 2 169
r 13
127
12 13 12
sin csc tan
13 12 5
5 13 5
cos sec cot
13 5 12
B. Reciprocal Identities
Some of the functions are reciprocals of each other. Reciprocal identities hold for any angle θ that does not lead to
a zero denominator.
1 1
sin csc
csc sin
1 1
cos sec
sec cos
1 1
tan cot
cot tan
Example:
1
sec
6
7
7
sec
6
y
1. The angle of elevation is the angle made by the ray xy (above horizontal) and the ray with endpoint x as shown in
the figure above.
2. The angle of depression is the angle made by ray xy (below horizontal) and the ray with endpoint x as shown in
the figure above.
Example:
The angle of depression is measured from the top of a 43 ft tower to a reference point on the ground. Its value is found
to be 63°. How far is the base of the tower from the point on the ground?
63°
θ
43 ft
Solution:
x
tan 27 θ = 90 – 63
43
43(tan 27) x θ = 27
x 21.91 ft
3. In both air and sea navigation. The clockwise angle from north of the line of sight to a point of reference is called
the bearing of the point. There are two common ways to express bearing.
a. If a single angle is given it is understood that the bearing is measured in a clockwise direction from due north.
33°
135°
b. The second way of expressing bearing starts with the north-south line and uses an acute angle to show the direction,
either east or west, from this line.
129
33° 30°
N 42° E
E. Circular Functions
(0,1)
A(1,0)
r=1
(-1,0) (1,0) x
(0,-1)
1. Consider a circle in a coordinate plane whose center is the origin (0, 0) and the radius is 1. This circle is called the
unit circle. The equation governing this circle is x y 1 and every point in the unit circle must satisfy this
2 2
equation.
2. An arc running counterclockwise from point (1,0) is an arc of positive length while an arc running clockwise from
the same point is an arc of negative length.
3. A circular function is defined in terms of the arc length and the coordinates (x,y) in the terminal point of the arc
as it moves around the unit circle
y 1
cos x tan ( x 0) sec ( x 0)
x x
x 1
sin y cot ( y 0) csc ( y 0)
y y
130
θ A(0) sinθ cosθ
0 (1,0) 0 1
π/2 (0,1) 1 0
π (-1,0) 0 -1
3π/2 (0,-1) -1 0
2π (1,0) 0 1
A rotation of 360° (one revolution) is equal to 2 radians therefore half a revolution is equal to radians.
2
Convert radians to degrees
3
2
3 deg rees
180
2 deg rees
3 180
120 deg rees
6. Arc Length
The length s of the arc intercepted on a circle of radius r by a central angle of measure θ radians is given by the product
of the radius and the radian measure of angle.
s r
Example:
3
A circle has a radius of 19cm. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central angle measuring radians.
8
s r
3
s 19
8
131
57
s centimeters
8
7. The measure of how fast the position of F is changing is called the linear velocity (v)
B
O
s
v where S is the length of the arc cut by point R at time t
t
8. the measure of how fast angle FOB is changing is called angular velocity (ω)
where θ is the measure of angle FOB at time t
t
Example:
Suppose point F is on a circle with radius of 8cm and ray OF is rotating with an angular velocity of π/10 radians
per second.
132
s
v
t
4
v cm per second
5
F. Trigonometric Identities
Example:
Prove cotθ = cos θcscθ
1
= cos
sin
133
cos
=
sin
= cotθ
1. Law of Sines
For any triangle ABC in which a,b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite the angles with measures A,B, and
C respectively.
a b c
sin A sin B sin C
Example:
60° 50°
65
C 180 (60 50) 70
sin A sin C sin B sin C
and
a c b c
sin 60 sin 70 sin 50 sin 70
a 65 b 65
65 sin 60 a sin 70 65 sin 50 b sin 70
65 sin 60 65 sin 50
a b
sin 70 sin 70
59.9 a 52.99 b
2. Law of Cosines
For any triangle ABC in which a,b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite the angles with measures A,B, and
C respectively.
a 2 b 2 c 2 2bc cos A
b 2 a 2 c 2 2ac cos B
c 2 a 2 b 2 2ab cos C
134
Example:
c
15
C 60° A
14
c2 a 2 b 2 2ab cos C
c2 15 2 14 2 2(14)(15) cos 60
c2 211
c 14.53units
y sin 1 x or y arcsin x means x sin y , for y in ,
2 2
y cos 1 x or y arccos x means x cos y , for y in 0,
y tan 1 x or y arctan x means x tan y , for y in ,
2 2
y tan 1 x , I and IV
,
2 2
y cot 1 x , 0, I and II
135
Example:
Since is in the range of the arcsin function we can conclude that y
6 6
STATISTICS
A. Statistics is the study of techniques concerned with the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.
Statistics is used to
a. Summarize and describe data (descriptive statistics)
b. Draw conclusions from the data (inferential statistics)
B. If for example, one is to gather data from a survey. All the data collected is referred to as population. When only
part of the data is collected it is referred to as sample.
C. Random sampling means selecting individuals entirely by chance. A random sample must be taken from many
places in the population, the more samples, the better the chances of getting the true picture of the population.
When one event can occur in m different ways and another event can occur in n different ways, then together the events
can occur in m*n different ways provided that the second event is not in any way influenced by the first event.
Example:
How many even numbers of two digits each can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9, if repetition of
digit is not allowed?
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The units place can be filled by 2, 4, 6, and 8. This place can be filled 4 ways.
The tens place can be filled 8 ways because repetition is not allowed.
Therefore the number of even two digit numbers if repetition is not allowed is:
4 x 8 = 32
The number of Permutations of n distinct elements taken r at a time, denoted n Pr is given by the formula:
n!
Pr for 0 r n
(n r!)
n
Example:
n!
Pr
(n r!)
n
9!
9 P4
(9 4!)
= 3024 ways
The number of distinguishable permutations P of n elements taken n at a time with r1 like elements, r2 like elements
of another kind, and so on is given by the formula:
n!
P
r1!r2 !r2 !...
Example:
How many permutations can be made using all the letters of the word institution?
12!
P
3!2!2!3!
= 3,326,400
Example:
F. A group of objects or things, irrespective of their order is called a combination. A combination of n elements of a
set taken r at a time, denoted nCr is any r-element subset of the given set.
n!
Cr for 0 r n
r!(n r )!
n
137
Example:
10!
C6
6!(10 6)!
10
10!
10 C 6
6!(4)!
10 9 8 7
10 C 6
(4)!
10 C 6 210
G. In sample space that contains equally likely outcomes that can be counted, the probability than an event E will
occur, P(E), is the ratio of the number of outcomes in the event to the number of outcomes in the sample space.
Example:
a. P(getting 1) = 1/6
b. P(getting an even number) = 3/6 = ½
c. P(getting 1,2,3,4,5, or 6) = 6/6
d. P(getting an 8) = 0/6 = 0
H. A table showing the distribution of measures of the same kind is called a frequency distribution. The frequency
distribution can be used to organize date.
Example:
Construct a frequency distribution for the marks of 15 pupils in an algebra exam.
32 33 34 31 33 35 40 39 37 31 35 30 29 37 36
Interval Frequency
39-40 2
37-38 2
36-35 3
138
34-33 3
32-31 3
29-30 2
In a large population a great number of individuals cluster near the middle of the scale. The concentration of cases
near the middle helps us to describe and compare distributions easily.
_
a. Mean is the arithmetic average of the data. It is denoted as x .
_
1 n
x xi where n is the number of values, each xi is an individual value
n i 1
b. Mode is the value of the measure that occurs most frequently.
c. Median is the value of the middle measure when the measures have been arranged in rank order. If there
is no middle value, we take the midway between the values of the middle two cases.
Example:
Find the mean median and mode for the following quiz scores.
5, 7, 10, 10, 7, 9, 5, 6, 7, 7, 4
_
5 7 10 10 7 9 5 6 7 7 4
x
11
_
x7
First arrange the scores into ascending order.
4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 9, 10, 10
The median of the scores is 7
J. Measures of Variation
Shows the variability or dispersion of the data.
a. The range of a set of data is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value. It shows the
distance of the scattering values away from the middle.
Example:
Given a set of scores in a Biology test 99, 95, 78, 61, 54, 87, 75.
The highest score is 99 and the lowest score is 54
The range of the set is 99 - 54 = 45
Variance ( )
2
b.
The greater the variance the more the scores vary from the mean.
1 n _
2 i )2
n i 1
( x x
139
_
Each value xi x is called a deviation from the mean
Example:
_
Find the variance for the data set 10, 2 , 3, 9, 1 with x =5
_ _
x x- x ( x x) 2
10 5 25
2 -3 9
3 -2 4
9 4 16
1 -4 16
n _
(x
i 1
i x) 2 70
1
2 (70)
5
14
2
c. Standard Deviation ( )
The standard deviation is the most frequently used measure of the spread of the set of data.
n _
( xi x ) 2
i 1
In the preceding example the variance was computed to be 14. To get the standard deviation, we take the
square root of the variance which is the 14 . The standard deviation for the preceding example is
approximately 3.74.
K. When data is distributed in a bell shape or normal curve it is assumed that approximately 68% of the values are
within 1 standard deviation of the mean, approximately 95% are within 2 standard deviations of the mean and
about 99.8% are within 3 standard deviations of the mean.
L. A z – score is the number of standard deviations the value is from the mean. The sign of the z – score tells its
direction from the mean.
_
xx
z
Example:
_
What is the z-score for 90 when x = 60 and =3
_
xx
z
140
90 60
z
3
z 10
90 is 10 standard deviations above the mean.
Practice Test
Multiple Choices:
3. If 2 apples cost P25.00, how many apples can be purchased for P100.00?
a. 8 apples c. 2 dozens
b. ½ dozen d. 1 ½ dozens
4. If 2 tablespoons= 1 liquid oz., and 5 tablespoons = ¼ cup, then, how many liquid ounces are there in one
cup?
a. 4 ounces c. 16 ounces
b. 10 ounces d. 24 ounces
5. 2 is what percent of 5?
a. 25% b. 38% c. 40% d. 35%
6. Five (5) average office workers earn a total average monthly salary of P10, 000. If the average monthly
salaries of two of these workers total P 4,000, what is the average monthly income of each of the
remaining three workers?
a. P 6,000.00 c. P 2,500.00
b. P 2,000.00 d. P 4,000.00
9. If the short hand of the clock is at 4, what is the degree of its’ angle?
a. 90 b. 120 c. 130 d. 150
10. There are two numbers whose sum is 48. One of the numbers is greater by 6. What are the numbers?
141
a. 23,24 b. 21,27 c. 22,26 d. 23,26
12. My uncle’s weight is two times that my nephew. My aunt’s weight is half that of my nephew. What is
the total weight of the three? Which of the following formulae will apply for the correct answer?
a. x3+2 1/2 c. (2x) + (x) + (1/2x)
b.
½ + 3x d. 2x + 1/2x2
15. In 1 ½ hours, the minute hand of a clock rotates through an angle of how many degrees?
a. 60 b. 90 c. 180 d. 540
16. When the fraction 2/3, 5/7, 8/11 and 9/13 are arranged in an ascending order, the result would be?
a. 8/11, 5/7, 9/13, 2/3 c. 2/3, 8/11, 5/7, 9/13
b. 5/7, 8/11, 2/3, 9/13 d. 2/3, 9/13, 5/7, 8/11
20. The ratio of two numbers 5: 3 and their differences is 20. What are the numbers?
a. 50, 30 b. 55, 35 c. 40,60 d. 45, 65
21. The ratio of two numbers is 16: 33. The larger number is 264. What is the smaller number?
a. 131 b. 130 c. 129 d. 128
23. What is the smallest positive number which, when it is divided by 3, 4 or 5, will leave a remainder of 2?
a. 42 b. 22 c. 62 d. 122
24. Which of the following number has the largest numerical value?
a. ( 3+3+3) to 3rd power c. ( 4x3x3) to 2nd power
rd
b. ( 3x3) to 3 power d. 3 cube + 3 square
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25. Eight percent of 36 is 72% of what number?
a. 2.06 b. 2.88 c. 3.24 d. 4
26. Which of the following has the greatest value?
a. 6/10 b. 8/12 c. 17/24 d. 7/9
29. The number is 15 less 7; when added to ten, what will the number be?
a. 28 b. 18 c. 17 d. 15
32. A motion was passed by a vote of 6 is to 4. What parts of votes cast were in favor of the motion?
33. If three miles is equivalent to 4.83 kilometers, then 11.27 kms is equivalent to how many miles?
a. 2 1/3 b. 7 1/3 c. 5 d. 7
34. Ever good Systems employ 115 people. During the low season, it laid off 20% of its employees. By what
percent must the company increase its’ manpower to return to full capacity?
a. 20 b. 22 c. 23 d. 25
35. Golen Bell Books offer 2004 World Almanac marked at P2, 450.00 less discount of 10% and 5 %.
Another bookstore offers the same book but with a single discount of 15%. How much does the buyer
save by buying at the best price?
a. P12.25 c. P 12.00
b. P 12.50 d. P10.50
36. Lulu travels a distance of 20 kilometers at 60 kms. per hour (kph) and then returns over the same route
at 40 kph. What is his average rate for the round trip in kms. per hour?
a. 50kms b. 48 kph c. 47 kph d. 46 kph
37. Mr. Milby took his four children to the trade exhibit. The total cost of their admission tickets was P
135.00 Mr. and Mrs. Alonzo and their six children had to pay P 220.00. What was the cost of an adult
ticket and that of a child’s ticket?
a. P 35.0 & P 25.00 c. P 24.00 & P 35.00
b. P 25.00 & P 35.00 d. P35.00 & P 28.00
38. Cass and uma both have part time jobs. Last week, Cass worked 8 hours and Uma, 5 hours and both of
them earned a total of P800.00. This week, Uma worked 12 hours and Cass, 4 hours and they earned a
total of P1, 250.00. How much is Cass’s hourly rate?
a. P 48.00 b.P49.50 c. P 44.08 d. P44.50
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39. What is Uma hourly rate?
a. P89.90 b. P89.00 c. P88.75 d. P 89.47
40. If X is located on line segment AB and point Y is located on line segment CD, If AB = CD and AX >CY,
then :
a. XB > YD c. XB > YD
b. AX > XB d. AX > XB
41. If W > X, Y< Z and X > Z, then which of the following equation must be true?
a. W >X >Y> Z c. X >Z >Y >W
b. W> X >Z >Y d. Z < Y < X < W
42. The number of degrees through which the hour hand of a clock moves in two hours and 12 minutes is?
a. 66 degrees c. 126 degrees
b. 72 degrees d. 732 degrees
43. Emang is 15 years old. Veronica is one-third older. How many years ago was Veronica twice as old as
Emang.
a. 3 b. 5 c. 7.5 d. 10
44. A train running between Calamba and Magallanes arrives at its destination 10 minutes late when it goes
at 40 kms. per hour. And 16 minutes late when it goes at 30 kms. per hour. What is the difference between
the two towns?
45. Jake is 67 years old. His son Jay is 29 years old. In how many years will Jay be exactly half his father’s
age?
a. 6 b. 7 c. 8 d. 9
PROBLEM SOLVING :
46. Jamie bought 55 copies of phil. History and paid a total of P 3,850.00. If she buys 3 copies more of the
same book, how much will she pay in all?
a. P4,060 b. P4,260 c. P4,160 d. P4,150
47. A manufacture finds that 150 pieces of pens are defective and unsuitable for sale. If the defective pens
are equivalent to three percent of the production, how many pens are being produced?
a. 5100 b. 4990 c. 5000 d. 5150
48. Trisha is paid P 380.00 per hour for the 1st hrs. She works in a day. For every hour thereafter, she is paid
P 475.00 per hour. If she works 4 more hours’ day for 3 days in a week, how much does she earn per
week?
a. P2,1000 b. P2,0900 c. P2,0950 d. P2,9990
49. Maxine owns 40% of the stock in Millennium Traders, Inc. Justine owns 15,000 shares. Aleah owns all
the shares not owned by Maxine or Justine. How many shares does Maxine own if Aleah has 25 % more
shares than Maxine?
a. 45,000 shares c. 60,000 shares
b. 50,000 shares d. 75,000 shares
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c.
50. What would Aleah’ total number of shares in Millennium Traders Inc?
a. 75,500 c. 75,050
b. 75,600 d. 75,000
51. Two trains start from the same station at the time but travel in opposite directions. Their rate is 45 miles
per hour and 65 miles per hour respectively. After how many hours will the train be 640 miles apart?
a. 4 hrs. 40 mins c. 6 hrs
b. 5 hrs 48 mins d. 4 ½ hrs
52. C is the midpoint of line segment AE, B and D are in the line AE so that AB = BC and CD = DE. What
percent of AC is AD?
a. 33 % b. 50 % c. 133 % d. 150 %
53. Admission tickets to a college play cost P20 for students and P 50 for non-students. If 550 tickets were
sold and total receipts amounted to P 15,500. How many tickets of each type were sold?
a. 160 & 390 c.150 & 400
b. 100 & 450 d.170 & 380
54. Mang Jose, a gardener, can mow a lawn in 3 hrs. After 2 hrs., it rained and he stopped mowing the lawn,
in the afternoon, Aling Tina, completed the rest of the work in one hour and 30 minutes. How long
would it take Aling Tina to mow the lawn by herself?
a. 2 hr. and 30 mins. c. 1 hr. and 45 mins.
b. 1 hr. and 22 mins. d. 2 hr. and 22 mins.
