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CHAPTER 2 Fundamental Parameters of Antennas
2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 RADIATION PATTERN ................................................................................................................ 3
2.2.1 Radiation Pattern Lobes ........................................................................................................ 6
2.2.2 Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns ............................................................ 9
2.2.3 Principal Patterns ................................................................................................................ 10
2.2.4 Field Regions ....................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.5 Radian(弧度)and Steradian(立体弧度) .................................................................... 16
2.3 RADIATION POWER DENSITY ................................................................................................ 18
2.4 RADIATION INTENSITY ........................................................................................................... 22
2.5 BEAMWIDTH .............................................................................................................................. 25
2.6 DIRECTIVITY .............................................................................................................................. 28
2.6.1 Directional Patterns ............................................................................................................ 38
2.7 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY ............................................................................................................ 43
2.8 GAIN ............................................................................................................................................. 45
2.9 BEAM EFFICIENCY ................................................................................................................... 53
2.10 BANDWIDTH ............................................................................................................................ 55
2.1
2 INT
TRODUC
CTION
N
To deescribe thee perform
mance of aan antennaa, definitio
ons of varrious parameters
are necess
a sary.
2.2
2 RAD
DIATIO
ON PAT
TTERN
An anntenna rad diation pattern is deefined
as
a “a matthematical function n or a graaphical
representa
r ation of thhe radiatio
on propertties of
the
t anteenna as a functtion of space
coordinate
c es.” In most
m casess, the raddiation
pattern is
p determineed in the ffar field reegion.
Radiaation propperties include poweer flux
density,
d r
radiation intensity, field streength,
directivity
d , phase orr polarization.”
Amplitu
ude field pattern.
p
Amplitu
ude powerr pattern.
Field pattern typically represents a plot of the magnitude of the electric or
magnetic field as a function of the angular space.
Power pattern typically represents a plot of the square of the magnitude of the
electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.
Power pattern (in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field,
in decibels, as a function of the angular space.
2.2.1 Ra
2 adiation
n Pattern
n Lobes
Vario o as lobes:major orr main,
ous parts of a radiaation patteern are reeferred to
minor, sid
m de, and baack lobes.
demonstrrates a symmetricaal three dimensional polar p
Figurre 2.3(a) d pattern
with a nu
w mber of rradiation llobes.
Somee are of ggreater rad diation in
ntensity th
han otherrs, but all are classiified as
mensional pattern w
lobes. Figure 2.3(b) illustratees a linear two‐dim where thee same
pattern ch
p haracterisstics are in
ndicated.
A major lobe (m m,主瓣) is defined
main beam d as “the radiation lobe conttaining
the direct
t tion of maaximum rradiation.”” In Figure 2.3 the major lob
be is poin
nting in
the θ = 0
t direction
n. In somee antennaas, such as split‐beeam antennnas, therre may
exist more
e e than on ne major lobe.
A mino 旁瓣) is anyy lobe exccept a maajor lobe.
or lobe (旁
A side lobe(副瓣) is “a radiation lobe in any direction other than the
intended lobe.” Usually a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe
A back lobe is “a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of approximately
180o with respect to the beam of an antenna.”
Minor lobes usually represent radiation in undesired directions and should
be minimized. Side lobes are the largest minor lobes.
2.2.3 Pr
2 rincipal Pattern
ns
For aa linearly polarized
d antennaa, perform
mance is o
often desscribed in terms
of its prin
o cipal E‐ an
nd H‐planne pattern
ns.
The E‐‐plane is d
defined ass “the plane
contaiining the electric field
f vecttor
and the
t direcction of maximu um
radiation.”
The H‐plane
H is defineed as “the
plane containin
ng the maagnetic‐fieeld
vectorr and the dirrection of
maxim
mum radiaation.”
An illlustration
n is show
wn in Figgure 2.5. For this example, the x‐z plane
( n plane;
(elevation = 0) is the princcipal E‐plaane and the
t x‐y plane (azim
muthal
plane;
p θ== /2) is the
t princiipal H‐plaane. Otheer coordin nate orien ntations ccan be
selected.
s The omn nidirection
nal patterrn of Figu
ure 2.6 haas an infiinite num
mber of
principal
p E‐planess (elevation planees; = c) and one principal H‐plane
H
(azimutha
( θ= 90o).
al plane; θ
2.2.4 Fie
2 eld Regiions
The space
s surrounding an antenna is usually subdiivided into three regions:
r
reactive n
near‐field, nel 菲 涅 耳 ) regio
, radiating near‐fieeld (Fresn on and far‐field
(
(Fraunhof fer 夫琅和 和费) regions
1.
