THE LIFE PROCESS OF RESPIRATION
the body.
Cellular Respiration
• Purpose
o Energy is extracted from glucose, as it
is broken down into simpler
compounds.
o This energy is stored as a high energy
molecule called ATP.
Anaerobic Respiration
• Definition
o Occurs in the absence of “free”
oxygen.
• Results of Anaerobic Respiration
o Net gain of 2 molecules of ATP per
glucose molecule taken apart.
o In humans, anaerobic respiration is
the first step in a two-step process.
o In other organisms, anaerobic
respiration is their only method of
making energy.
o Waste products made include
alcohol and lactic acid.
(Fermentation)
Aerobic Respiration
• Definition
o Results in the net synthesis of 36 ATP
molecules.
• Process
o Glucose + 6 O2 ---> 2 H2O + 6
CO2 + 36 ATP
1. The Anaerobic phase is the first step
of Aerobic respiration (2 ATP made)
2. The second (Aerobic) phase is known
as the Krebs Cycle (2 ATP made)
3. The third phase, which produces the
most energy, is called the electron
transport chain. (32 ATP made)
Human Respiratory System
• Purpose
o Your external body surface is dry
and impermeable to gases. Lungs
provide a thin, moist internal surface
for the exchange of gases.
o Oxygen is required for cellular
respiration and carbon dioxide, a
waste gas, needs to be removed from
o Gases are transported throughout
the body by hemoglobin in the red
blood cells.
• Structures
o Nose
a. Air enters the body through
the nostrils.
a. Nostrils contain hairs which
trap dirt and foreign particles
from entering the body.
b. Walls of nasal cavity are lined
with mucus which also trap
dirt and moistens the air.
c. Large number of capillaries
near the surface of the nostrils
warm the air as it enters the
body.
o Pharynx and Larynx
a. Air enters the Pharynx
(throat) from the nasal cavity.
b. The air then passes into the
Larynx (voice box)
▪ composed of
cartilage.
▪ vocal cords: pairs of
membranes stretched
across the larynx;
their vibration creates
sound.
o Trachea
a. Connects with the larynx and
is covered by the epiglottis to
prevent choking.
b. The Trachea is kept open by
horseshoe rings of cartilage.
c. Lined with cilia and mucus
which trap foreign matter
o Bronchi and Bronchioles
 a. Bronchi: 2 cartilage ringed
tubes that branch off the
trachea
• Lined with cilia
• Entrance way to the
lungs
b. Bronchioles: branch off the
bronchi
• Divide and become
smaller, thinner with
less cartilage
o Alveoli
a. Tiny air chambers at the end
of the bronchioles.
b. Walls are 1 cell thick and
moist from mucus.
c. Surrounded by capillaries.
d. Through the alveoli walls, the
exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide takes place.
Breathing
• Definition
a. The physical process by which air is
moved into and out of the lungs.
The Mechanics of Breathing
• Inhalation draws air into the lungs.
a. Active phase of breathing.
b. Ribs are pulled up and out, while
the diaphragm is pulled
downward.
a. The chest cavity becomes larger. This
causes pressure within the chest cavity
to decrease which brings air into the
lungs forcing them to open.
• Exhalation allows air out of the lungs
a. Passive phase of breathing
b. Diaphragm relaxes and moves
up. Rib muscles relax causing
the ribs to drop. The chest cavity
becomes smaller which
increases the pressure inside;
this will force air out of the lungs
and into the environment.
Malfunctions of the Respiratory System o Glycolysis
o Krebs Cycle
A. Emphysema o Electron Transport Chain
• Caused by smoking.
• Particles from cigarette smoke
accumulate on the alveoli walls
causing inelastic scar tissue to form.
• This decreases the working area of
the respiratory surface.
▪ Lungs lose their elasticity.
• Characterized by shortness of breath,
difficulty exhaling, and decreased
lung capacity.
B. Lung Cancer
• Disease in which tumors (masses of
tissue) form in the lungs as a result of
irregular and uncontrolled cell
growth. What is ATP?
• Linked to smoking. • Adenosine Triphosphate
C. Asthma
• Energy used by all Cells
• Severe allergic reaction in which the • Organic molecule containing high-energy
contraction of the bronchioles makes Phosphate bonds
breathing difficult.
D. Bronchitis Chemical Structure of ATP
• Inflammation of the lining of the
bronchial tubes.
• Passageways to alveoli become
swollen and clogged with mucus.
• Marked by severe coughing and
difficulty breathing.
E. Pneumonia
• Alveoli become filled with fluid
preventing the exchange of gases in
the lungs.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

What does ATP do for you?

How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy – Cellular
Respiration • It supplies YOU with ENERGY!
How Do We Get Energy From ATP?