55. A couple wants to have only four children so spaced that the first is older than the second by 2 years,
the second older than the third by three years, the third older than the fourth by 4 years. If their plan is
realized, how old will the eldest child be when the youngest is nine years old?
a. 18 yrs. Old c. 17 yrs. old
b. 16 yrs. Old d.15 yrs. Old
58. The number missing in the series 6, 12, 20, 30, ? , 56, 72 is ?
a. 38 b. 42 c. 44 d. 48
\
59. If the following numbers are arranged in order from smallest to the largest, what will be the correct
order?
* 9 /13 * 13/9 * 70% * 1/.70
a. Bacd c. Cdab
b. Cbad d. Acdb
145
a. 1 b. 10 c. 2 ½ d. 2
72. A blue neon light blinks every 4 seconds. A red one blinks every 5 seconds, while a green one blinks
every 6 seconds. How many times will they blink together in one hour?
a. once b. 10 times c. 20 d. 60
74. The distance between two towns on a given map is 2 ¾ cm. If 1/2cm represents 6 km. What is he distance
between the two towns?
a. 18 km c. 36 km
b. 33 km d. 42 km
75. Margo paid P400 for a blouse. If the blouse was sold at 20% discount, what was its original price?
a. P 80 b. P 480 c. P 500 d. P 540
146
76. Julius drove 193.5 kilometers did he travels in one hour? How long it will take him to travel 150.5
kilometers more?
a. 43 km & 3.5 hrs. c. 40 km & 7.3 hrs.
b. 54 km & 4 hrs. d. 42 km & 4 hrs.
77. Mr. Perez earned P27, 895 from mango plantation. He also earned 352,168 from his poultry farm. How
much did he earn in all?
a. P 379,953 c. P 379,963
b. P 380,063 d. P 479,063
78. Christine bought 8 kilos margarine. She used 2 1/3 kilos for baking cake and 1 ½ kilos for spaghetti.
How many kilos of margarine were left?
a. 5 5/5 kilos c. 5 1/6 kilos
b. 4 1/6 kilos d. 3 5/6 kilos
79. Mrs. Salas bought 6 meters of wire for P20. How much will 9 meters of wire cost?
a. P 15 b. P 20 c. P 25 d. P 30
80. Belen deposited P4, 000 in a bank with an interest of 7 ½% per Annum. How much is the interest of
her money after one year?
a. P 100 c. P 1000
b. P 300 d. P 3000
81. There are 40 pupils with only 20 textbooks in the science class of Mrs. Dela Cruz. What is the pupil
textbooks ratio?
a. 1:2 b. 2:1 c. 2:3 d. 20:40
82. On test 25 questions, Uma made 4 mistakes. What percent id he answer correctly?
a. 80% b. 84% c. 85% d. 82%
83. Mrs. Ponti borrowed P1, 500 at 10% interest per annum for 6 months. How much did she pay back?
a. P 1,525 c. P 1,575
b. P 1,500 d. P 1,595
85. Which two numbers total the sum of 72 the difference being 12?
a. 32 and 40 c. 41 and 31
b. 30 and 42 d. 24 and 48
86. The ratio of the number of boys to the number of girls in a class is 2:3. If here are 40 students in the
class. How many boys are there?
a. 8 b. 16 c. 18 d. 24
87. Mrs. Paredez paid P94.50 for 3 ½ dozen of eggs. How much would two dozen of such eggs cost?
a. 50.50 b. 54.00 c. 55.00 d. 56.00
147
88. Mark divides his day into leisure, sleep, and work in the ratio 1:2:3. How many hours does he spend
work.
a. 4 hr b. 8 hr c. 10 hr d. 12 hr
89. It takes 20 men to build a house or 60 days. How many men will be needed to build in 15 days?
a. 5 b. 80 c. 100 d. 120
91. The area of rectangle is 17 cm2. Find its perimeter if its length is 13 cm
a. 9 cm b. 30 cm c. 44 cm d. 54 cm
93. In a sequence of start and stops an elevator travels from the first floor to the fifth floor and then to the
second floor. From there, the elevator travels to the fourth and then to the third floor. If the floors are 3
meters apart how far has the elevator traveled?
a. 18 m b. 27 m c. 30 m d. 45 m
a. -4 b. 14 c. 28 d. 10
148
Lecture Notes
General Science
Definitions of Science
An organized body of knowledge gathered over a long period of time to explain the world we live in.
Knowledge or a system covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained
and tested through scientific method.
Scientific Method
Dependent Variable – variable that responds to the variable that is changed in the experiment.
hypothesis – it is what we think the answer to the question is and it should stated in terms of the variables
defined.
*Scientific law – a description of a natural occurrence that has been observed many times.
*Scientific theory – a reasonable explanation of a scientific law. It is derived from a hypothesis that has been
supported by repeated testing.
*Model – helps visualize occurrences and objects that cannot be observed directly.
Note: Scientific laws and theories cannot be proven absolutely. They are maintained as all observations support
them.
Measurements
149
In science, the metric system is used in all measurements for its convenience and simplicity.
The International System of Units (SI) uses the seven base quantities and units given below:
Mass Kilogram, kg
Length Meter, m
Time Second, s
Temperature Kelvin, K
Example 1: The diagram below is a metric ruler used to measure the length of a pencil. How long is the pencil?
8 cm 9 10
The smallest fraction of a centimeter in the metric ruler is 0.1 cm. This corresponds to the last certain
digit in any measurement. The pointer reads 9.0 cm. One uncertain digit should be added. In this case it is 0.
Mega 106
Decimal
point
moves to
the left
150
Decimal
point
moves to
Kilo 103
Deka 102
Hector 101
Deci 10-1
Centi 10-2
Milli 10-3
Micro 10-6
To convert 37.5 cg to grams, count the number of steps from centi to base unit. Since it moves upward,
the movement of the decimal point is to the left.
Answer: 0.375 g
1. Lithosphere – the solid part and the largest portion of the earth
2. Hydrosphere – the liquid part. It covers about 71% of the earth’s surface
3. Atmosphere – the gaseous portion that envelops the earth
4. Biosphere – the region where living things are found.
Rocks and Minerals
Everywhere you look, you find rocks of different shapes and sizes. What is important to remember about
rocks is the way they were formed. The varying conditions for the rock formation influence the characteristics
that each rock develops,
Sedimentary rocks – form from deposited fragments or particles of other rocks that have been weathered
and eroded.
e.g. limestone, conglomerate, dolomite, shale
Metamorphic rocks – rocks that have undergone changes due to heat and pressure
e.g. marble (from limestone), slate(from shale)
Weathering is a term for all processes which combine to cause the disintegration and chemical alteration of
rocks at or near earth surface.
151
Erosion includes all the process of loosening, removal, and transportation which tend to wear away the earth’s
surface.
Climate – general conditions of temperature and precipitation in a large area over a long period of time.
Ecology
1. Ecology – the study of how living things interact with their environment.
2. Ecological Factors
a. biotic – all living factors in the environment
b. abiotic – nonliving factors that are essential to living organisms
3. Population – a group of the same species living together
4. Community – all the different populations living together
5. Ecosystem – community of different living things interacting with one another and with their nonliving
environment
152
6. Biomes – a large area whose ecological communities are determined by its climate.
Solar System
The probable origin of our solar system, specifically the sun, is similar to that of other stars. The age of a
star is related to its temperature and its color. Bluish and white stars are the hottest and youngest stars. The
least hot and the oldest star are the reddish stars.
Nebular theory – states that the solar system originated from a rotating gas and dust cloud composed of
hydrogen, helium and some heavier elements.
Ptolemaic Theory – The earth is stationary; each planet and the sun revolved around the earth.
Copernican Theory – This theory considers the sun as the center of the solar system. The earth and other
planets revolve around the sun in a circular orbit.
Planets
Meteoroids – are objects smaller than the asteroids that revolve around the sun.
Comet - is a mass of frozen materials such as water, methane and ammonia along with the bits of rock and dust.
Solar eclipse – when the sun, the moon and the earth are in straight line. During solar eclipse, the sun can’t be
seen from earth because the moon covers it.
Lunar eclipse – same as solar but in this case the sun covers the moon.
153
Biology
Biology – the branch of science that deals with the study of living systems and life processes.
A. Cells
This is probably the most basic term that you would need to know. All living systems are composed of
cells. They are the basic unit of structure and fuction in living things. Following is an illustration and concept
map of a cell and the different structures contained in it.
mitochondrion
Except for the
chloroplast
Golgi apparatus
cytoplasm
lysosome
protoplasm centriole
Microtubules and
microfilaments
Organelles are structures with specific functions found within living cells.
Nucleus – This organelle is arguably the most important structure in the cell because it serves as the
control center in which individual functions of the other organelles are coordinated.
Cell wall/cell membrane – the cell wall in plant cells and in some monerans and protests provides
rigidity for support to the cells and a characteristic shape for functionality and structure. The cell
membrane on the other hand is selectively permeable.
Mitochondrion – this organelle is also called as “powerhouse of the cell”. It serves as the site where
ATPs are abundantly synthesized.
Chloroplast – this serves as the site of photosynthesis among plants and photosynthetic algae.
Ribosome – this serves as the site of protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum – These organelles serve as channels or passageways through which materials
are transported to the different parts of the cell.
Centriole – this serves for cytokinetic purposes and is very common among dividing cells
154
Lysosome – the structure is also called “suicidal bag” as it releases digestive juices
Golgi apparatus – this serves for selection and packaging of cellular materials.
The Cell Theory serves as the basis on which everything that we know about the cell is anchored. There are
three elements to this theory;
2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living systems.
Like any biological structure, the cell is composed of biomolecules that are intricately combined to enable the
cell to perform its metabolic functions.
155
Cells according to complexity
Prokaryotic cells – have no membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of bacteria and blue-
green algae
Eukaryotic cells – have membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of protests, fungi, plants,
and animals.
Cell Transport
Passive Transport – does not require the expenditure of energy; moves particles through the concentration
gradient.
Active transport – requires the expenditure of energy; moves particles against the concentration gradient.
Diffusion - this refers to the process in which molecules of solvent move from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration.
Osmosis – this refers to the diffusion of particles or molecules across selectively permeable membrane.
Cell Reproduction
This refers to the process by which cells divide to produce daughter cells. It involves either mitosis if somatic
or body cells are involves or meiosis if germ or sex cells are involved.
- also referred to as equational dvision because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is equal to the
ploidy number of the dividing cell.
Meiosis - refers to the division of germ cells
- also referred to as reductional division because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is only half
that of the parent cell
B. Botany
Plants are autotrophic organisms capable of synthesizing their own food for growth and maintenance
through the process of photosynthesis. Their cells are eukaryotic (i.e. with a distinct nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles) like fungal and animal cells, but are distinguished by the presence of cellulosic
cell walls, plastids and large vacuoles. Plant cells may also contain non-living inclusions called ergastic
substances that are products of the cell’s metabolism, like crystals and starch.
Three major plant cell types, parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, make up the different tissues
of the plant. Although they assume various shapes, they are most easily distinguished by general features and
location in plant body.
o Parenchyma cells are usually large, thin-walled and are extremely variable in shape.
156
o Collenchyma cells have primary cell walls that are thickened irregularly by cellulose and pectin
materials.
o Sclerenchyma cells have a comparatively thick primary cell wall bearing heavy depositions of lignified
secondary substance laid down in a laminated pattern.
Tissues are aggregate of cells with similar structure and function. Some of the cells in the tissue may
even undergo further cell modification and change in function. Thus it is difficult to classify plant tissues on the
basis of a single criterion like function, origin or structure.
o Meristematic tissues are composed of immature cells and regions of active cell division. They provide
for growth and are found in the root tip.
o Permanent tissues
a. Epidermis –composed of tiny openings principally on the underside of the leaves that regulate the
exchange of water and gases called stomates.
b. Periderm – constitute the corky outer bark of trees.
c. Vascular tissues – composed of xylem and phloem; xylem functions for the transport of water and
minerals upward from the roots while phloem functions for the transport of food materials.
Different Plant Parts
Root
It is typically underground organ of the plant axis that functions principally for anchorage and absorption
of water and minerals from the soil. The first formed root is the primary root. It develops from the radicle of the
seed embryo. Some root arises from other plant organs like stems and leaves hence are described as adventitious.
There are two general types of root system, the fibrous which is found in monocotyledons, and the taproot,
characteristic of dicotyledons.
Stem
The stem is readily recognized by the presence of nodes. Leaves are born on these nodes. The intervening
area between the two nodes is an internode.
Leaf
It is a flattened, green, lateral appendage that carries out the functions of photosynthesis and
transpiration. Chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color.
Flower
Fruit
The fruit is the ripened ovary with functions to protect and disperse the seeds. It is the product of the
entire pistil and other floral parts that may be associated with it. Two processes precede fruit development;
157
pollination or the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma and fertilization or the fusion of a sperm nucleus
and an egg cell.
The numerous stomates of a leaf serve as entry point for a carbon dioxide (photosynthesis) and the exit
for water vapor (transpiration). If transpiration proceeds at a rate much faster that that of the roots could absorb
water from the soil, the plant tissues suffer from water deficit, causes plant to wilt.
General Equation:
Respiration
- it is a complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is released from food molecules ingested by
organisms.
Plant Taxonomy
It is the science of classification, nomenclature and identification of plats. It is the most basic and a
unifying field of botany.
Classification is the arrangement of plants into categories that have similar characteristics. These
categories called taxa are arranged into hierarchy to form a classification system. The smallest taxonomic unit is
the species. Similar species form a genus and elated genera, a family. The most inclusive category, the kingdom
comprises all plants.
Nomenclature is the orderly assignment of names to taxa or categories in accordance with the rules of
International code of botanical nomenclature. A plant’s scientific name is a binomial, that is, it is composed of
a generic name (genus) and a specific epithet. The name of the person who proposed the binomial completes the
scientific name (Oryza sativa L.)
C. Genetics
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. Heredity is the transmission of traits from generation to
generation while variation deals with genetic differences between organisms. The process mainly involved in
heredity and variation is cell division.
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The cells in all organisms grow and reproduce by cell division. A unicellular bacterium, after doubling
in size, can reproduce by dividing into two cells. In multicellular organisms like man, increase in size is attained
by dividing its constituent cells.
Law of Dominance – state that only dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype and that recessive alleles
are masked among hybrids but are manifested among pure breeds.
Law of Co-dominance – states that two equally dominant alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype and
that no blending is achieved.
Law of Incomplete Dominance – states that among multi-allelic traits, two dominant alleles that are not
dominant enough to mask the expression of one another, are incompletely expressed in the phenotype, hence a
blended trait is achieved.
Mendel’s law may be separated into two rules: first, the law of Independent Segregation of Alleles and second,
the Law of Independent Assortment.
*Law of Independent Segregation states that the alleles in a gene pair separate cleanly from each other during
meiosis.
*Law of Independent Assortment states that the alleles of the different genes separate cleanly from each other
and randomly combining during meiosis.
a. Monohybrid Cross
One of the pairs of alternative characters in sweet peas studied by Mendel waqs round vs wrinkled seed.
These distinctive characters or traits are called phenotype while the gene or genetic content coding for these
traits is the genotype. In example below, both parents are homozygous so that the round (P1) and wrinkled (P2)
parents have the RR and rr genotypes, respectively. The gametes produced after meiosis by P1 is R and by P2 is
r so the progeny of the first filial generation (F1) have heterozygous (Rr) genotypes. Since R is dominant over
r, then the F1’s have round phenotype. This is an example of complete dominance. R masks the expression of
r. This is the dominant allele. The allele that is masked ( r ) is the recessive.
Genotype RR rr
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Gametes R r
Fertilization
F1 genotype: Rr
Phenotype; Round
To demonstrate that the F1’s are heterozygous, a testcross can be conducted wherein the F1 plants are
crossed to the homozygous recessive parents (rr). The recessive parent contributes the gametes ( r ) while the
other parent contributes R and r. Testcross results in 1 Rr (round): 1 rr (wrinkled) or 1:1 segregation ratio.
Rr x rr
Gametes r
R Rr (round)
r rr (wrinkled)
b. Dihybrid Cross
The members of gene pairs located on different homologous chromosome segregate independently of
each other during meiosis.
Mendel studied two phenotypes, texture and color of seeds with two alternative traits; round and yellow
seeds vs. wrinkled and green seeds. He crossed pure breeding round, yellow seeded plants with pure breeding
wrinkled, green seeded plants. The F1 progenies were all yellow round seeded plants. The F2’s gave 315 round,
yellow: 101 wrinkled yellow; 108 round, green and 32 wrinkled, green plants. Approximately 9:3:3:1.
The method used in getting the genotypic ratio among F2 progeny is called Punnett Square or
Checkerboard method.
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The first part dealt with the physical basis of heredity – the chromosomes. Chromosomes are the carriers
of the multitude of genes. Genes or hereditary units, on the other hand, are actually fragments or portions of the
deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.