1 Reacttive near‐field regio
on
For most an
ntennas, the outeer
boundary
b of this region
n is
0.62
0 / , is th
he waveleength and D
is the largeest dimension of the antennaa.
a.
a The reeactive fieeld predom
minates
b.
b For a very short dipole,
d o
or
equivvalent radiator, the
t outeer
bound dary is commonly
c y taken to
t
/2.
2.
2 Radiatiing near‐ffield (Fressnel) regio
on
Definned as “that region of the field of an
a antenn
na betwe
een the reeactive
near‐field
n d region annd the farr‐field reggion
a Radiation fields predomin
a. nate
b The an
b. ngular field distribution
is deependent upon the
distancce from th
he antenn na.
c If the antenna has a maximum
c.
overall dimension whicch is
very sm
mall commpared to o the
waveleength, thiis field re
egion
may noot exist.
The rregion is limited byy
0.62
2 / 2 / .
3.
3 Far‐field (Fraunh
hofer) reggion
a The angular field
a. d distribu
ution is esssentially independ
dent of the distance from
the anttenna.
b The farr‐field reggion is taken to exxist at disstances greater than 2
b. / from
the anttenna.
As the observvation is
m
moved t the radiating
to r
n
near‐fieldd region n, the
p
pattern b
begins to smooth
a
and formm lobes. In the
f
far‐field region, the
p
pattern is well formed,
u
usually consisting of few
m
minor bes and one, or
lob
m
more, ma ajor lobes..
2.2.5 Ra
2 adian(弧
弧度)and Stera
adian(
(立体弧度
度)
The m
measure o
of a solid angle is aa steradian.
One steradian n is defin
ned as the solid
angle with
a h its verteex at the ccenter of a sphere
of radius
o that iss subtend ded by a sspherical
surface ar
s rea .
Sincee the areaa of a sphe
ere of rad
dius is
4 , there are
a 4 srr 4 / in a
closed sph
c here.
The infinitessimal areea on the
surface of
s f a spheree is given b
by
(m2) (2‐1)
Therefore
T d angle d
e, the solid d can bee written as
/ (sr) (2‐2)
Example 2.1
For a sphere of radius r, find the solid angle (in square radians or steradians)
of a spherical cap on the surface sphere over the north‐pole region defined by
spherical angles of 0 30o, 0 360o. Do this
a. exactly.
b. using A 1 2, where 1 and 2 are two perpendicular angular
separations of the spherical cap passing through the north pole.
Compare the two.
Solution:
a. Using (2‐2), we can write that
/
Ω Ω 0.83566
b. Ω ΔΘ ∙ ΔΘ | ∙ 1.09662
The approximate beam solid angle is about 31.23% in error.
∯ ∙ ∯ ∙ (2‐4)
P: instantaneous total power (W);
n: unit vector normal to the surface
da: infinitesimal area of the closed surface m
For time varying fields, average power density is needed, which is obtained
by integrating the instantaneous Poynting vector over one period and dividing
by the period. For the form
, , ; , , ; , , ; , , 2‐5, 6
Using the definitions of (2‐5) and (2‐6) and the identity
Re , , , , /2
(2‐3) can be written as
∗
(2‐3) (2‐7)
Finally, the time average Poynting vector (average power density) is
∗
, , , , ; /2 (W/m2) (2‐8)
Note:
∗
The real part of /2 represents the average (real) power density
The imaginary part represents the reactive (stored) power density
The 1/2 factor appears in (2‐7) and (2‐8) because the and fields
represent peak values, and it should be omitted for RMS values
Based upon the definition of (2‐8), the average power radiated power can
be written as
∙
∗
∯ ∙ ∯ Re ∙ (2‐9)
Example 2.1
The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is
(W/m2)
is the peak value of the power density, is the spherical coordinate,
and is the radial unit vector. Determine the total radiated power.