Cellular Respiration • By breaking the high- energy bonds between

• C6H12O6 + 602 → 6CO2 + 6H20
• A catabolic pathway
• Oxygen is consumed as a reactant along
with organic compounds.
• Involves three stages:
the last two phosphates in ATP
NADH and FADH2
• NAD+ traps electrons from glucose to make
NADH (energy stored)
• Similarly, FAD+ stores energy as FADH2
 Where Does Cellular Respiration Take Place?
• It actually takes place in two parts of the
cell:
o Glycolysis occurs in the
Cytoplasm
o Krebs Cycle & ETC Take place in
the Mitochondria
Review of Mitochondria Structure
• Smooth outer Membrane
• Folded inner membrane
• Folds called Cristae
• Space inside cristae called the Matrix

Diagram of the Process

Glycolysis Summary

• Takes place in the Cytoplasm

Glycolysis
• Means “splitting of sugar”
• Occurs in the cytosol of the cell
• Partially oxidizes glucose (6C) into two
pyruvate (3C) molecules.
• Occurs whether or not oxygen is present.
• An exergonic process, (meaning energy is
released) most of the energy harnessed is
conserved in the high-energy electrons of
NADH and in the phosphate bonds of ATP
• Anaerobic (Doesn’t Use Oxygen)
• Requires input of 2 ATP
• Glucose split into two molecules of
Pyruvate
• Also produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP
Formation of Acetyl CoA
1. Junction between glycolysis and Krebs
cycle
2. Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA
3. Pyruvate molecules are translocated from
the cytosol into the mitochondrion by a carrier
protein in the mitochondrial membrane.
 4. A CO2 is removed from pyruvate – making
a 2C compound.
5. Coenzyme A is attached to the acetyl
group.
Krebs Cycle Summary
Krebs Cycle
• Requires Oxygen (Aerobic)
• Cyclical series of oxidation reactions that
give off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle
• Turns twice per glucose molecule
• Produces two ATP
• Takes place in matrix of mitochondria
• Each turn of the Krebs Cycle also produces
3NADH, 1FADH2, and 2CO2
• Therefore, For each Glucose molecule, the
Krebs Cycle produces 6NADH, 2FADH2,
4CO2, and 2ATP
Electron Transport Chain
• Located in the inner membrane of the
mitochondria.
• Oxygen pulls the electrons from NADH
and FADH2 down the electron transport
chain to a lower energy state
• Process produces 34 ATP or 90% of the
ATP in the body.
• Requires oxygen, the final electron
acceptor.
• For every FADH2 molecule – 2 ATP’s are
produced.
• For every NADH molecule – 3 ATP’s are
produced.
• Chemiosmosis – the production of ATP
using the energy of H+ gradients across
membranes to phosphorylate ADP.
ATP Synthase o 6 NADH → 18 ATP
• A protein in the inner membrane in the o 2 FADH2 → 4 ATP
mitochondria.
• Grand Total = 36 ATP
• Uses energy of the ion gradient to power ATP
synthesis. Fermentation
• For every H+ ion that flows through ATP
synthase, one ATP can be formed from ADP • Occurs when O2 NOT present (anaerobic)
• Called Lactic Acid fermentation in muscle
cells (makes muscles tired)
• Called Alcoholic fermentation in yeast
(produces ethanol)
• Nets only 2 ATP

HUMAN DIGESTION

Nutrition

• Process by which organisms obtain and

utilize their food.
Cellular Respiration in Summary • There are two parts to Nutrition:
• Glycolysis o Ingestion- process of taking food into
the digestive system so that it may be
o 2 ATP hydrolized or digested.
o Digestion- the breakdown of food
o 2 NADH → 4-6 ATP (Depends on (either chemically or mechanically)
how this NADH molecule gets to the in order to utilize nutrients
ETC. To make things simple we will
say that these two NADH’s make 4 Types of Nutrients
ATP)
• Micronutrients
• Formation of Acetyl CoA o Vitamins, minerals & water
• Macronutrients
o 2 NADH → 6 ATP
o Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.
• Krebs Cycle Human Digestive System
o 2 ATP
 digestive
system
o Lubricates
food for easier
swallowing
• Buffers
o Neutralizes
acid to prevent
tooth decay
• Anti-bacterial
chemicals
o kill bacteria
that enter
mouth with
food
Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
• Alimentary Canal

Mouth
• Chemical and mechanical digestion.
Ingestion • Food is chewed (masticated) mechanically.
• A bolus (lump) is formed with saliva and the
• Mouth tongue.
o Mechanical digestion
▪ Teeth Swallowing (& not choking)
• Breaking up of food
o Chemical digestion
▪ Saliva
• Amylase
o Enzyme
digests starch
• Mucin
o Slippery
protein
(mucus)
o Protects soft
lining of
Epiglottis
• Flap of cartilage
• Closes trachea (windpipe) when swallowing
• Food travels down esophagus
Peristalsis
• Involuntary muscle contractions to move
food along
Pharynx

• The back of the throat.