A chromosome is made up of one very long DNA packaged with histones to fit inside a minute nucleus
of the cell. Eukaryotic cells with several chromosomes would, therefore, contain more than one molecule of
DNA. Prokaryotic cells and viruses generally possess one long molecule of DNA either naked or associated with
proteins but not as organized as compared to eukaryotic chromosomes. The DNA has been tagged as the genetic
material of all organisms with the exception of some viruses with ribonucleic acid or RNA as their genetic
material.
DNA as the genetic material is capable of transmitting biological information from a parent cell to its
daughter cells and, in a broader perspective, from one generation to another. The information stored in its base
sequence is copied accurately by replication. Replication is a process of faithfully copying a DNA to produce
two DNA molecules identical to the parent DNA. These DNA molecules are then passed on to the daughter cells
via the chromosomes during cell division.
The information stored in the DNA when expressed will result to a particular trait of an individual. The
trait is expressed through the action of proteins either directly or indirectly.
The central dogma of molecular biology consists of three general processes namely: replication (DNA
synthesis), transcription (RNA synthesis) and translation (protein synthesis). The transfer of information from
cell to cell or from generation to generation is achieved by replication. On the other hand, the transfers of
information from the DNA to the proteins involve two processes: transcription and translation. Generally, all
organisms follow this mode of transfer except for some viruses that undergo reverse transcription.
Transcription
Translation
Reverse
Transcription
Mutation – changes in the genetic materials that are essentially heritable.
a. Deletion – refers to a segment of base pairs in the DNA that is spliced off.
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b. Substitution – refers to a segment of the base pairs in the DNA that is replaced by a different series of base
pairs.
Evolution – this process refers to the gradual change in populations through time.
Animal tissues are generally classified into four categories: Epithelium, Connective Tissue, Muscle and
Nerve. These animal tissues make up all the organ systems of the body.
o Epithelium, in its simplest form, is composed of a single continuous layer of cells of the same type
covering an external or internal surface.
o Connective Tissue, has the widest range encompassing the vascular tissue(blood and lymph), CT proper,
cartilage and bone.
o Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells organized in long units of structures called muscle fibers or
muscle cells. The two general categories of muscle, smooth and striated. Striated or skeletal muscle
functions for voluntary control while smooth muscle functions for involuntary contractions.
o The nerve cells or neurons comprising the nervous tissue each possess a cell body which contains the
nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm. The process come in contact with other nerve cells, or with other
effector cells through a point of contact called synapse.
Animal Development
Animal development is a series of events that is controlled by the genetic information in the nucleus and
factors in the cytoplasm. It starts with fertilization and ends into the arrangement of cells which gives the embryo
its distinct form. Features which are unique to organism such as the shape of the face, location and number of
limbs and arrangement of brain parts are molded by cell movements in response to the action of genes in the
nucleus and molecules in the cytoplasm.
Stages of Development
a. Gametogenesis
Each species has its own chromosome number. Somatic cells of humans have 23 pars of chromosomes
(22 pair somatic and one pair sex; one chromosome of each pair is originally derived from the father and the
other from the mother. The chromosomal pair comes in contact with each other and exchange segments during
meiosis. This phenomenon provides combinations of parental traits hence there is more viability in the characters
of the offspring.
Gametogenesis changes the diploid cells into haploid sperms and ova. Cells undergo meiosis, a sequence
of two divisions during which the chromosomes divide only once. The resulting cells have only half the number
of the chromosomes of the parent cells. This process prevents doubling of the chromosomes during fertilization.
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The male germ cells, initially round and large, are changed into slender and flagellated cells. The
cytoplasm is practically lost and mature cells develop a head, neck and tail. The female germ cells gradually
increase in size as a result of growth.
b. Fertilization
The ovum and the sperm unite thus restoring the diploid chromosome number of the species. In humans,
each gamete has 23 chromosomes (haploid). Upon fertilization the zygote acquires 46 chromosomes. At this
stage of development, the genetic sex of the individual is established.
c. Cleavage
The unicellular zygote undergoes cleavage characterized by active mitoses. It is not a period of growth
but a time in which the zygote is divided into a large number of small cells, the blastomeres. Each blastomere
nucleus has the same DNA since these are derived from the same cell, the zygote. Cleavage ends with the
formation of the multicellular organism.
d. Blastula
The mass of blastomeres forms a hollow fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. In frogs, cells below the
blastocoel are large; these are the macromeres.
In humans, at this embryonic stage, the 32-cell cell blastocyst burrows into the uterus. The blastocyst
has two distinct cell types; an inner cell mass and an outer shell, the trophoblast. The former will become the
embryo, the latter will give rise to the extra-embryonic membranes termed amnion and chorion.
e. Gastrula
Gastrulation, a stage of extensive cell movements, rearranges the embryonic cells. Cells are translocated
to the different areas thus acquiring new neighbors and new positions. The neighbor cells may act as inducers in
the formation of structures. The different cell movements establish the third germ layer, the mesoderm.
At the end of gastrulation, the embryo has three primary germ layers: an outer ectoderm, an inner
endoderm and middle mesoderm. At this stage tissues have become committed to form one type of organ- a
brain or stomach.
The ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis of the skin, sense organs and the nervous system. The endoderm
gives rise to the organs of the respiratory and digestive systems. The mesoderm gives rise to the organs of the
circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems, connective tissues and linings of body
cavities.
f. Neurula
Toward the end of gastrulation, the ectoderm along the dorsal surface elongates to form a layer of
columnar cells, the neural plate. This region thickens and moves upwards forming the neural fold which then
fuse to form a hollow tube, the neural tube. Closing of the neural tube starts at the head region and continues
posteriorly. This piece of tissue gives rise to skin pigments, nerves and the adrenal medulla.
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g. Organ formation
The ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm formed in the gastrulation are the source materials for the
development of organs. At this stage the component cells are still undifferentiated and do not show any adult
feature. These masses are further subdivided into groups of cells until the organ acquires its unique characteristics
and specific location.
h. Brain Formation
The earliest form of the brain is the nueral tube. At this stage, the brain shows three regions-
prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and the rhombencephalon (hind brain). Later, the
prosencephalon divides into telencephalon and diencephalons. The mesencephalon remains undivided.
In frogs, the brain is a straight tube and remains in that condition in adult. In humans, the embryonic
brain undergoes bending and twisting. Hence in adult, the hindbrain is adjacent to the forebrain and the eyes
become anterior to the nose.
i. Limb Formation
Limbs start as buds at the embryonic sides, which later develop as paddle-like extremities. Later, circular
constrictions appear dividing the limb into three main segments. Fingers and toes develop when cells at the most
distal end die. The upper limb rotates 90º sideward so that the thumbs move sideward. The lower limb rotates
90º towards the center, placing the big toe at the center.
The branch of biology that pertains specifically to the relationship of an organism with that of its
environment is known as ecology. Ecology is a body of knowledge that covers the economy of nature. It involves
the study of overall relationship of an organism to its inorganic/organic environment, that is, the physical world;
and its relation and interaction with other organisms, both plants and animals alike.
The basic functional unit and the most important concept in ecology is the ecosystem, as it includes both
plants and animals and the physical environment, each of which influencing the other. Ecosystem or ecological
system may refer to biotic assemblage of plants, animals, microbes interacting among them and with that of the
physico-chemical environment.
The ecosystem has two basic components – the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. The
biotic component is further subdivided into two units, namely, the autotrophs (self nourishing/self feeding) and
the heterotrophs (other feeding).
The autotrophs are usually chlorophyll-bearing organisms, that are able to harness solar energy. In the
presence of water and carbon dioxide, they convert this energy into (chemically-stored energy) known as
adenosine triphosphate or ATP. They assume the role as producers in an ecosystem. Plants are the typical
producers. However, in aquatic systems, algal communities or phytoplanktons may be the producers.
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Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are those that depend on the producers as food. They are generally
classified as consumers, although those that secure food directly from the producers are better known as
herbivores or primary consumers. A secondary consumer or carnivore, on the other hand, derives its nourishment
indirectly from the producers by devouring the herbivore. In some ecosystems, tertiary consumers exist. Other
heterotrophs include also the decomposers where organic matter is reduced to simpler substances. Structurally
therefore, the ecosystem can composite the following, that is, the abiotic factors; the producers; the
macroconsumer; and the decomposers.
The abiotic component, on the other hand covers climatic, edaphic (soil) and topographic factors.
Climate includes light, temperature, precipitation and wind. Light influences the biotic components in
many ways, as in photosynthesis, flowering seed dormancy, leaf senescence, nesting, migration and hibernation.
Light quality penetrating with increasing water depths also determines the type of producers (i.e. green algae in
shallow water and red algae at greater depths). Temperature affects living organisms by influencing their
metabolic processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in different ecosystems depending on its availability.
Water as the universal solvent plays an important role in the ecosystem as it serves as a medium for
biochemical processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in terrestrial ecosystems depending on its
availability. In aquatic ecosystems, however, what plays important roles are salinity, ph, temperature and
dissolved oxygen.
The atmosphere is a major reservoir of nutrients important to life. Nutrient cycling in the atmosphere
is further facilitated by wind. The latter also accelerates evapo-transcription rate causing damage to plant
structures. However, it plays an important role in facilitating seed dispersal and in the distribution of plants and
animals.
Biome - is a geographical unit uniformly affected by a common prevailing climate havin a similar flora and
fauna.
Marshlands
Lakes
Seas and oceans and
Estuaries
Five Kingdoms
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Plantae – eukaryotic; multicellular;
Animalia – eukaryotic; multicellular; includes the invertebrates and vertebrates.
Ecological Relationships
a. Producers – occupies the 1st trophic level; composed of plants and photosynthetic algae
b. Consumer
- herbivore – occupies the 2nd trophic level; 1º consumer
- carnivore – occupies the 3rd trophic level; 2º consumer
- omnivore – occupies either the 2nd or 3rd trophic levels.
c. Decomposer – the last component of a food chain
Energy Transfer - energy is transferred from one trophic level to another following the 10 % rule.
Food Web - it is a feeding relationship that is illustrative of a series of interlinking food chains.
Ecological Laws
Two ecological laws can demonstrate this relationship between organisms and their environment. These
include Liebig’s Law of Minimum and Shellford’s Law of Tolerance.
Liebig’s Law of Minimum states that “growth and survival of an organism is dependent primarily
on the nutrients that are least available. “A plant will grow and develop well where a particular
nutrient critical for growth and survival is found to be inadequate or not available at all in that
particular area. Take note that magnesium is an important component for the production of
chlorophyll, being the central atom of pigment.
Shellford’s Law of Tolerance states that “the existence of the organism is within the definable
range of conditions.” This means that “ organisms then can live within a range between too
much and too little”. Thus an organism han an optimum range of conditions (peak) curve and
an intolerance zone, where number of organisms is at its lowest or zero.
Chemistry
Chemistry- is a science that studies matter, its properties, structure and the changes it undergoes together with
the energy involved.
Branches of Chemistry
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Analytical Chemistry
Physical Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
Biochemistry
Scientific method- a systematic approach/procedure in investigating nature; a combination of observations,
experimentation and formulation of laws, hypotheses and theories; an organized approach to research
STEPS
IN A
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
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It might rain. (inference)
Law (natural law) - a pattern or consistency in observation of natural phenomena; a verbal or mathematical
statement which relates a series of observation
Law of Thermodynamics
3. Defining a problem
Hypothesis- an educated guess to explain an observation; a tentative explanation of a natural law based on
observation
5. Experimentation
6. Interpret results.
7. Generate a generalization.
Theory- a hypothesis that survived testing through experimentation; a model or a way of looking at nature that
can be used to explain and make further predictions about natural phenomena
Do not return extra chemicals to the main supply unless so directed. To avoid waste, take from the
supply only the amount of material needed.
Perform experiments with the apparatus at arm’s length from the body never directly under the face.
If you must smell a substance, hold the container at a distance and, with a cupped hand, waft the fumes
toward your nose.
Never use cracked or broken equipment. It can complete its breaking.
Never pour water into concentrated acid. Always add the acid to the water with stirring.
Read the lower meniscus of a colorless liquid at eye level. Use the upper meniscus when the liquid is
colored.
Never weigh hot substances.
Measurements in Chemistry
ZEROS IN MEASUREMENTS
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There may be some confusion about the zero in a measurement. Rules will be used to determine whether
zeros are significant or not.
1. Trailing Zeros
2. Captive Zeros
Zeros that are found between any two non-zero digits are significant.
3. Leading Zeros
b. When there are no digits before a decimal point or when the digit before a decimal point is zero, the
zeros after the decimal point preceding other digits are not significant.
EXACT NUMBERS Any number that is exact such as the number 3 in the statement “there are three feet in
one yard” is said to have unlimited number of significant figures.
The sum or difference should have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as the
factor with the least number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
e.g. 35.986
+ 675.8
567.3839
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The result obtained by multiplication and/or division must have the same number of significant figures
as the factor with the least number of significant figures.
When the answer to a calculation contains too many significant figures, it must be rounded off to the
proper number of significant figures. The rules for rounding off is summarized as follows:
1. If the digit to be removed is less than 5, drop this digit and leave the remaining numbers unchanged. Thus,
1.23 becomes 1.2 when rounded off to two significant figures.
2. If the digit to be removed is equal to or greater than 5, drop this digit and increase the preceding digit by one.
Thus, 3.46 becomes 3.5 when rounded off to two significant figures.
Error – the difference between a measured value and the true (or most probable) value.
True value
Precision indication of the agreement among different measurements of the same event.
measured by deviation
Deviation – absolute value of the difference of the measured value from the average value
MATTER
Matter- anything that has mass, takes up space (volume) and possesses inertia
Matter
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Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous
(Solution)
Pure Substance- homogeneous matter that cannot be separated into its components by physical means; with fixed
composition and distinct properties
a. Elements- pure substance composed only of 1 type of atom; cannot be decomposed by ordinary means into
simpler substances (Ex. H, He, Au, W)
b. Compounds- two or more elements chemically combined in a definite and constant proportion (Ex. KCl,
CH3COOH, MgCl2)
Ionic Compounds
Molten Conducting
Aqueous Conducting
Malleability: Brittle
Molten Non-conducting
Aqueous Non-conducting
Hardness: Soft
Malleability: Brittle
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The structural units that occupy the lattice points in the solid are ATOMS.
The atoms are bound to each other by strong COVALENT BONDS.
Molten Non-conducting
Aqueous Insoluble
Malleability: Brittle
Mixture- combination of different substances in variable proportions; can be separated into its components by
physical methods of separation
Types of Mixtures:
a. Homogeneous- uniform composition and properties throughout a given sample, but composition and
properties may vary from one sample to another (e. g. solutions)
b. Heterogeneous- with non-uniform properties throughout a sample where components retain their identity and
phase boundaries exist (e.g. colloids, suspensions)
Crystalline solids – high degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of particles
Amorphous/non-crystalline solids – disordered arrangement of particles but with a high degree of
cohesiveness
Liquid crystals – medium degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of particles; allows a
degree of ordered motion of particles
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Properties of Matter
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Extensive/E Intensive/ Physical Chemical
xtrinsic Intrinsic
Extensive Properties properties that depend on the amount of material observed
Intensive Properties properties that does not depend on the amount of material observed
Extrinsic Properties properties that can vary with different samples of the same material
Intrinsic Properties properties which are inherent to the substance and do not change for different samples
of the same substance
Physical properties characteristics observed or measured without changing the identity or composition of
the material
Chemical Properties characteristics observed or measured only by changing the identity or composition of
the material; ability or inability of matter to undergo a change in its identity or composition at given conditions
Changes in Matter
Changes in Matter
Phase Change
Synthesis Decomposition Single
Displacement
Physical Change changes in the phase or state of a substance but not its composition
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Phase Change – determined by existing conditions of temperature and pressure
A+B+C…D
AB+C+D+…
AB + C AC + B
AB + CD AD + CB
Other types:
Combustion - Reaction with O2 to form CO2, H2O, N2 and oxides of any other elements present
Precipitation - Formation of a precipitate when a solution is added to another
Precipitate – an insoluble or slightly soluble solid that forms when 2 solutions are mixed.
Solubility Rules
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LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
“In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the starting materials (reactants) is equal to the total mass of the
materials produced (products).”
- The Greeks were only concerned on the existence of the atom but not on its nature
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In 1808, published the book “A New System of Chemical Philosophy” wherein he presented the
atomic theory in detail.
Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model
1.
Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms which are indestructible.
2.
All atoms in a given element are identical and have the same mass.
3.
Atoms of different elements have different properties.
4.
Reactions involve only the rearrangement of atoms; separation or union. When atoms combine to form
compounds, the ratio of the no. of combining atoms is fixed.
Thompson’s Raisin Bread/ Plum Pudding Model
The cathode rays are repelled by the negative pole of a magnetic field
This suggests that the ray consists of a stream of negatively charged particles
All atoms must contain electrons.
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An atom is a diffuse, spherical cloud of positive electrification with randomly embedded negatively
charged electrons.