SOLUTION
For a closed surface, a sphere of radius is chosen. To find the
total‐radiated power, the radial component of the power density is
integrated over its surface.
∙ ∙
, , , | , , | , ,
2 2
| , | | , | (2‐12a)
Where
,
, , : far‐zone electric field intensity of the antenna
E , E : far‐zone electric field components of the antenna
η : intrinsic impedance of the medium
Thus the power pattern is also a measure of the radiation intensity.
The total power is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity, as given
by (2‐12), over the entire solid angle of 4. Thus
Ω (2‐13)
Comparison: ∯ ∙
Example 2.2
For Example 2.I, find the total radiated power using (2‐13).
SOLUTION
Using (2‐12) and by (2‐13)
For an isotropic source, will be independent of the angles and ,
as was the case for . Thus (2‐13) can be written as
∯ Ω ∯ Ω 4 (2‐14)
or the radiation intensity of an isotropic source as
/4 (2‐15)
2.5
2 BEA
AMWID
DTH
The beamwidth h of a pattern is deefined: thee angular separatio
on betweeen two
identical p
i points on opposite side of thhe pattern n maximuum.
1.
1 Half‐Poower Beam
mwidth (HHPBW).
2.
2 First‐Nu
ull Beamw
width (FNBW).
Offten, the term
beamwidt
b th usuaally refeers to
HPBW.
H
Th he beamwidth is a
trade‐off
t between n it and the side
lobe leevel. Th he beamwidth
decreases
d s, the side lobe increases
and vice v
a versa.
Th he beamw width of tthe anten
nna is also
o used to
o describe e the reso
olution
capabilitie
c es to distinguish tw
wo adjaceent radiating sources or targgets.
The most common resolution criterion is FNBW/2, which is usually used to
approximate HPBW.
That is, two sources separated by angular distances equal or greater than
FNBW/2 ≈ HPBW of an antenna can be resolved.
If the separation is smaller, then the antenna will tend to smooth the
angular separation distance.
Example 2.4
The normalized radiation intensity of an antenna is represented by
U θ cos θ cos 3θ , 0 θ 90 , 0 ϕ 360
Find the
a. half‐power beamwidth HPBW (in radians and degrees)
b. first‐null beamwidth FNBW (in radians and degrees)
Solution:
a. Since the represents the power pattern, to find the half‐power
beamwidth. Let
U θ | 3 | 0.5 ⟹ θ cos 3θ 0.707
⟹θ 0.25 rad 14.3250
Since is symmetrical about the maximum at 0, then the HPBW is
HPBW 2θ 0.5 rad 28.65
b. To find the first‐null beamwidth (FNBW), let the equal to zero
U θ | cos θ cos 3θ | 0
This leads to two solutions for θ
θ 90 , θ 30
2 6
The one with the smallest value leads to the FNBW. Again, because of the
symmetry of the pattern, the FNBW is
π
FNBW 2θ radians 60
3
2.6 DIRECTIVITY
The directivity of an antenna defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in
a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over
all directions.
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the
antenna divided by 4.
If the directionis not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity
is implied. Directivity can be written as
|
D ,
D = directivity (dimensionless); D0 = maximum directivity (dimensionless)
U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle);
= total radiated power (W)
= maximum radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle);
= radiation intensity of isotropic source (W/unit solid angle);
= radiated power in all directions contained in field component
= radiated power in all directions contained in field component
Example 2.5
Find the maximum directivity of the antenna whose radiation intensity is
that of Example 2.2. Write an expression for the directivity as a function of the
directional angles and .
Solution:
The radiation intensity is given by
The maximum radiation is directed along: /2
Thus
In Example 2.2 it was found that
P π A
We find that the maximum directivity is equal to
4 4
1.27
Since the radiation intensity is only a function of , the directivity as a
function of the directional angles is represented by
1.27
Example 2.6
The radial component of the radiated power density of an infinitesimal
linear dipole of length l << is given by
(W/m2)
where is the peak value of the power density, is the usual spherical
coordinate, and is the radial unit vector. Determine the maximum
directivity of the antenna and express the directivity as a function of the
directional angles and .