• Larynx- passage for air, closes when we
swallow.
• Is approximately 15cm long. Gastric Juices
Digestive Glands
• Secreted by the stomach.
• Groups of specialized secretory cells. • Acidic (pH 1.5-2.5) (HCl).
• Found in the lining of the alimentary canal • Pepsin- an enzyme that breaks down large
or accessory organs. proteins into amino acids.
• Food is further broken down into a thin
Stomach liquid called chyme.
• Food is temporarily stored here. Accessory Organs
• Gastric juices are secreted.
• Has layers of muscle that line the inside. • Pancreas
• Mechanically and chemically breaks down • Gall Bladder
food. • Spleen
• Functions Gall Bladder
o Food storage
▪ Can stretch to fit ~2L food • Pouch structure located near the liver which
o Disinfect food concentrates and stores bile
▪ HCL = pH 2 • Bile duct – a long tube that carries BILE. The
• Kills bacteria top half of the common bile duct is
o Chemical digestion associated with the liver, while the bottom
▪ Pepsin half of the common bile duct is associated
• Enzyme which breaks with the pancreas, through which it passes
down proteins on its way to the intestine.

QUESTION: But the stomach is made out of protein! Bile

What stops the stomach from digesting itself?
• Mucus secreted by stomach cells protects
stomach lining
• Bile emulsifies lipids (physically breaks
apart FATS)
• Bile is a bitter, greenish-yellow alkaline
fluid, stored in the gallbladder between
meals and upon eating is discharged into the
duodenum where it aids the process of
digestion.
Pancreas • Lined with villi, which increase surface area
for absorption, one cell thick.
• An organ which secretes both digestive
enzymes (exocrine) and hormones • Function
o Chemical digestion
(endocrine)
▪ Major organ of digestion &
• ** Pancreatic juice digests all major nutrient
absorption
types.
o Absorption through lining
• Nearly all digestion occurs in the small ▪ Over 6 meters
intestine & all digestion is completed in the
▪ Small intestine has huge
SI.
surface area = 300 m2 (~size
• Digestive Enzymes of tennis court)
o Digest proteins
• Structure
▪ Trypsin, Chymotrypsin o 3 sections
o Digest starch ▪ Duodenum
▪ Amylase
• Most digestion
• Buffers
▪ Jejunum
o Neutralizes acid from stomach
• Absorption of
Liver nutrients & water
▪ Ileum
• Function
• Absorption of
o Produces bile
nutrients & water
▪ Bile stored in gall bladder
until needed Duodenum
▪ Breaks up fats
• 1st section of small intestines
• Act like detergents to
o Acid food from stomach
breakup fats
o Mixes with digestive juices from:
Bile contains colors from old red blood cells collected in ▪ Pancreas
liver = iron in RBC rusts & makes feces brown ▪ Liver
▪ Gall bladder

Small Intestine
Absorption in the Small Intestine
• Most chemical digestion takes place here.
• Simple sugars and proteins are absorbed into • Much absorption is thought to occur
the inner lining. directly through the wall without the need
• Fatty acids and glycerol go to lymphatic for special adaptations
system. • Almost 90% of our daily fluid intake is
absorbed in the small intestine.
 • Villi - increase the surface area of the small Digestive Homeostasis Disorders
intestines, thus providing better absorption
of materials • ULCERS – erosion of the surface of the
alimentary canal generally associated with
Absorption by small intestines some kind of irritant
• APPENDICITIS – an inflammation of the
• Absorption through villi & microvilli appendix due to infection
o Finger-like projections o Common treatment is removal of the
o Increase surface area for absorption appendix via surgery
Large intestines (colon) • GALLSTONES – an accumulation of
hardened cholesterol and/or calcium
• Function deposits in the gallbladder
o re-absorb water o Can either be “passed” (OUCH!!) or
▪ use ~9 liters of water every surgically removed
day in digestive juices • HEART BURN – ACID from the stomach
▪ > 90% of water reabsorbed backs up into the esophagus.
• not enough water •
absorbed
o diarrhea
• too much water
absorbed
o constipation
• Solid materials pass through the large
intestine.
• These are undigestible solids (fibers).
• Water is absorbed.
• Vitamins K and B are reabsorbed with the
water.
• Rectum- solid wastes exit the body.
• Living in the large intestine is a community
of helpful bacteria
o Escherichia coli (E. coli)
▪ produce vitamins
• vitamin K; B vitamins
▪ generate gases
• by-product of
bacterial metabolism
• methane, hydrogen
sulfide
Appendix