Thomson measured the charge to mass ratio of the electron:
e/m = -1.76 x 108 c/g
He also showed that whatever metal is used as a cathode and whatever gas is present inside the tube, the
cathode ray consist of the same particles as shown by the same e/m ratio.
Importance of Thomson’s Experiment
Explanations:
Most of the mass and all the (+) charges on an atom are centered in a
very small region called the nucleus.
The atom is mostly empty space.
The magnitude of (+) charge is different for different atoms.
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Electrons move around the (+) nucleus.
Goldstein, in 1886 identified the positively charged particle and named it proton
He used cathode with holes and observed rays passing through the holes opposite in direction to those
of the cathode rays.
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• There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can know both the position and the momentum
of a particle at a given time.
The Nature of Light
1. WAVELENGTH, λ
2. FREQUENCY,
- number of waves or cycles per second that pass a given point in space
Relationship of λ and
λ 1/ν or λν = c
Atomic Spectra
- The spectra produced by certain gaseous substances consist of only a limited number of colored lines with
dark spaces between them.
- Each element has its own distinctive line spectrum- a kind of atomic fingerprint.
v is frequency
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Energy is “quantized” and can only occur in discrete units of size hv (packets of energy called Quantum)
Transfer of energy can only occur in whole quanta, thus, energy seems to have particulate properties.
Albert Einsetein (1879-1955)
Then λ = h / mv
ISOTOPES – elements with different mass number due to the difference in the number of neutrons
ISOBARS – different elements with the same mass number but different atomic number
PROTON
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charge = +1.60 x 10-19 c
The no. of p+ is a unique property of an element
# of p+ = atomic #, Z
= nuclear charge
= # of e -s in a neutral atom
NEUTRON
A = Z + # of n0
ELECTRON
Ernest Rutherford
negatively charged
in a neutral atom :
# of e - = # of p+ = Z
Summary:
Ex. An atom with 5 protons and 5 neutrons has an atomic number of 5 and a mass number of 10
ISOTOPES
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Francis William Astron (1877-1945)
– observed using the mass spectrometer that neon has 3 isotopes
The listed atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the naturally
occurring isotopes.
Atomic mass = (% abundance)(isotopic mass)
For Ions
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
Spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus with accompanying emission of radiation in order to
form a more stable species.
Nuclear Equation
• The sum of the mass #’s (A) must be the same on both sides
• The sum of atomic #’s (Z) must be the same on both sides
Nuclide
Stability of Nuclide
• ODD-EVEN RULE
• Even # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be stable
• Odd # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be unstable
• MAGIC NUMBER
• Isotopes with specific # of p+ or n0 are more stable than the rest:
• 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126
• All nuclides with 84 or more protons are radioactive.
• e. g. Po, At ….
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• - particle:
• Heavy, travel short distances
• Usually emitted by a heavy nuclei
2. BETA DECAY OR EMISSION OR NEGATRON EMISSION
• particle (negatron)
• Usually when neutrons are in excess, they
are transformed into protons with
emission of beta particles.
3. POSITRON EMISSION
NUCLEAR FISSION
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• Time required for half of radioactive nuclei in a sample to undergo radioactive decay
• Constant for every radioactive isotope
t1/2 = ln 2/ k k is the rate
ORBITAL is an energy state for an electron described by the three quantum numbers n, l and ml
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Orbital Symbol
l Letter designation
- combination of n and l
0 s
- consists of a number (for n) and a letter (for l)
1 p
e.g. 3s n = 3 ; l is s = 0
2 d
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
3 f
Values: l to –l including zero
Related to the orientation in space of the angular momentum associated with the orbital
Degenerate orbitals – orbitals having the same energies
Thus, an orbital can hold only 2 e-’s, and they must have opposite spins.
¤ Aufbau Principle- the orbitals of an atom are filled in order of increasing energy
- According to the (n+l) rule. The lower the value of (n+l), the lower the energy of the orbital. If
the (n+l) values of two orbitals are the same, the one with lower n is filled first.
¤ Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity- the lowest energy arrangement of electrons in a set of degenerate orbitals
is where there is a maximum number of electrons of the same spin. Electrons occupy degenerate orbitals
singly before pairing.
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THE PERIODIC TABLE
The Elements
- In a triad , the combining weight of the central member is the average of its partners.
- When elements are arranged in increasing atomic mass, every eighth element had similar properties.
Shortcomings:
A periodic trend in properties is observed when elements are arranged in increasing atomic weights.
4. Dmitri Mendeleev’s Periodic Table and Periodic Law (1869)
Groups
Vertical rows
Previous notation: IA – VIIIA, IB – VIII
New IUPAC* notation: 1-18
*IUPAC – International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
Elements belonging to the same group have similar (not identical) properties
Special names of some groups
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Horizontal rows
Properties of elements that belong to a period show a pattern or trend that is repeated in the next period
Numbered 1-7
Pattern in Ion Formation
Note: The size of the cation is smaller as compared to its neutral atom
Atomic Size
► Covalent radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms joined by a single covalent
bond.
► Metallic radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of 2 atoms in contact in the crystalline solid metal.
Ionization Energy
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► Tendency of an atom or ion to attract additional e-
X(g) + e- X- (g)
Electronegativity
Chemical symbols
An element is represented by a symbol which may be one or two letters; the first is capitalized and the
second is in the lower case. The symbols may be derived from the Greek, German or Latin names of the elements.
1. Identify the elements present in the compound given by the chemical formula. The name of the more metallic
element is written first.
3. Use the prefix corresponding to the number of atoms present in the compound.
1 Mono- 6 Hexa-
2 Di- 7 Hepta-
3 Tri- 8 Octa-
4 Tetra- 9 Nona-
5 Penta 10 Deca-
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The mono- prefix is frequently omitted, particularly for well-known substances. If no prefix is use, it usually
implies that no number of atoms of element is one. However, experts in nomenclature caution that this can be
dangerous and suggest that it is better to include the mono- prefix.
Some compounds are known only by their common names. The most common of this are:
Forrmula
H2O
NH3
PH3
Name
Water
Ammonia
Phosphate
1. Represent each kind of element in a compound with the correct symbol of element.
2. Indicate by a subscript the number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound.
3. Write the symbol of the more metallic element first. (H is an exception to this rule.)
IONIC COMPOUNDS
Compounds formed between metals and nonmetals are called ionic compounds.
1. Write the name of the cation first, followed by the name of the anion.
2. Unlike binary covalent compounds, PREFIXES ARE NOT USE to indicate the number of ions present
in the formula.
Note that for ionic compounds, the prefixes are not attached to the chemical name to denote the number of
atoms of the elements. The number of atoms is implied by the charges of the cation and the anion. It is
therefore important to know the charges of the common cations and anions.
3. Most transition metals can exist in more than one ionic form. Thus, it is important to know the charge of
the cations in their compounds.
189
SnBr2 tin (II) bromide stannous bromide
The method of indicating the charge of the cation involves placing a Roman numeral equivalent to the
magnitude of the charge of the cation in parenthesis after the English name is called the Stock System of
Nomenclature.
Some ionic compounds form crystals that contain a certain proportion of water molecules apart from the
ions of the compound. Such compounds are called HYDRATES. Hydrates are named just like other ionic
compounds except for the addition of the “hydrate” with a Greek prefix indicating the number of water
molecules per unit of the ionic compound.
1. Write the symbol of the positive ion (cation) first, followed by the symbol of the negative ion (anion).
2. Write the charge of each ion over the symbol of that ion. Usually, for the main group elements, the group
number usually gives the charge of the monoatomic ion. Remember that Group 1 elements would have a
charge of (+1); Group 2 (+2); Group 3 (+3); Group 16 (-2); Group 17 (-1); and Group 18 (0) unless indicated.
3. Choose a subscript that will make the net charge zero. The simplest procedure is to use the absolute value
of the charge of the anion as the subscript for the cation; and the absolute value of the cation charge as the
subscript for the anion (CROSS-OVER RULE). When both subscripts in the formula can be divided by same
number to simplify the formula, you should do so, unless you know the actual molecule represented.
4. For hydrates, follow the same steps, then add a centered dot, followed by the number of water molecules
(indicated by the prefix) and the chemical formula of water.
ACIDS
Binary acids contain only two different elements- hydrogen and a nonmetal. Binary acids are named as
hydro ____ic acid, where the stem of the nonmetal is inserted in place of the line. Thus,
The names hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen bromide are also used for HF and HBr, respectively. Both
names are correct although the convention is that these compounds are named as acids when they are present in
aqueous solutions. Thus, HF in aqueous solution is hydrofluoric acid, but pure HF is referred to as hydrogen
fluoride.
B. Naming Oxyacids
190
Another type of acid is the oxyacids derived from the oxyanions. Since some elements form more than
one oxyanion, they also form more than one oxyacid. The name of the oxyacid is derived from the name of the
oxyanion with a change in the suffix using the following rules:
1. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ate, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ____ic acid.
2. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ite, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ___ous acid.
Chlorine Bromine
191
ClO4- Perchlorate BrO4- Perbromate
STOICHIOMETRY
Chemical Reactions
• Processes in which substances are changed into one or more new substances
• Represented by chemical equations:
Reactants Products
2H2 + 1 O2 2H2O
Mole Method - The stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number of moles
of each substance.
Steps:
192
Three types of calculation:
The Mole
In 1971, at the 14th meeting of the General Conference of Weights and Measures, scientists agreed to adopt the
mole as the unit of an amount of substance
The mole (abbreviated mol) is the amount of substance that contains the same number of elementary particles
as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of C-12.
1. by number of particles (use Avogrado’s number, 6.02 x 1023 particles per mole)
Interconversions
÷ MM x 6.02 x 1023
The molar mass is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance. The molar mass is numerically equal to the
atomic mass (or atomic weight) of an atom or the formula mass of a molecule, a compound or a polyatomic ion.
The percentage composition of a compound is a list of the percentages by weight of the elements in the
compound. The percentage by weight of an element in a compound is numerically equal to the number of grams
of the element that are present in 100 g of the compound
193
Ans. 71.5% Ca, 28.5% O
Empirical Formula- is the formula with lowest possible whole number subscripts to represent the composition
of the compound. It can be determined from the % composition data.
Ex. Barium carbonate, a white powder used in paints, enamels and ceramic, has the following composition: Ba,
69.58%; C, 6.090% and O, 24.03%. Determine its empirical formula
Ans. BaCO3
Molecular Formula- gives the actual composition or the actual number of atoms of each element present in one
molecule or one formula unit of the compound
Stoichiometry of Reactions
Chemical Stoichiometry- is the quantitative relationship of the amounts of reactants used and amounts of
products formed in a reaction. This mass relationship is expressed in the balanced equation for the reaction.
Percent yield- portion of the theoretical yield of product that is actually obtained in the reaction
Theoretical Yield - the amount of product that would result if all the LR reacted.
Limiting reactant- reactant that is completely consumed in the reaction. It also determines the amount of
products that can be formed.
Properties:
Bond energy – amount of energy that must be supplied to separate the atoms that make a bond
Bond length – distance between 2 nuclei of 2 covalently bonded atoms
194
Bond order – number of bonds between atoms
Types of Chemical Bonds
a. covalent bond- pair of electrons that is shared by two atoms of nonmetals; represented by Lewis structure or
electron dot formula
Coordinate Covalent Bond – the electrons being shared comes from a single atom
b. ionic bond or electrovalent bond– It is the transefer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal, i.e., the metal
loses an electron while the nonmetal gains an electron converting them intro charged ions.
c. metallic bond- the attraction between the cations in the lattice and the “sea of delocalized electrons” moving
within the lattice
Lewis Structure-one or a combination of Lewis symbols to represent a single atom (neutral or charged), a
molecule or a polyatomic ion.
Octet rule- the observed tendency of atoms of the main block elements to lose, gain or share electrons in order
to acquire an octet of electrons in their outermost main energy level It is more appropriately called Noble Gas
Rule
195
2. Determine the central atom and draw the skeletal structure.
3. Use a pair of e-’s to form a bond between each pair of bound atoms.
5. If there are still available electrons, put them on the central atom to satisfy octet.
6. If the central atom does not satisfy octet, move electron pair (lone pair) from the terminal atoms towards the
central atom to form multiple bonds.
7. Check the Lewis structure. H and F are always terminal atoms and joined by a single bond.
HYPERVALENT ATOM – atom that could accommodate more than the octet due to low-lying d- orbitals.
RESONANCE - The use of two or more Lewis Structures to represent a particular molecule or ion.
- Can be written for molecules/ions having a double or a triple bond and single bond(s).
Resonance Structures- one of two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that cannot be represented
accurately by only one Lewis structure.
- The true structure is the average or the “hybrid” of the resonance structures.
FORMAL CHARGE- Used to evaluate non-equivalent Lewis structures (different from resonance structures)
= no. of valence electron in the free state – no. of nonbonding electrons – no. of bonds
- The structure around a given atom is determined principally by minimizing electron pair repulsions
196
Type of Molecule Geometry Polarity
* The polarity are always TRUE if the substituents are the same since the net dipole is zero. The dipole moments
cancel out.
Repulsion Order:
Lone Pair (LP) – LP repulsion > LP- bonding pair (BP) repulsion > BP- BP repulsion
*For the VSEPR model , molecules with multiple bonds, multiple bonds count as one effective e- pair
* When a molecule exhibits resonance, any one of the resonance structures can be used to predict the geometry
197
Bond Polarity – results from a net dipole moment
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)
Relatively weak forces that exist among noble gas atoms and
non-polar molecules
Atoms can develop a momentary non-symmetrical e-
distribution (instantaneous dipole)
This atom can induce a similar dipole in the neighboring atom
Polarizability
198
Hydrogen Bonding
Small size of the H atom – molecules can approach each other closely
High electronegativity of F,O,N – H is pulled closely; highly polar bond
3. Vapor Pressure- Vapor exerted by a vapor at equilibrium with its liquid at a given temp.
4. Enthalpy of Vaporization, ∆Hvap- Energy that must be supplied to evaporate a liquid at 1 atm
5. Boiling Point- temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals atmospheric pressure
6. Freezing Point/ Melting Point- temperature at which the rate of liquid converting to solid equals the rate of
solid converting to the liquid
199
7. Heat of Fusion, ∆Hfus- amount of heat required to melt a specified amount of solid at its MP
Applied to gases:
1.Gases consist of large number of particles (molecules or atoms).
2.The gas particles are far apart. The volume therefore is negligible.
3.The particles are in constant, random and rapid motion. They move in all directions
4.At higher temp. the particles move faster. As the temp. of the gas increases, the ave. KE of the particles
also increases.
5. The particles are so far apart that the repulsion or attraction between them is negligible.
KMT extended to liquids
1. Atmospheric pressure – the lower the pressure above the liquid, the faster the rate of vaporization
2. Humidity – high humidity, slow rate of vaporization
3. Surface area – a large surface area provides more molecules the opportunity to escape
4. Motion of the atmosphere – vaporization occurs rapidly in moving air than in still air
Heating Curve
200
At constant temperature, phase change occurs and
at this temperature, kinetic energy is constant
while potential energy is increasing
PHASE DIAGRAM
Critical point:
Critical temp. – temp.above which the
vapor cannot be liquefied no matter what
pressure is applied
Critical pressure – pressure required
to produce liquefaction at the critical temp.
Has the high density of a liquid but the low viscosity of a gas
Molecules in SCF, being in much closer proximity than in ordinary gases, can exert strong attractive
forces on the molecules of a liquid or solid solute
GASES
Properties:
Expansion
Indefinite shape
Compressibility
Ease of mixing
Low density
Jan Baptista van Helmont- coined the term “chaos” or “gas”
Evangelista Toricelli- showed that the air in the atmosphere exerts pressure; designed the first barometer
201
Standard atmosphere : 1 atm=760 mmHg=760 torr=101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar
K= °C + 273.15
Gas Laws
- the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const temp is inversely proportional to the pressure
(V α 1/P)
- the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const pressure is directly proportional to temp (V α T)
Charles is the first person to fill a balloon with hydrogen gas (Made the first solo balloon flight)
V1 = V2
T1 T2
- for a gas at const T and P, V is directly related to the no. of moles of gas (V α n)
Molar volume- one mole of any gas at STP occupies a volume of 22.4 L
V1 = V2
n1 n2
202
4. Gay-Lussac’s law- the pressure occupied by a given mass of gas at const volume is directly proportional to
temp (P α T)
P1 = P2
T1 T2
PV= nRT
V = Volume (L)
T = Temperature (K)
For a mixture of gases in a container, the total pressure exerted is the sum of the pressures that each gas
would exert if it were alone.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + … + Pn
Where P1, P2 and P3 are partial pressures of the gas each gas would exert if it were alone in the container.
“ The rates of effusion of 2 different gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molar masses.”
Effusion -Escape of gas particles from their container through a tiny orifice or pinhole.
SOLUTIONS
-homogeneous solutions
Components:
203
• SOLUTE – substance being dissolved; present in smaller amount
• SOLVENT – the dissolving medium; present in larger amount
Solubility - The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a given
temperature
Types of Solutions:
• UNSATURATED – contains less than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
• SATURATED – contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
• SUPERSATURATED – contains greater than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
Concentration- The amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution
1. Structure effects
In general, substances that have similar IMFA have strong solute-solvent interactions and tend to form
solutions.”