Solution:
The radiation intensity is given by
2
The maximum radiation is directed along /2. Thus
The total radiated power is given by
Ω 8 /3
Using (2‐16a), the maximum directivity is equal to
4 4
1.5
8 /3
greater than 1.27 in Example 2.5. Thus the directivity is represented by
1.5
Figure 2.12 shows the relative radiation intensities of Example 2.5
(U A sin) and Example 2.6 (U A sin )
a.
a Both p patterns aare omnid
directional
b.
b Examp ple 2.6 has
h moree directioonal charracteristiccs (is narrower) in the
elevattion planee.
Another e
A example: Examin
ne the directivity o
of a half‐w
wavelengtth dipole, which
approxim
a ated by
1.67
7 (2.18)
The value
T d those of an isotropic sourrce (
es represeented by ((2‐18) and 1) are
in Figure 2
i 2.13(a, b).
, , | , | | , | 2‐19
where is a constant, and and are the antenna's far‐zone electric
field components. The maximum value of (2‐19) is given by
, | , (2‐19a)
The total radiated power is found using
∯ , , 2‐20
We now write the general expression for the directivity and maximum
directivity using (2‐16) and (2‐16a), respectively, as
, , |
D θ, ϕ , D 2‐21, 22
, ,
Equation (2‐22) can also be written as
D 2‐23
,
, |
where Ω is the beam solid angle, and it is given by
1
,
, |
, 2‐24
,
, (2‐25)
, |
2.6.1 Di
2 rectionaal Patterrns
Insteaad of usin
ng (2‐23) to compu
ute the directivity, it is often convenient to
derive sim
d mpler exprressions aapproximaately.
For antennas
a with onee narrow
major
m lo
obe and very negligible
minor lob
m bes, the beeam solid angle is
approxim
a ately equ
ual to the product
of
o the half‐powerr beamw widths in
two perpe
t endicular planes.
For a
a rotatio onally symmetric
pattern,
p the hallf‐power
beamwidt
b ths in
n any two
perpendic
p cular plan he same, (a)Nonsym
nes are th mmetrical pattern (b) SSymmetrical pattern
Figure 2.1
14 Beam solid angles foor nonsymmmetrical
as illustrat
a ted in Figure 2.14(b). an
nd symmetrical radiatioon patterns.
With this approximation, (2‐23) can be approximated by
D 2‐23
,
, |
(2‐26)
The beam solid angle Ω has been approximated by
Ω Θ Θ (2‐26a)
Where
= half‐power beamwidth in one plane, (rad)
= half‐power beamwidth in a plane at a right angle to the other, (rad)
If the beamwidths are known in degrees, (2‐26) can be written as
/ ,
(2‐27)
where
1d= half‐power beamwidth in one plane (degrees)
2d=half‐power beamwidth in a plane at a right angle to the other (degrees)
The validity of (2‐26) and (2‐27) is based on a pattern that has only one
major lobe and any minor lobes.
For a pattern with two identical major lobes, the value of the maximum
directivity using (2‐26) or (2‐27) will be twice its actual value.
For patterns with significant minor lobes, the values of maximum
directivity obtained using (2‐26) or (2‐27), which neglect any minor
lobes, will usually be too high.
Example
E 2.7
Thee radiation
n intensityy of the m
major lobee of manyy
antennas
a can be addequatelyy represen nted by
where
w is the maximum m radiatiion inten
nsity. Thee
radiation
r intensity exists only in the upper hemispheree
(0
( /2, 0 2 ),
) and it is showwn in thee
Figure. Fin
F nd the
a. beam s
a olid anglee; exact an
nd approxximate.
b. maximu
b um directtivity; exacct using (2
2‐23) and
d approxim
mate usingg (2‐26).
Solution:
S The halff‐power point
p of the
t patteern occurrs at 60 . Thus the
beamwidt
b th in the directiion is 120 . Since the patteern is indeependentt of the
ϕ
ϕ coordinnate,
Θ , Θ ,
a. Beam solid angle Ω
/
π steradians (2‐24)
Approximate: Using (2‐26a)
b. Directivity :
Exact: 4 10 log 4 6.02dB
2.7
2 ANT
TENNA
A EFFIC
CIENCY
Y
Associated wwith an aantenna are a nu umber off efficien
ncies. Thee total
antenna
a efficiency iss used to take
into acco
i ount lossees at thee input teerminals
and with
a hin the sttructure of the antenna.