2. Pressure
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Relate mole of reactant to mole of another reactant
Relate mole of reactant to mole of product
Relate mole of product to mole of another product
makes use of balanced chemical equation
DILUTION – procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated one.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
- Solution properties that depend on the amount of solute present and not on the nature of the solute
m is the molality
m is the molality
4. Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis - selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous membrane from a dilute solution to
a more concentrated one
Semi-permeable membrane - - Allows the passage of solvent molecules but blocks the passage of solute
molecules
M = molarity of solution
205
R = gas constant
T = Kelvin temp.
Amphiprotic - Substance that can act either as a proton donor or proton acceptor
pH = -log [H3O+]
pH + pOH = 14
Strong Acids
HCl HBr
HI HClO4
HNO3 H2SO4 (1st ionization only)
Strong Bases
The larger the Ka (ionization constant of acid), the stronger the acid, greater [H3O+]
The larger the Kb (ionization constant of base), the stronger the base, greater [OH-]
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- a neutralization reaction
- a solution is gradually added to another solution until the solute of the first solution has completely
reacted with the solute of the second solution
Indicator – an organic compound that changes color depending on the pH
pink – basic
Equivalence Point- the point at which the solute of the first solution has completely reacted with the solute of
the other solution
Endpoint – approximates the equivalence point. It is very close to the equivalence point.
Standardization – it is the process of determining the concentration of a solution using a standard solution. The
solution has a known concentration.
Titrant- the solution usually placed on the buret. This is usually the solution of known concentration.
Analyte- the solution of unknown concentration usually placed in the Erlenmeyer flask.
BUFFERS
- A solution that resists drastic changes in pH when small amounts of acids or bases are added.
Components:
pKb = - log Kb
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
- The state in which the forward and backward reactions continue to occur but the concentrations of all reactants
and products remain constant with time.
Characteristics:
207
aA + bB cC + dD
[ ] molar concentration
In the expression, only aqueous and gaseous substances are included. Solids and liquids are not included since
their concentrations are relatively constant.
Keq = Kc Kc is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in molar concentration
Kp = Kc (RT)ng Kp is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in their partial pressures
ng is the difference between the number of moles of gaseous particles of products and
reactants
- If a change in conditions (a “stress”) is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium position will shift
in a direction that tends to reduce that change in conditions.
1. Change in concentration
- If a reactant or product is added to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift away from the
added component.
- If a reactant or product is removed, the system will shift toward the removed component.
2. Change in pressure
a. Add or remove a gaseous reactant or product at constant volume- same effect as change in concentration
208
b. Add an inert gas (not involved in the reaction) at constant volume – increase in total pressure but has no
effect on concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants or products
c. Change the volume of the container – when the volume of the container holding a gaseous system is
reduced, the system responds by reducing its own volume. This is done by decreasing the total no. of
gaseous molecules in a system
3. Change in temperature
The area of chemistry concerned with the speeds or rates at which a chemical reaction occurs
Collision Theory- Chemical reactions occur as a result of collisions between reacting molecules.
For a reaction to procede, reacting particles must collide effectively to enable outer shell electrons to
interact.
Collisions to be effective, must be with enough energy to overcome repulsive forces between electrons
surrounding the nuclei of atoms.
Activation Energy (Ea)
A temporary species formed by the reactant molecules as a result of the collision before they form the
product.
1. Concentration
2. Temperature
- Higher temperature, more collisions with high energy, higher reaction rate
3. Catalyst
- A substance that increases the reaction rate without itself being consumed.
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- hastens the reaction by providing a path with lower activation energy thus less energy is needed for a reaction
to proceed
4. Pressure
THERMOCHEMISTRY
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. First Law of Thermodynamics - Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created nor
destroyed.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics - In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in the entropy
(disorder) of the universe
• SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – occurs without outside intervention (given the right conditions)
• NON-SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – can occur as long as they receive some sort of outside assistance
• G < 0 (negative) – SPONTANEOUS
• G > 0 (positive) – NON- SPONTANEOUS
• G = 0 (zero) – at equilibrium
G = H -TS
CALORIMETRY
210
• CALORIMETER – a closed container used to measure heat changes
Specific Heat Capacity (Cp)
• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1oC.
• An intensive property
Heat Capacity (S)
• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given quantity of a substance by 1oC
• An extensive property
• S = m Cp where m = mass
Amount of Heat, Q
HALF- REACTION
Disproportionation Reaction
Comproportionation Reaction
Oxidation State
- A concept that provides a way to keep track of electrons in redox reaction according to certain rules.
211
RULES & CONVENTIONS FOR DETERMINATION OF OXIDATION STATES
Fundamental Rules:
1. The sum of the oxidation state for all atoms in the formula for an electrically neutral compound is zero.
2. The oxidation state for any element in the free or uncombined state is zero.
Special Convention
5. In binary compounds, the element with the greatest attraction for electrons is assigned a negative oxidation
state equal to its charge in its ionic compound.
Electrochemistry
Anode
212
• Electrons enters
What occurs?
Voltmeter
• Anode │ Reducing species (oxidized form) ║ oxidizing species (reduced form) │cathode
Where │- boundary between different phases (e.g. electrode and solution)
• The difference in electrical potential between the anode and the cathode
• Higher cell potential, higher energy given off by e-’s, strong tendency to generate electric current
• 1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb
• 1V = 1J/C
• Energy (J) = charge(C) x cell potential (V)
E0 cell positive spontaneous process
For reactions in which reactants and products are in their standard states,
Go = -nFEocell
- + spontaneous
0 0 at equilibrium
+ - non-spontaneous
213
Note: Higher reduction potential higher tendency to undergo reduction
Electrolytic Cell
CORROSION
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
- study of carbon and its compounds; chemistry of the hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon
and hydrogen) and their derivatives.
Hydrocarbons:
1. Alkane – CnH2n + 2
2. Alkene – CnH2n
3. Alkyne – CnH2n - 2
214
Aliphatic open-chain
Oxygen Containing
1. Alcohol (R-OH)
2. Ethers (R-O-R)
4. Esters (RCOOR)
5. Aldehydes (RCOH)
6. Ketone (RCOR)
Others:
2. amines (RNH2)
3. amides (RCONH2)
NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
Alkanes are named by the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system, which uses a
systematic set of rules. Many also have non-systematic common or trivial names that are still in use.
Common Names
At a time when relatively few organic compounds were known, it was customary to name new compounds at
the whim of their discoverers. Urea was so named because it was isolated from urine. Morphine, a painkiller,
was named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. Barbituric acid, a tranquilizer, was named by its discoverer
after his friend Barbara. These older names for organic compounds are now called common or trivial names;
many of these names are still widely used in the chemical literature and in commerce.
In the common nomenclature, the total number of carbon atoms in an alkane, regardless of their arrangement,
determines the name. The first three alkanes are methane, ethane and propane.
For alkanes beyond propane, certain prefixes are used to differentiate the different structural isomers.
The prefix normal or n- is used to indicate that all carbons are joined in a continuous chain.
The prefix iso- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain terminates in a
(CH3)2CH- group
The prefix neo- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain terminates in (CH3)3C-
group
215
THE IUPAC System
The stem indicates the number of carbon atoms in the backbone or parent chain of the molecules. The parent
chain is the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms.
The suffix identifies the type or class of the compound. For alkane, the suffix is –ane.
Attached to the backbone are the side-chains or substituents. The substituents present are indicated by the
prefix. In alkanes, the side-chains are called alkyl groups, which are derived from alkanes through the removal
of one hydrogen atom. They are named by changing –ane ending of the parent alkane to –yl.
Steps:
a. Find the longest continuous chain present in the molecule and use the name of that chain as the parent
name.
b. If there are two different chains of equal length, choose the one with the larger number of branch
points as the parent chain.
2. Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain so that the substituents are given the lowest position numbers.
216
3. Identify the substituents and the position of the carbon atoms to which they are attached.
a. If there are two substituents on the same carbon, assign them both the same number.
b. There must always be as many numbers in the name as there are substituents.
4. Write the name of the compound by first arranging all substituents in alphabetical order and preceeding the
name of each substituent by the position number and then adding the name of the parent chain; use hyphens to
separate the different prefixes and commas to separate numbers.
a. If the same alkyl group occurs more than once as a substituent, indicate by prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, etc.
However, do not use these prefixes for alphabetizing purposes.
5. Prefixes such as cyclo, neo- and iso- are included in alphabetizing substituents, while hyphenated prefixes
such as tert-, sec-, n- are ignored.
e.g.
2,6-dimethyloctane
For alkenes
b. The parent chain is named by changing the –ane ending of the corresponding alkane to –ene and indicating
the position of the double bond by the lowest number possible.
c. The carbons bearing the substituents are also given the lowest numbers possible, but the double bonds takes
precedence.
For alkynes
The rules are the same as for naming of alkenes, except that the ending –yne replaces –ene
Biochemistry
Carbohydrates monosaccharides
217
Nucleic Acids nucleotides
Saccharides – Sugars
Nucleotides
Components
2. Sugar moiety
3. phosphate group
Physics
Examples:
a) Mass d) Area
b) Time e) Distance
c) Temperature
Vector quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude and direction
Examples:
a) Force d) Acceleration
b) Velocity e) Displacement
c) Weight
An arrow is used to represent a vector
218
Parts of the arrow
D = 2m + 3m = 5m to the east
Using an arrow,
2m 3m or 5m
b) Subtraction – if vectors are acting on opposite directions. The resultant vector takes the direction of the
larger vector.
Example: A ball was tossed upward from the building and reached the height of 5m above the building.
It the moved downwards, traveling 10m until it hits the ground.
D = -10m + 5m = -5m
Using an arrow,
5m 10m or 15m
c) Pythagorean Theorem – if vectors are acting at a right angle with one another
Example: Marivic first walks 2km north before proceeding 1.5 km east.What is her displacement?
D 2 1.5
2 2
D = 2.5 km
219
Using an arrow,
1.5km
2km
2.5km
d) Component Method – if several vectors are acting on different directions, x and y component are
mathematically added to find the resultant vector.
Example: An airplane flies in a northeasterly direction at 100kph at the same time that there is a wind
blowing at 20kph to the northwest. What is the resultant velocity of the plane?
X-components:
= 70.71kph
= -14.14kph
Y-components:
= 70.71kph
= 14.14kph
Resultant Velocity
Vx = Vxplane + Vxwind
= 70.71 – 14.14
= 56.57 kph
Vy = Vyplane + Vywind
= 70.71 + 14.14
220
= 84.85kph
B. Mechanics
Motion – change in position of an object relative to other objects that are considered at rest.
Linear Motion
Distance vs. Displacement
Displacement – change in position of an object. It represents the straight line path between the starting
and end points.
Example:
a. Jen travels 5km to work and back. What is the distance she travels? What is the
displacement?
Distance = 5km + 5km
= 10km
=0
b. Rocky walks 20 km due north from his camp. Late in the afternoon, he walks back 11km
south along the same path.
o Average speed – ration of total distance traveled to the time needed to cover that distance.
221
Example: It takes a school bus 1 hour to travel 20km. What is its average speed?
20km km
AverageSpeed 20
1hr hr
x x 2 x1
Instantaneous Speed
t t 2 t1
Example: What is the speed of a car that covered 150km in two hours?
x 150km 0 km
Instantaneous Speed 75
t 2hrs 0 hr
displaceme nt
Velocity
time
Example: Rocky drives a distance of 80km in 2 hours towards the north direction. What is his
velocity?
Given:
d = 80km
t = 2hrs
Find: v
Solution:
80km
v
2hrs
km
v 40 north
hrs
ChangeOfVelocity
Acceleration
time
222
km km
Example: A driver steadily increases his velocity from 30 to 60 in 2 hours. What is his
hr hr
acceleration?
km km
60 30
a hr hr 15 km
2hrs hr 2
x v a
t t t
Where x = displacement
v = velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
223
x v a
t t t
Where x = displacement
v = velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
x v a
t t t
Where x = displacement
v = velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
Δx = vt
224
Where
Δx = x – xo
v = velocity
t = time
Example: What is the displacement of a car moving at a constant velocity of 20m/s after 2 seconds?
Given:
v = 20m/s
t = 2s
Find: Δx
Solution:
Δx = vt
Δx = 20m/s (2s)
Δx = 40m
V V
f o
at
2
at
X X V
o o
t
2
V V 2aX
2 2
f o
x (Vf Vo)t
2
Where:
Vf = final velocity
Vo = initial velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
X = final position
225
Xo = initial position
ΔX = X – Xo,displacement
Example: A cyclist is moving with a velocity of 2m/s and accelerates to 4m/s after 2 seconds. What is the
acceleration of the cyclist?
Given:
Vf = 4m/s
Vo = 2m/s
t=2s
Find: a
Solution:
V Vf o
at
a (Vf V o )
t
a (4m/s 2m / s)
2s
a = 1 m/s2
- one dimensional motion where the moving object is only under the influence of gravity
V Vf o
gt
2
gt
Y Y o V o t
2
V V 2 gY
2 2
f o
226
Y (Vf Vo)t
2
Where:
Vf = final velocity
Vo = initial velocity
t = time
Y = final position
Yo = initial position
ΔY = Y – Yo, displacement
Example: A ball is dropped from a building without an initial velocity. Find the velocity of the ball after 5
seconds.
Given:
T=5s
Vo = 0
Find: Vf
Solution:
Vf = gt
= (-9.8m/s2) 5s
= -49m/s
Example: A mango falls from a tree. How far does it fall after 0.5 seconds?
Given:
t = 0.5 s
Vo = 0
Find: ΔY
Solution:
227
2
gt
Y V o t
2
9.8 m (0.5s)2
2
Y
s
2
ΔY = -19.6 m
d) Projectile Motion – curved motion of an object that is projected into the air and acted upon by the gravitational
force of the earth
Projectile – an object thrown into the air that is allowed to move freely and is influenced only by gravity
h
Vo
RANGE
Maximum height, h – the vertical displacement traveled by the projectile in its trajectory
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Conditions of Projectile Motion throughout the flight:
b) The horizontal and vertical motions are independent of each other. Separate the displacement and velocity to
its x and y components.
i) the y component of the velocity acts as freefall and thus, only affected by the gravitational
acceleration
ii) The velocity’s sign is positive (+) for upward motion while for downward motion, it is negative (-).
iii) Upon hitting the ground, its velocity is always equal to zero.
iv) The time required for the projectile to reach its maximum height from its firing point is equal to the
time that the projectile will reach the same height of its firing point from the maximum height.
v) Formula along the vertical is the same as freefall
When vertical displacement is at its maximum height:
Given:
Vx = 10m/s
dy = 200m
t = 2s
Solution:
i) Δx = vt
Δx = (10m/s)(2s)
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Δx = 20m
2
gt
ii) Y Y o V o t
2
Since there is no initial velocity along the vertical and the top of the building is the reference point, Yo
and Vyo is equal to zero.
2Y
t
g
2(200m)
t
9.8 m 2
s
t = 6.38 s
iii) V V f o
gt
0 (9.8 m
2
V f s )(6.38s)
V f
62.52m / s
Force – a push or a pull (e.g. gravitational force, friction, normal forces, electromagnetic force, etc.)
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F
a
m
F = ma
* Force and mass have opposite effect on acceleration. The more massive the object, the less is the
acceleration. This means that acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass. The greater force will result to
greater the acceleration. Force is directly proportional to the acceleration of an object.
Example: Neglecting friction, what constant force will give a mass of 50kg an acceleration of 5m/s2?
Given:
m = 50kg
a = 5m/s2
Find: F
Solution:
F = ma
F = (50kg)( 5m/s2)
“Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object, exerts an equal and
opposite force.”
Hence, if your hand exerts a force of 20N in a wall, the wall will also exert a force of 20N in your hand
Momentum is a physical quantity obtained when the mass of an object is multiplied to its velocity.
It has the same direction as the velocity. This means that an object with large mass and velocity has high
momentum. Accordingly, an object at rest has a momentum equal to zero.
p = mv
Where:
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p = momentum
m = mass
v = velocity
Example: A truck full of sand with a mass of 40,000kg travels east with a velocity of 50m/s. What is the
truck’s momentum?
Given:
m = 40,000kg
v = 50m/s
Find: p
Solution:
p = mv
p = (40000kg) (50m/s)
p = 2,000,000 kg-m/s
Impulse
Impulse is a vector quantity that has the same direction as the force. It is equal to the product of
force and time. It is also associated with the change of momentum.
J mv
J mv mv
ma F
t t t
J Ft
Where:
J = impulse
F = Force
Δt = change in time
m = mass
v = velocity
Example: A bat hits the baseball. The bat and the baseball remain in contact for 0.005 seconds. The
0.1kg ball leaves the bat with a velocity of 100m/s. What is the average force of the bat on the baseball?
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Given:
t = 0.005s
m = 0.1kg
v = 100m/s
Find: F
Solution:
F
mv mv 0
t
(0.1x100) 0
F
0.005
F 2000 N
“The total momentum of a system remains constant if the net external forces acting on the system
are equal to zero.”
before
mv after mv
As stated, the total linear momentum of the system does not change. This means that if you add all the
momenta, you will get the same result even if the objects are colliding with each other
Collision – any string interaction between two bodies that lasts a relatively short time
i) Elastic collision – after the collision, the objects is still separatd from each other
ii) Inelastic collision – after the collision, the objects move as one unit
External Forces – Forces exerted on any part of the system by any body outside the system
W F x cos
Where:
W = work
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F = force
Δx = displacement
Example: A 100N block lies on a frictionless surface. A force of 20N was applied horizontally where the
block had moved 5m. Find the work done by the force and weight of the block.
Given:
Displacement = 5m
Solution:
i) W force
F x cos
W force
20 N 5m cos 0
W force
100 Nm 100 Joules
ii) W weight
F x cos
W weight
100 0 cos 90
W weight
0
The work done by the weight is equal to zero since it is perpendicular to the displacement.
- a scalar quantity
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PE grav
mgh
Where:
PE = Potential Energy
m = mass
g = gravitational acceleration
h = height
ii) Elastic Potential – energy stored on an elastic material due to its stretching or compressing
1
2
PE s
2 k x
Where:
PE = Potential Energy
KE = Kinetic energy
m = mass
v = velocity
Practice Test
2. Biologists are at present involved in gene manipulation by altering the genes in nuclei. Which aims seem to
be the most important of such manipulation?
a. to cure ancient genetic diseases like cancer
b. to prolong life
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c. to create new types of agricultural plants and animals
d. to make significant changes in man himself
3. Which chemical substance produced by the body regulates and coordinates the functions and activities of
bodily organ?
a. gene b. Deoxyribonucleic acid c. hormone d. enzyme
4. Which endocrine abnormality is characterized by dwarfness, low intelligence and sex immaturity?
a. myxedema b. cretinism c. tetany d. acromegaly
6. Living things are classified either as aerobic or anaerobic as they grow or metabolize in the presence or
absence of:
a. carbon dioxide
b. nitrogen
c. water
d. oxygen
8. Only living things can respond to stimuli, to physical and chemical changes in their environment. Such a
characteristic is called:
a. metabolism
b. irritability
c. movement
d. specific organization
10. Which process involves in the movement of dissolved molecules (solute) through a differentially
permeable membrane?
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a. diffusion
b. osmosis
c. Brownian movement
d. dialysis
11. Which refers to the earth’s entire zone of air, land and water which occupied by living things?
a. biosphere b. biome c. bioassay d. biomass
12. Which body organ is responsible for the removal of waste from the blood and body fluids?
a. liver
b. pancreas
c. kidney
d. large intestine
15. All living things have a tendency to maintain uniformity or stability in their internal environment called:
a. anabolism b. metabolism c. epigenesist d. homeostasis
17. Which plant structure transports organic nutrients both up and down the stem and roots?
a. xylem b. vascular bundle c. parenchyma d. phloem
18. Under what condition does a living organism live best or has the greatest chance of survival?
a. maximal b. minimal c. optimum d. standard
19. Which traps light energy from the sun for use in the photosynthesis?
a. carbon dioxide
b. water
c. chlorophyll
d. oxygen
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20. Smoking cigarettes:
a. causes ulcer
b. decreases the vital capacity of the stomach
c. leads to emphysema and lung cancer
d. leads to abnormal life
a.motor nerve
b. sensory nerve
c. neuron
d. mixed nerve
26. The fact that many insects are now immune to DDT is an example of:
a. natural selection b. genetic drift c. geographical isolation d. translocation
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d. vegetation by runners
32. In an ecosystem:
a. only energy is recycled c. both materials and energy are recycled
b. only materials are recycled d. neither materials nor energy is recycled
35. Hyperacidity can destroy the lining of the stomach. Which of the following substance can ease the
discomfort?
a. water therapy
b. milk of magnesia
c. starch solution
d. gelatin
38. What do you call the practical or industrial application based on scientific principles?
a. scientific method b. technology c. theory d. experimentation
239
c. nuclear explosions
d. volcanic erupt
Lecture Notes
To address present critical issues, there is a need to revise our teacher education curriculum to make it truly
integrated and holistic in content and approach. To do so, we need to identify 3 important areas of concerns:
Peace Education – This area affirms personal and global responsibilities for the promotion of peace,
cooperation, disarmament, justice and non-violent resolution of conflict.
Human Rights Education – Promotes understanding of Human Rights concepts and values to enable
learners to comprehend and transform conditions which give rise to human rights violation.
Global Education – Involves learning about those problems and issues which cut across national
boundaries and about the interconnectedness of system – cultural, ecological, economic, political, and
technological. It also includes citizenship education.
1. Knowledge
a. Peace – students should investigate different concepts and examples of peace on a variety of
levels from personal to global.
b. Conflict and Violence – students should study the problems of violence
c. Some Peaceful Alternatives
disarmament
non-violent conflict resolution
development based on justice
human rights respect
human solidarity
environmental care
d. Ethical and Practical Rationale – students should study the ethical and practical basis for the
above-cited peaceful alternatives in order to provide added motivation for learning.
2. Attitudes/Values
a. Self-respect
b. Respect for others
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c. Respect for human life/nonviolence
d. Global concern
e. Ecological concern
f. Cooperation
g. Openness/Tolerance
h. Social Responsibility
i. Positive Vision
3. Skills
a. Reflection
b. Critical Thinking
c. Decision-making
d. Imagination
e. Communication
f. Conflict Resolution
g. Group Building
“Since wars begin in the minds of men and women, it is in the minds of woman and men that the defense of
peace must be constructed.”
Love
self-worth/self-esteem
positive self-criticism
deep sense of responsibility
fidelity/loyalty
sense of reconciliation
gentleness
trust and respect
openness
concern for others
sense of sacrifice
courage
endurance
Compassion
kindness
sensitivity to others needs
nurturing
moral strength/fortitude
goodwill
supportiveness
Harmony
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Tolerance
mutual respect
love
concern
generosity
Interdependence
inner peace
belief in one’s material and spiritual development
reverence and respect for life
commitment to genuine human development
confidence in human spirit
freedom of thought, conscience and belief
Human rights is defined as the supreme, inherent and alienable right to life, dignity, and self development. It is
concerned with issues on both areas of civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights founded
on internationally accepted human rights obligations to which the Philippines government is a state party.
(Educator’s Human Rights Handbook, Commission on Human Rights).
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The Fundamental Principles Underlying The Human Rights Standards
Universality – that human rights should be enjoyed by everyone without discrimination as to sex, age, language,
religion, or race. Wherever a person is, whether in a rich or poor country, in a tribe, and whoever the person is,
a king, queen or pauper, man or woman, old and young s/he can claim such rights.
Inviolability – that human rights as an irreducible element of one’s humanity cannot be abrogated or violated
unless determined by law and “solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights of
other an of meeting the just requirements of the general welfare, morality, and public order in a democratic
society.”
Interdependence – a person’s well being cannot be enjoyed in a piece meal. Human dignity cannot be taken in
increments. This means that certain rights cannot be sacrified in favor of other rights because taken together,
these rights make human beings whole.
According to Nature
a. Civil Rights – are those rights when the law will enforce at the private individuals for the purpose of
securing to them the enjoyment of their means of happiness. Examples are right to life, liberty, and
security, freedom to travel, right to due process.
b. Political Rights – are those rights which enable us to participate in running the affairs of the government
either directly or indirectly. Examples are the right to vote, right to information on matters of public
concern and the right initiative, freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly.
c. Economic and Social Rights – are those which the law confers by law upon the people to enable them
to achieve social and economic development, thereby ensuring them their well being, happiness and
financial security. Example: are the right to property, education, and promotion of social justice.
d. Cultural Rights – are those rights that ensure the well being of the individual and foster the preservation,
enrichment and dynamic evolution of national culture based on the principle of unity in diversity in a
climate of free artistic and intellectual expression.
According to Recipient
Collective/Group Rights – are those of the society, those that can be enjoyed only in company with others.
According to Source
Natural Rights – are rights believed to be based on reason or given by Supreme Being. They existed long before
they were recognized by law. Examples of which are right to life, right to property, right to justice, right to
freedom, right to peace
Legal Rights – are rights recognized by laws. Examples of which are right to habeas corpus, right to be presumed
innocent until proven guilty, right to bail, etc.
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According to Implementation
Immediate – are those rights the States can readily implement because these are dependent on the States’ political
will such as civil and political rights.
Progressive/Incremental – are those rights whose implementation is dependent on availability of the states’
resources and thus can only be enjoyed gradually. Such rights are the social, economic and cultural rights.
1. Legislation – international human rights laws still have to be translated and incorporated into the
national laws of States parties. This can be done either through (1) amending and supplementing
national laws to suit international laws and (2) promulgating new legal documents.
2. Education and Campaign – much of human rights violations occur because of lack of human rights
awareness among the people. Educating state agents such as the police, government officials and
public servants is crucial only as an immediate measure to prevent violations of human rights.
However, dissemination of human rights in the grassroots and educating the people especially the
marginalized is a major requirement for human rights protection and promotion.
3. National Programs of Action – human rights are not juts a compilation of laws, these are a framework
for governance, a national vision that must be pursued. Human rights should guide government leaders
in formulating policies and programs. The everyday conduct of government activities should be guided
by the principles of human rights.
Global Education
“Global education involves learning about those problems and issues that cut across national boundaries, and
about the interconnectedness of systems—ecological, cultural, economic, political and technological. Global
education involves perspective taking—seeing things through the eyes and minds of others—and it means the
realization that while individuals and groups may view life differently, they also have common needs and wants.”
Children’s Rights
The Convention on the Rights of the Child is a universally agreed set of non-negotiable standards and
obligation which spells out the basic human rights that children everywhere – without discrimination.
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Disasters
Reducing human suffering and economic losses caused by natural and technological disasters comes
from preparedness and mitigation through policies, education and strategic and rapid responses.
Education
Investing in education systems helps build human capital and ensures that people can participate more
fully in society.
Environment
As the world’s population grows there is more and more pressure on the environment to produce enough
food and energy without consuming the resources faster than they can be replaced.
Food Security
Providing for the physical, social and economic access by all people at all times to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Governance
Effective governance means competent management of a country’s resources in a way that is fair, open,
accountable and responsive to people’s needs.
HIV/AIDS
The HIV/AIDS pandemic represents one of the greatest challenges facing developing countries.
Health
Improving the basic health and the quality of health service delivery and addressing the health effects of
natural disasters and emergencies are the means of improving the health of people.
Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights sets forth the human rights and fundamental freedoms of
all men and women in all nations, everywhere in the world.
Infrastructure
The development and maintenance of essential public services and systems is an important ingredient
for sustained economic growth and poverty reduction.
Micro credit
Small scale business development is an important means of helping individuals out of poverty.
Peace building
The support structures and processes which strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse into
conflict.
Poverty Alleviation
The Complex web that keeps people poor is being addressed through economic growth and improving
governance, education and health.
Refugees
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Forced to flee their homes because of persecution refugees are a significant group who need international
protection as they seek a durable solution to their plight.
Rice
Highlighting the importance of rice as a primary food and income source in many developing countries.
Rural Development
The majority of the world’s poor live in rural areas, and are disproportionately dependent on natural
resources for their livelihoods, especially resources such as forests and fisheries.
Volunteering
Many people give their time and skills without pay to make a contribution to assist others.
Water
Water is the source of life – vital for health, food and ecoomic development.
Women
Improving the status of women is not just a women’s issue, but a goal that requires the active
participation of both men and women.
Global Citizenship
is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen;
respects and values diversity;
has an understanding of how the world works economically, politically, socially, culturally,
technologically, and environmentally;
is outraged by social injustice;
participates in and contributes to the community at a range of levels from local to global;
is willing to act to make the world a more sustainable place;
takes responsibility for their actions.
The Key Elements of Global Citizenship
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Skills
Belief that people can make a difference willingness to work towards a more
equitable future
Economics
The study that deals with how scarce resources are allocated to maximize the unlimited wants that
indibiduals and societies want to fulfill.
The study of how individuals and societies choose to use the scarce resources that nature and previous
generations have provided.
The study of how societies choose to use scarce productive resources that have alternatives uses to
produce commodities of various kinds, and to distribute them among different groups.
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Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and means which
have alternative uses (Lionel Robbins, 1935).
Economics or political economy is an “inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations”
(Adam Smith, 1976).
Economics is the science of production. Production is a social force insofar as it channels human activity
into useful ends (Karl Marx, 1848).
a. Macroeconomics – the branch of economics that examines the economic behavior of aggregates –
income, employment, output, and so on – on a national scale.
b. Microeconomics – the branch of economics that examines the functioning of individual industries and
the behavior of individual decision-making units, that is, business firms and households.
Methods of Economics
a. Positive economics – an approach to economics that seeks to understand behavior and the operations of
systems without making judgment. It describes what exists and how it works.
b. Normative economics – an approach to economics that analyzes outcomes of economic behavior,
evaluates them as good or bad, and may prescribe courses of action. Also called “policy economics”.
Economics is important to the:
1. What to produce?
2. How to produce?
3. For whom to produce?
4. How much to produce?
5. How much more to produce?
Economic Systems
1. Capitalist System – an economy in which individual people and firms pursue their own self-interest with
any central directions or regulations. This is also known as laissez-faire economy, free enterprise, price
mechanism, or free market economy.
2. Command Economy – an economy in which a central authority or agency draws up a plan that
establishes what will be produced and when, and makes rules for distribution.
3. Mixed Economy – it is a regulated market economy. In reality, all economies are, to some extent, mixed.
It is just a matter of degree of intervention.
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Factors of Production
1. Land (Natural Resources) – includes all resources found in the sea and on land. Raw materials,
landscapes, ports (natural harbor), climatic conditions, geographical location.
2. Labor (Human Factor) – any kind of work, either mental o manual in nature, which has the sole purpose
of receiving rewards.
3. Capital (Man-Made) – wealth uesd for production
4. Entrepreneur (Management) – usually the organizer in a company
Price System
Is the mechanism by which producers and consumers transmit information about production to one
another. It is referred to as the basic coordination and communication system of a market economy
because it helps producers make production decisions and whereby keeps the economy balance.
Market
A set of arrangements by which buyers and sellers of a good are in contact to trade that good.
Demand
The amount (number of units) of a product that a households would buy in a given period it if could buy
all it wanted at the current market price.
Demand Schedule
A table showing how the quantity demanded of some product during a specified period of time changes
as the price of that product changes, holding all other determinants of quantity demandes constant.
Demand Curve
A graphical depiction of a demand schedule. It shows how the quantity demanded of some product
during a specified period of time will change as the price of that product changes, holding all other
determinants of quantity demanded constant.
Shortage
Excess demand
Law of Demand
The lower the price, the higher the quantity demanded of a particular commodity.
Factors Affecting Demand
Price Factor
249
Non-Price Factors
Supply
The amount of a particular product that firm would be willing and able to offer for sale at a particular
price during a given time period.
Supply Curve
A graph illustrating how much of a product a firm will supply at a different price.
Surplus
Excess supply
Law of Supply
The positive relationship between price and quantity supplied: An increase in market price will lead to
an increase in quantity supplied, and a decrease in market price will lead to a decrease in quantity
supplied.
Factors Affecting Supply
Price Factor
1. Climatic Conditions
2. Cost of Production
3. Technological Advancements
4. Government Policies (e.g. tax, subsidies)
5. Time Period
6. Price of Related Goods (Competitive Supply, Joint Supply)
Equilibrium Price
The price at which the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are equal.
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Market Structures
The value of the next best alternative that the decision forces the decision-maker to forgo. Rational
decision making, be it in industry, government, or households, must be based on opportunity cost
calculations.
Economic Goods
Things of value that you can see, touch, and show to others.
Economic Services
Intangible things that have value but often cannot be seen, touched or shown to others.
Taxation
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It is an inherent power of the state to impose and collect revenues to defray the necessary expenses of
the government.
It is a compulsory contribution imposed by a public authority irrespective of the amount of services
rendered to the payer in return.
It is a compulsory levy on private individuals and organizations by the government to raise revenue to
finance expenditures on public goods and services.
Purpose of Taxation
Taxation is a necessity and indispensable, for without taxes government cannot function and exist.
Basis
It is found in the reciprocal duties of protection and support between the state and its inhabitants.
Sources and Origin of Taxation
1. The Constitution
2. Statutes or Presidential Decrees
3. Bureau of Internal Revenue regulations
4. Judicial Decisions
5. Provincial, City, Municipal and Barrio Ordinances
6. Observance of International Agreements
7. Administrative Rulings and Opinions
Objects of Taxation
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1. Persons – whether natural or judicial
2. Property of any kind
3. Transactions, interest and privileges
Limitations on the Powers of Taxation
1. Inherent Limitations
a. The tax must be for public purpose
b. No improper delegation of legislative power to tax
c. Exemption of government entities
d. Territorial jurisdiction
e. Observance of International Law
2. Constitutional Limitations
a. Equal protection of the law
b. Uniformity rule
c. Observance of due process of law
d. Non-impairment of obligation of contracts
e. Non-imprisonment for non-payment of poll tax
f. Non-impairment of religious freedom
g. No appropriation for religious purposes
h. Property tax exemption
i. Non-impairment of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in tax cases
Classification of Taxes
1. Progressive Income Tax – the higher the income, the higher the tax rate.
2. Proportional Tax – the tax rate is constant and unaffected by the level of income.
3. Regressive Tax – the higher the income, the lower the tax rate.
Types of Taxes
A. Direct Taxes
1. The burden cannot be shifted to the third party
2. Direct taxes are based on income and wealth
3. In most cases, direct taxes are progressive in nature
4. Direct taxes are compulsory in nature
Examples:
income tax
residence tax
real state tax
immigration tax
estate/gift/inheritance tax
B. Indirect Taxes
1. The tax burden can be shifted to the third party
2. Indirect taxes are based on expenditures and consumption
3. All indirect taxes are regressive in nature
4. Indirect taxes are optional in the sense that they can be avoided
Examples:
sales tax
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import tax
VAT/EVAT
Characteristics of a Sound Tax System
Efficiency – must generate revenues greater than the amount of money the government must spend to
collect taxes.
Equity – individuals and groups belonging to the same income bracket must be taxed equally while those
belonging to different income groups must be taxed differently.
Convenience – to set up measures and procedures that will make it more convenient for taxpayers to
pay.
Stability – tax system must not bet too ofetn or it will encourage taxpayers to withhold tax payments
until a more preferred system is put in place.
Agrarian Reform is the redistribution of lands to farmers and regular farmworkers who are landless,
irrespective of tenurial arrangements. Agrarian reform is not just the transfer of lands, it includes a
package of support services: economic and physical infrastructure support services, (credit, extension,
irrigation, roads and bridges, marketing facilities) and human resource and institutional development or
social infrastructure building and strengthening.
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) was passed in 1988 under the administration of
President Corazon C. Aquino.
The legal basis for CARP is Republic Act 6657 otherwise known as Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Law (CARL) signed by Aquino on June 10, 1988. It is an act instituting a CARP to promote social
justice and industrialization, providing the mechanism for its implementation, and for other purposes.
CARP covers all alienable and disposable lands of the public domain devoted to or suitable for
agriculture, all lands of the public domain in excess of the specific limits, all other lands owned by the
Government devoted to or suitable for agriculture, and all private lands devoted to or suitable for
agriculture regardless of the agricultural products raised or that can be raised thereon.
Cooperatives
What is a Cooperative?
A cooperative is a duly registered association of persons with a common bond of interest, who have
voluntarily joined together to achieve a lawful common social or economic end, making equitable to
254
contribution to the capital required and accepting a fair share of the risks and benefits of the undertaking
in accordance with universally accepted cooperative principle.
By forming a cooperative you pool money, human resources and talent to build capital and work together
to produce more goods and raise incomes.
Through cooperatives, you can look for the other sources of loans at low interest rates of borrowing form
informal lenders or users.
Kinds of Cooperative
Credit Cooperative
o Promotes thrift and savings among its members and creates funds in order to grant loans for
productivity.
Consumer Cooperative
o The primary purpose is to procure and distribute commodities to member and non-members.
Producers Cooperative
o Undertakes joint production whether agricultural or industrial.
Service Cooperative
o Engages in medical, and dental care, hospitalization, transportation, insurance, housing, labor,
electric lights and power, communication and other services.
Multi-Purpose Cooperative
o Combines two (2) or more of the business activities of these different types of cooperatives
The Categories of Cooperatives According to Membership and Territory:
In terms of membership:
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1. Primary – the members of which are natural person of legal age;
2. Secondary – the members of which are primeries;
3. Tertiary – the member of which are secondaries upward to one or more apex organizations.
Cooperatives whose members are cooperatives are called federations or unions.
In terms of territory, cooperatives are categorized according to areas of operation which may not be coincide
with the political subdivision of the country.
1. Get Organized.
You must have at least 15 members. At once determine the common problems you would want to solved
and the basic needs you would want provided for through a cooperative.
2. Prepare a general statement called an economic survey.
The by-laws contain the rules and regulation governing the operation of the cooperative.
4. Draft the articles of cooperation.
Indicate the name of the cooperative, its members, terms of existence and other pertinent description
about your cooperative.
5. Secure bond of your accountable officers, normally the treasurer, or the treasurer and
the manager.
The amount of the bond is to be decided upon by the Board of Directors, based on the initial network of
the cooperatives which includes the paid-up capital, membership fees and other assets of the
cooperatives at time of registration.
6. Register your cooperative with the Cooperative Development Authority (CDA), you
must submit four copies each of the Economic Survey, By-Laws, and Articles of
Cooperation and Bond of Accountable Officer(s).
If you are a Filipino of legal age, you can ba a coop member if you meet the qualifications prescribed
by the coop’s by laws.
The board of directors act on application for membership.
A member may exercise his rights only after having paid the fees for membership and acquired shares
in the cooperative.
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Two Kinds of Members:
1. Regular Member – entitled to all the rights and privileged of membership as stated in the Cooperative
Code and the coops by-laws.
2. Associate Member – has no right to vote and to be voted upon and is entitled to such rights and privileged
provided by the cooperatives by laws.
New Cooperative Law
self-help
self-responsibility
democracy
equality
solidarity
equity
honesty
openness
social responsibility
caring for others
Sociology
The scientific and systematic study of society, including patterns of social relations, social stratification,
social interaction, and culture.
The science of society and he social interactions taking place in that society.
The study of human society: its origin, growth, structure, function, customs, traditions, group life and
institutions.
Sociology is considered a branch of the social sciences.
Importance
To obtain factual information about our society and the different aspects of our social life.
To enable us to see the connection between our own personal experiences and the social forces in the
bigger social world which influence our life
Auguste Comte
The term “sociologie” was first used in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes (1748-
1836) in an unpublished manuscript.
The term was used again and popularized by the French thinker Auguste Comte in 1838.
Comte had earlier used the term ‘social physics’, but that term had been appropriated by others, notably
Adolphe Quetelet.
Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind—including history, psychology, and economics.
His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th century; he believed all human life had passed
through the same distinct historical stages (theology, metaphysics, positive science) and that, if one
could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills.
Sociology was to be ‘queen of the positive sciences’. Thus, Comte has come to be viewed as the “Father
of Sociology”.
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Sociological Scholars
Sociologist study society and social action by examining the groups and social institutions people form,
as well as various social, religious, political, and business organizations.
They also study the social interactions of people and groups, trace the origin and growth of social
processes, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members and vice versa.
Sociologist research macro-structures and processes that organize or affect society, such as, but not
limited to, race or ethnicity, gender, globalization, and social class stratification.
They study institutions such as the family and social processes that represent deviation from, or the
breakdown of, social structures, including crime and divorce. And, they research micro-processes
suchas intepersonal interactions and the socialization of individuals.
Sociologists are also concerned with the effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a person’s
daily life.
Sociologists study the many dimensions of society.
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oInteractionism – believes that meaning is produced through the interactions of individuals.
oDarwinism Paradigms – also known as the evolutionary paradigm, sees a progressive evolution
in social life.
o Positivism Paradigm – Social Positivist believe that social processes should be studied in terms
of cause and effect using the scientific method.
Sociological Research
The basic goal of sociological research is to understand the social world in its many forms.
Quantitative methods and qualitative methods are two main types of sociological research methods.
Sociologists often use quantitative methods—such as social statistics or network analysis—to
investigate the structure of a social process or describe patterns in social relationships.
Sociologists also often use qualitative method—such as focused interviews, group discussions and
ethnographic methods—to investigate social processes.
Sociologists also use applied research method such as evaluation research and assessment.
Society and Culture
Society
A system of interacting individuals and interrelate groups sharing a common culture and territory
A group of people living together in a social system of long established relationship, recognizing and
following a certain way of life
Non-industrial
Industr
Social Structure
The patterned and recurrent social relationship among persons in organized collectivities
Forms of Social Structure
Social Groups
Primary group – family and friendship group considered the building blocks of the larger society
Secondary group – groups where interaction among members are impersonal, business like. Focus of
the group is on development of skills and specialized know how.
Gemeinschaft & Gessellschaft (Ferdinand Toennies)
Gemeinschaft
A community of intimate private and exclusive living and familialism. Maybe likend to our tribal goup,
fishing villages, agricultural village
Gessellschaft
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Large secondary group where there is division of labor, specialization, functional interdependence
In-group and Out-group
Based on sense of belonging. These are not actual groups but a kind of relationship exist in the mined.
The used of “we” (in-group) and “they” (out-group) defines this grouping.
Informal and Formal Groups
profit
the spiritual needs of people
education
workers benefits
service to the poor
Bureaucracy
The administrative machinery of a formal organization or social organization which is aimed to enable
members to meet their goals.
Socialization
Process through which a person acquires the skills and behavios necessary for social living.
Elements of Socialization
1. Child’s culture
2. Biological inheritance
3. Child’s interaction
Status
The position a person occupies in society by virtue of age, birth, marriage, occupation or achievement
Ascribed status
Family
Peer group
Church
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School
Mass media
Work place
Social Interaction
From the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning “to cultivate”
Refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such acitivities significance
and importance.
Cultures can be “understood as systems of symbols and meaning that even their creators contest, that
lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one another”.
Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a population that
are passed down from generation to generation.
“the way of life for an entire society”
Components of Culture
Non-material culture
o Social Norms – rules or expectation that define what is acceptable or required in a social
situation
folkways – commonly known as customs, traditions and conventions of society
mores – “a way of behaving,” “a custom as determined by usage or practice and not by
law”
laws – formalized norms enacted by people who are vested by political and legal
authorities designated by the government
o Values – abstract standards that persist overtime and serve as guides to what is right and proper
for people in society
o Knowlegde – the total range of what has been learned or perceived as true. This could be
natural, supernatural, and magic knowlegde.
Material culture (products of technology)
o Artifacts: simple tools to computer
Culture Within A Society
Large societies often have subcultures, or groups of people with distinct sets of behavior and beliefs that
differentiate them from a larger culture of which they are a part.
The subculture may be distinctive because of the age of its members, or by their race, ethnicity, class,
or gender.
The qualities that determine a subculture as distinct may be aesthetic, religious, occupational, political,
sexual, or a combination of these factors.
Cultures By Region
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Regional cultures of the world occur both by nation and ethnic group and more broadly, by larger
regional variations.
Similarities in culture often occur in geographically nearby peoples.
Many regional cultures has been influenced by contact with others, such as by colonization, trade,
migration, mass media, and religion.
Culture is dynamic and changes over time. In doing so, cultures absorb external influences and adjust
to changing environments and technologies. Thus, culture is dependent on communication.
Local cultures change rapidly with new communications and transportation technologies that allow for
greater movement of people and ideas between cultures.
Cultural Bias
The tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture.
Ethnocentrism often entails the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is the most important and/or
that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups.
Cultural Universal
Is an element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures on the planet.
Examples of elements that may be considered cultural universal are gender, roles, the incest taboo,
religious and healing ritual, mythology, marriage, language, art, music, cooking, games and jokes.
The principal cultural universal are:
o Food
o Water
o Clothing
o Shelter
o Social organization
o Family
o Communication
o Recreation
o Arts
o Environment
o History
o Spirituality
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o American – manifested in Filipino political orientation
Pre-Spanish Settlements
The social unit was the barangay, from the Malay term balangay, meaning a boat.
The barangay were generally small. Most villages boasted of only thirty to one hundred houses.
Most communities were coastal, near-coastal or riverrine in orientation. This was because the principal
sources of protein came from the seas and the rivers, the people relying more on fishing than on hunting
for sustenance.
Dealing with traders meant coming in contact with Chinese, Arabian and Indian civilizations. Thus, the
coastal communities in Manila, Cebu, Jolo, and Butuan attained a higher cultural level.
Most of the members of a community were related to one another by blood or marriage. Besides kinship,
common economic interests and shared rituals formed the bases for community cohesion.
The barangay was a social rather than a political unit, each one a separate entity with only informal
contacts with the other villages.
Social Hierarchy in Luzon
Based on Spanish records, William Henry Scott concluded that there were three social classes in pre-
Spanish Luzon and Visayas.
o Maginoo – highest among all classes
This was composed of datus and their families
Datu – polotical and economic leader
Babaylanes – a Visayan term for spiritual leader, katalonan was the Tagalog counterpart
o Maharlika – next to the maginoo class
This class was composed of warriors who served as protectors of the barangay from its
enemies.
The Maharlika did not pay taxes but they were obliged to accompany the datu in times
of war.
o Timawa – free person
During the Spanish period, being timawa meant being free to be exploited and enslaved
by the Spaniards.
Composed the main bulk of the population.
o Slaves – lowest class
aliping namamahay – lived in their own houses and was called only by the datu to help
in building a house or in farming.
aliping saguiguilid – lived in the datu’s house because of a large debt he had incurred.
Ancient Filipino civilization was reflected in the political system, economy, religion and belief system,
system of writing and traditions.
o Politics – the political leader in the barangay level was the datu.
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o Religion – the ancient Filipinos’ religion was called animism. They believed that gods and
goddesses inhabit in nature. This religion is also called anitoism.
Bathala (Tagalog)
Laon (Visayans)
Kabunian (Ibalois)
o Economy – the artifacts excavated by the archeologists proved that the external trade was alive.
Agriculture – Kaingin system – burning of one part of the forest in order to clear the
area to be used for planting.
o System of writing – the ancient system of writing was called baybayin. Composed of 14
consonants and three vowels.
o Residence – houses were built in places where there was steady supply of food.
Bahay-kubo – made from nipa and bamboo and had good ventilation.
o Belief in After Life – early Filipino believed in the after-life. The afterlife was believed to be a
continuation of life on earth, thus valuables were also buried alongside the dead.
Manunggul Jar – reflection of this belief
Deviance
The process by which those who violate group norms are identified as norm violators
People are often said to have a disorder because their behavior deviates from what their society considers
acceptable. What constitutes normality varies somewhat from one culture to another, but all cultures
have—such norms. When people violate these standards and expectations, they may be labeled mentally
ill (Thomas Szasz)
Deviants
People who diverges from group norms while deviates are those who display divergent behavior but are
not identified as norm violates.
Component of Deviant Behavior
Social Control
Refers to all those attitudes and behaviors originating in the social environment that have the effects or
directing or restricting the attitude and behavior of an individual or group.
Anomie Theory – groups with fewer opportunities to achieve success goals will have greater motivation
to violate norms and higher rates of deviance.
Subculture Theory – the greater motivation to violate norm will result in different patterns of deviance
depending upon the availability of illegitimate opportunities in the neighborhood.
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Differential Association Theory – specific direction of a person’s motivation and action depends upon
frequency and intensity of interaction with others.
Labeling Theory – assumes that most people commit deviant acts at one time to another
Social Mobility
Refers to movement up or down in social status. This usually involves a change in occupation. This
process may be speeded by:
o Revising one’s standard of living
o Cultivating class-typed modes of behavior
o Manipulating associational membership
o A strategic marriage
Social Stratification
Exists when there is a hierarchy of position with differences in wealth, power and prestige and when
there is intergenerational transmission of advantage or disadvantage stemming from one’s location in
the hierarchy.
o Caste system – made upon religiously sanctioned and hierarchically ranked groupings in which
membership is fixed at birth and is permanent. This is found in India where the rank order are:
(1) Brahmans; (2) Ksashtriya; (3) Vaishyas; (4) Sudras. Untouchable is considered outcasts.
o Social Class System – composed of economic groups that are cased upon similarities in
occupation, income and wealth. Social mobility is allowed in this system.
o Race and Ethnicity – both passed on from parents to child but race refers to the genetic
transmission of physical characteristics and ethnicity refers to socialization into distinct cultural
patterns.
Nature of formal organization
It is a deliberately constructed social unit with explicitly coordinated activities designed to contribute
toward the attainment of a stated goal.
o Bureaucracy – where there is a clearly ordered hierarchy of positions or officers; a defined
sphere of competence; activities are recorded; positions are filled on the basis of expertise;
operation is based upon a system of general rules; and relationship among people within a
bureaucratic organization is impersonal.
Institutions
Values
Expressions of the ultimate ends, goals or purposes of social action. They are society’s moral
imperatives that deals with what ought to be.
“A thing has a value when it is perceived as good and desirable.” (DECS)
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Values are made up of assumptions and beliefs, which our culture endorses as appropriate bases for
responses to events, facts, and states. It is our assumptions and beliefs that influence us to see things the
way we do (F. Landa Jocano, Filipino Value System).
…there is no negative Filipino values. There are only wrong uses of the values. That is why we label as
crime the misuse of values or the violation of value principles, particularly the legal ones (F. Landa
Jocano)
Values are the reason why we see and do things the way we do. They are “the guiding principles in our
lives with respect to the personal and the social ends we desire—such as salvation or peace—and with
respect to moral conduct and personal competence—such as honesty and imagination” (Kouzes and
Posner, 1993).
Aeta, Indonesian, Malayan, Hindu, Arabian, Chinese Interpersonal and social relationship revolve
around blood ties, marriage and ritual kinship
Filipinos’ Occidentalism
Spanish influence is manifested in our religious, political, economic, educational life and even in our
language, dress and diet.
o Emphasis on spiritual aspect had shaped out attitude towards divorce, birth control, fiestas and
ceremonies.
o Gambling and our aversion to manual labor could be traced to Spain’s inferior regard for us
Americanization of Filipinos
o Manifested in our political and social outlook. With the introduction of a democratic system of
government we become aware of our rights and privileges. The popularization of education
gave us the opportunity for social mobility.
Japanese Occupation
DECS Values Education Program (1988)
This program drew inspiration from 1986 EDSA Revolution and the 1987 Constitution where the vision
of a “just and humane society” was emphasized. This vision calls for a shared culture and commonly
held values such as “truth, justice, love, equality, and peace.”
Rational understanding of the Filipino as a human being in society and his or her role in shaping society
and the environment. The task of education is to help this human being (Filipino) develop his or her
human potential so he or she can contribute to the growth of Philippine culture and must be able to
harness human and non-human resources to attain a just and humane society.
Core Value
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desires, demands and needs that are hidden, because of their disturbing nature, from conscious
awareness. Freud suggested that the unconscious is responsible for a good part of our everyday
behavior. Accoring to Freud, one’s personality has three aspects:
The id – is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according
to the pleasure principle.
The ego – is the decision-making component of personality that operates according to
the reality principle.
The superego – is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards
about what represents right and wrong.
Behaviorist View (John B. Watson, 1878-1958)
o Behaviorism is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should
study only observable behavior.
o Behavior refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism. Watson asserted
that psychologist could study anything that people do or say—shopping, playing chess, eating,
complimenting a friend—but they could not study scientifically the thoughts, wishes, and
feelings that might accompany these behaviors.
Social-Cognitive Learning Theorist (Albert Bandura)
o “Most human behavior is learned by observation through modeling” (Albert Bandura)
o Observational learning occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation
of others, who are called models. This process has been investigated extensively by Albert
Bandura. Bandura does not see observational learning as entirely separate from classical and
operant conditioning.
o Bandura maintains that people’s characteristic patterns of behavior are shaped by the models
that they’re exposed to. In observational learning, a model is a person whose behavior is
observed by another. At one time or another, everyone serve as a model for others. Bandura’s
key point is that many response tendencies are the product of imitation.
Confluent Theory – Tracks of Consciousness (Brian Hall)
o Acquisition of value is dependent upon and could be limited by one’s level of consciousness
(the older one gets, the higher level of consciousness and the wider the range of needs and value
options).
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o Rogers (1951) argue that human behavior is governed primarily by each individual’s sense of
self, or “self-concept”—which animals presumably lack.
o Rogers viewed personality structure in terms of just one construct. He called this construct the
self, although it’s more widely known today as the self-concept. A self-concept is a collection
of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior.
o Both he and Maslow (1954) maintained that to fully understand people’s behavior, psychologist
must take into account the fundamental human drive toward personal growth. They asserted
that people have a basic need to continue to evolve as human beings and to fulfill their potentials.
Humanistic Theory – Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory
Maslow proposed that human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs—a
systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, in which basic needs must be
met before less basic needs are aroused.
Maslow argued that humans have an innate drive toward personal growth—that is,
evolution toward a higher state of being. Thus, he described the needs in the uppermost
reaches of his hierarchy as growth needs. These include the needs for knowlegde,
understanding, order, and aesthetic beauty. Foremost among them is the need for self
actualization, which is the need to fulfill one’s potential.
Maslow summarized this concept with a simple statement: “What a man can be, he must
be.”
According to Maslow, people will be frustrated if they are unable to fully utilize their
talents or pursue their true interests.
Cognitive Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)
o There exist a structural bases written each person that determine the process of perceiving value.
This series of progression depends on the person’s interaction with the environment. Moral
reasoning is related to moral behavior.
o Kohlberg’s stages of moral development describe the young child as being in the “Premoral
Stage” (up to about eight years), which basically means that “the child believes that evil behavior
is likely to be punished and good behavior is based on obedience or avoidance of evil implicit
in disobedience.”
Ethics & Moral Education
Ethics
Comes from the Greek word ethos, “usage,” “character,” “custom,” “disposition,” “manners”
The analysis of concepts such as “ought,” “should,” “duty,” “moral rules,” “right,” “wrong,”
“obligation,” “responsibility,” etc.
The inquiry into the nature of morality or moral acts.
The search for the morally good life.
Imperatives of Ethics
Philippine History
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Cavite Mutiny
Filipino soldiers in the fort of San Felipe in Cavite rose in mutiny under the leadership of Sergeant La
Madrid. The cause was the abolition of some privileges of the Filipinos. GOMBURZA were arrested
and killed because of the suspicion that they were involved in the said mutiny.
El Filibusterismo
Rizal’s second novel, published in 1891 in Belgium, with the financial support of Valentin Ventura, who
lent him the money to print the book. Rizal dedicated this book to GOMBURZA, the three martyr-
priests. This is a political novel in which Rizal predicted the coming of the revolution.
Insulares
Newspaper of the Katipunan, which first came out on January 1896, with Emilio Jacinto as editor.
Katipunan
The secret revolutionary movement founded by Andres Bonifacio on July 7, 1892 in Tondo, Manila. It
means KATAASTAASAN KAGALANG-GALANG NA KATIPUNAN NANG MGA ANAK NG
BAYAN. It laid down three fundamental objectives: Political, Moral and Civic. The political aim
consisted in working for the separation of the Philippines from Spain. The moral objective focused on
the teaching of good manners, hygiene, good morals and attacking obscurantism, religious, fanatism,
and weaknesses of character. The civic aim revolved around the principle of self-help and the defense
of the poor and the oppressed.
La Liga Filipina
La Solidaridad
Organ of the Reform Movement in Spain, with Graciano Lopez-Jaena as its first editor. Its first issue
came out on February 15, 1889. Its aim was to gather, to collect liberal ideas which were daily exposed
tin the camp of politics, in the field of science, arts, letters, commerce, agriculture, and industry. Known
as Sol to the propagandists, it became the mouthpiece of the Filipinos in Spain.
Magdalo
One faction of the Katipunan in Cavite, led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, with headquarters in Kawit,
Cavite.
Magdiwang
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The other Katipunan faction in Cavite, led by Mariano Alvarez, with headquarters in Noveleta, Cavite.
Noli Me Tangere
Rizal’s masterpiece, published in 1887. This is a sociohistorical novel based on facts that Rizal gathered
while in the Philippines. It is a novel, but not fiction. The novel gained popularity immediately, but the
Spaniards authorities, especially the friars whom Rizal ridiculed in the novel, prohibited its reading.
Pact of Biak-na-Bato
Agreement made between the Filipinos and the Spaniards, mediated by Pedro Paterno, wherein
Aguinaldo and his companions would go into voluntary exile in Hong Kong while Governor Gen. Primo
de Rivera would pay cash money to the rebels.
Palabra de Honor
A political tract written by Apolinario Mabini which became the bible of the Filipino rebels.
Thomasites
American teachers who came to the Philippines in 1901 to teach English to the Filipinos. The first batch
of these teachers arrived aboard the American ship Thomas, hence, they were called Thomasites.
The Philippine National Heroes
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Movement.
Editor of La Solidaridad.
Bonifacio.
Republic.
President.
Propaganda Movement.
Anthem.
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Campaign for Reforms.
Maria Josefa Gabriela Silang – Continued the Fight After her Husband’s Death.
Filipino Hero.
Arc.
Practice Test
Part 1
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2. It refers to the community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of
territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience, and
enjoying freedom from external control.
a. Sovereignty
b. Nation
c. Citizenship
d. State
3. It refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out.
a. Government
b. Sovereignty
c. Constitution
d. Laws
4. What are the four elements of state?
a. people, territory, sovereignty, government
b. people, constitution, territory, government
c. government, law, peace, territory
d. constitution, people, land, independence
5. What theory asserts that the early states must have been formed by deliberate and voluntary compact among
the people to form a society and organize government for their common good?
a. Necessity Theory
b. Devine Right Theory
c. Social Contact Theory
d. Social Compact Theory
6. Government exists and should continue to exist for the benefit of the people.
a. The statement is a general truth.
b. The statement is just an assumption.
c. The statement is a fallacy.
d. There is no basis for judgment.
7. What are the forms of government in which the political power is exercised by a few privilege class.
a. Oligarchy and Aristocracy
b. Aristocracy and Monarchy
c. Theocracy and Fascism
d. Democracy and Tyranny
8. The pre-colonial Philippines has no established government. Its villages and settlements were
called barangays.
a. Only the first statement is true and correct.
b. Only the second statement is true and correct.
c. Both statements are true and correct.
d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect.
9. There were four social classes of people in the pre-colonialbarangays. They were the nobles, freemen, serfs,
and the slaves.
a. Only the first statement is true and correct.
b. Only the second statement is true and correct.
c. Both statements are true and correct.
d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect.
10. What are the two known written codes during the pre-Spanish era in the Philippines?
a. Maragtas and Kalantiaw Codes
b. Sumakwil and Sulayman Codes
c. Panay and Subanon Codes
d. Hammurabi and Ur Nammu Codes
11. Under the Spanish colonial government, who directly governed the Philippines?
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a. The Governor-General
b. The Viceroy of Mexico
c. The Royal Audiencia
d. The King of Spain
12. What is the first city to be established in 1565 in the Philippines?
a. Manila
b. Davao
c. Cebu
d. Iloilo
13.The government which Spain established in the Philippines was defective. It was a government for the
Spaniards and not for the Filipinos.
a. Only the first statement is true and correct.
b. Only the second statement is true and correct.
c. Both statements are true and correct.
d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect
14. What was the secret society founded in 1896 that precipitated the glorious revolution against the Spaniards.
a. The Katipunan
b. The Kalahi
c. The Biak naBato Republic
d. The Ilustrado
15. Arranged the sequence of governments during the revolutionary era:
1. The Dictatorial Government
2. The Revolutionary Government
3.The Biak-na-Bato Republic
4. The First Philippine Republic
a. 2 3 1 4
b. 3 1 2 4
c. 4 1 3 2
d. 1 2 3 4
16. Arranged according to its establishment during the American Regime:
1. The Commonwealth Government
2. The Military Government
3. The Civil Government
a. 1 2 3
b. 2 3 1
c. 3 2 1
d. 2 1 3
17. What was the civil government established during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines?
a. The Japanese Imperial Government
b. The Philippine Republic
c. The Puppet Government of Japan
d. The Philippine Executive Commission
18. The Constitution used by the Philippine government from the commonwealth period until 1973.
a. The Malolos Constitution
b. The Biak-na-Bato Constitution
c. The 1935 Constitution
d. The 1901 Constitution
19. What kind of government was installed under the 1973 Constitution under the Marcos regime?
a. Modified Presidential system
b. Modified Parliamentary system
c. Military system
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d. Bicameral system
20. A de facto government acquires a de jure status when it gains wide acceptance from the people and
recognition from the community of nations.
a. The statement is true and valid.
b. The statement is an assumption.
c. The statement is a fallacy.
d. The statement is doubtful.
21. It is defined as written instrument by which the fundamental powers of the government are established,
limited and defined and by which these powers are distributed among the several departments or branches for
their and useful exercise for the benefit of the people.
a. Laws
b. Statutes
c. Constitution
d. Ordinances
22. There is no Constitution that is entirely written or unwritten.
a. The statement is true and correct.
b. The statement is incorrect.
c. The statement is partially correct.
d. There is no basis to conclude.
23. Requisites of a good written constitution.
a. Brief
b. Broad
c. Definite
d. All of the given options
24. Who has the authority to interpret the constitution?
a. Private individual
b. Courts
c. Legislative and Executive departments of the government
d. All of the given options
25. “We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God , in order to build a just and
humane society and establish a government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote our common
good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of
independence and democracy under the rule of law and the regime of truth, justice, freedom, equality and
peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.”
What part of Constitution is this?
a. General Provision
b. Amendments
c. Preamble
d. National Patrimony
Part II
1. The problem of scarcity _____.
a. arises only in poor countries.
b. exists because the price of goods is too high.
c. exists because of limited resources.
d. will eventually be solve by better planning.
2. “If an individual is to maximize the utility received from the consumption, he or she should spend all
available income…” This statement assumes ________.
a. that saving is impossible.
b. that the individual is not satiated in all goods.
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c. that no goods are “inferior.”
d. both A and B.
3. An individual’s demand curve
a. represents the various quantities that the consumer is willing to purchase of a good at various
price levels.
b. is derived from an individual’s indifference curve map.
c. will shift if preferences, price of other goods, or income change.
d. all of the above.
4. What is a firm?
a. A president, some vice presidents, and some employees
b. Any organization that wants to make a profit.
c. Any accumulation of productive assets.
d. Any organization that turns inputs into outputs
5. If more and more labor is employed while keeping all other inputs constant, the marginal physical
productivity of labor _____.
a. will eventually increase.
b. will eventually decrease.
c. will eventually remain constant.
d. cannot tell from the information provided.
6. In general, microeconomic theory assumes that the firms attempt to maximize the difference between
______.
a. total revenue and accounting costs.
b. price and marginal cost.
c. total revenues and economic costs.
d. economic costs and average cost.
7. In a competitive market, efficient allocation of resources is characterized by ________.
a. a price greater than the marginal cost of production.
b. the possibility of further mutually beneficial transactions.
c. the largest possible sum of consumer and producer surplus.\
d. a value of consumer surplus equal to that of producer surplus.
8. Price controls _______.
a. are always popular with consumers because they lower prices.
b. create shortages.
c. increase producer surplus because firms can now sell a greater quantity of a good at a lower price.
d. are necessary to preserve equity.
9. The excess burden of tax is ____.
a. The amount of which the price of a good increases
b. The loss of consumer and producer surplus that is not transferred elsewhere.
c. The amount y which a person’s after-tax income decrease as a result of the new tax.
d. The welfare costs to firms forced to leave the market due to an inward shift of the demand curve.
10. In the opening of the free trade, if world prices of a good are less than domestic prices of that same good,
_________.
a. domestic consumers will experience a loss of surplus.
b. domestic prices will drop to the world price level.
c. all domestic producers of that good will try to find another market because they can’t compete with
foreign producers.
d. domestic producers will increase the quantity supplied in order to crowd out the foreign produced
goods.
11. It states that as the price of the commodities increase the amount of goods the consumer is willing to
purchase decrease and as the price of the commodities decrease the willingness of the consumer to buy
increases and other factor remain constant.
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a. Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility
b. Law of Gravity
c. Law of Supply
d. Law of Demand
12. A deliberate attempt to recognize and transform existing agrarian system with the intention of improving
the distribution of agricultural incomes and thus fostering rural development.
a. Millennium Development Plan c. Water Reform
b. Land Reform d. Development Goals
13. What is the process by which the productive capacity of the economy is increased over time to bring about
rising levels of national output and income?
a. Economic growth c. Economic development
b. Industry d. Employment
14. A system whereby the determination of exchange rate is left solely to the market forces.
a. Foreign exchange liberalization
b. Import liberalization
c. Terms of trade
d. Foreign investment
15. All are possible results when a high population growth rate continues in the Third World except
a. growth of slums
b. spread of diseases due to poverty and poor sanitation
c. not enough schools, hospitals, roads, bridges, etc.
d. increased Gross National Product
16. Which of the following is the nature of power of taxation?
a. It is inherent in sovereignty.
b. It is legislative in nature.
c. It is subject to constitutional and inherent limitations.
d. All of the above
17. A kind of tax based on the rate of which decreases as the tax base or bracket increases.
a. Progressive c. Regressive
b. Graduated d. Proportional
18. Agrarian reform program, Philippine experience is a success.
a. The statement is generally true.
b. The statement is doubtful.
c. The statement is untrue.
d. There is no basis to conclude.
19. It is also known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL)
a. Presidential Decree # 2
b. Presidential Decree # 27
c. Republic Act 6657
d. Republic Act 5766
20. The Cooperatives Development Program of the government is designed primarily to support the agrarian
reform program. It aims to achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from pernicious institutional
restraints and practices.
a. Only the first statement is true and correct.
b. Only the second statement is true and correct.
c. Both statements are true and correct.
d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect.
ANSWER KEY
277
English
1B 11B 21A 31B 41B 51A 61B 71B 81D 91D
2A 12C 22B 32B 42B 52B 62A 72C 82C 92D
3B 13A 23B 33C 43C 53B 63C 73B 83A 93B
4C 14B 24A 34D 44B 54B 64B 74C 84B 94B
5A 15C 25B 35A 45A 55B 65C 75B 85B 95D
6B 16A 26D 36B 46B 56D 66A 76C 86A 96C
7A 17B 27A 37B 47B 57B 67B 77B 87C 97C
8B 18B 28B 38C 48B 58C 68B 78D 88A 98B
9B 19B 29B 39A 49A 59C 69B 79C 89C 99A
10C 20B 30B 40C 50B 60B 70C 80C 90B 100C
FILIPINO-Part 1
278
10C 20B 30B 40C 50B 60B 70C 80C 90B 100C
Science
1C 6C 11D 16D
2D 7C 12B 17C
3D 8B 13A 18C
4D 9B 14A 19C
5B 10B 15D 20C
279