Such loss
S ses may bbe due to o
1 Reflections beecause of the mismatch
1.
betweeen the transmisssion line and the
antennna
2.
2 lo
osses (co
onduction
n and dieelectric)
The overall eefficiencyy can be written
as
a
(2‐44)
where
total efficiency (dimensionless)
reflection(mismatch) efficiency = 1 || (dimensionless)
= conduction efficiency (dimensionless)
= dielectric efficiency (dimensionless)
= voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna
Z Z / Z Z
Where
Z = antenna input impedance,
Z = characteristic impedance of the transmission line
Usually and are very difficult to compute, but they can be
determined experimentally.
2.8 GAIN
The gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity, it is a
measure that takes into account the efficiency of the antenna as well as
its directional capabilities.
Directivity is a measure that describes only the directional
properties of the antenna, and it is controlled only by the pattern.
Absolute gain of an antenna is defined as "the ratio of the intensity,
in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if
the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. The
isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted by the
antenna divided by 4."
,
gain 4π 4π (dimensionless)
(2‐44)
When the direction is not stated, the power gain is usually taken in
the direction of maximum radiation.
Referring to Figure 2.17(a), we can write that the total radiated
power (P ) is related to the total input power (P ) by
(2‐45)
which is related to the directivity of (2‐21) by
, , (2‐47)
In a similar manner, the maximum value of the gain is related to the
maximum directivity by
G G θ, ϕ | e D θ, ϕ | e D (2‐47a)
The partial gain of an antenna for a given polarization in a given
direction is "that part of the radiation intensity corresponding to a given
polarization divided by the total radiation intensity that would be
obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated
isotropically." The total gain in a given direction is the sum of the partial
gains for any two orthogonal polarizations.
For a spherical coordinate system, the total maximum gain for
the orthogonal and components of an antenna can be written as
(2‐48)
while the partial gains and are expressed as
4 / , 4 / (2‐48a)
where
U = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in field component
U = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in field component
Pin = total input (accepted) power
For many practical antennas an approximate formula for the gain,
corresponding to (2‐27) or (2‐27a) for the directivity, is
,
(2‐49)
Usually the gain is given in terms of decibels instead of the
dimensionless quantity of (2‐47a). The conversion formula is given by
G dB 10 log e D dimensionless (2‐50)
Example 2.8
A lossless resonant half‐wavelength dipole antenna, with input impedance
of 73 ohms, is to be connected to a transmission line whose characteristic
impedance is 50 ohms. Assuming that the pattern of the antenna is given
approximately by , find the overall maximum gain of this antenna.
SOLUTION
Let us first compute the maximum directivity of the antenna. For this
|
16
4 1.697
Prad 3π
Since the antenna was lossless, then the radiation efficiency
= 1
Thus, the total maximum gain, as defined in this edition and by IEEE, is equal to
G D 1 1.697 1.697
G dB 10 log 1.697 2.297
which is identical to the directivity because the antenna is lossless.
There is the loss due to reflection or mismatch losses between the antenna
(load) and the transmission line. This loss is accounted for by the reflection
efficiency of (2‐51) or (2‐52), and it is equal to
Z Z
1 || 1 0.965
Z Z
10 log 0.965 0.155 (dB)
Thus, the overall efficiency is
0.965
0.155 dB
Thus, the overall losses are equal to 0.155 dB.
The gain in dB can also be obtained by converting the directivity and
radiation efficiency in dB and then adding them. Thus,
dB 10 log 1.0 0
D dB 10 log 1.697 2.297
G dB dB D dB 2.297
which is the same as obtained previously.
2.9
2 BEA
AM EFF
FICIEN
NCY
Beam
m efficie
ency is frequen
ntly useed to judge th
he qualiity of
transmitt
t ting and receiving antenn
nas. For aan anten
nna with its majo
or lobe
directed
d along the z‐axis (( = 0), th
he beam efficienccy (BE) iss defined
d by
BE (d
dimensio
onless)
(2‐53)
Equattion (2‐53) can be
e written
n as
,
BE (2‐54)
,
If is chosen as the angle where the first null or minimum occurs
(see Figure 2.4), then the beam efficiency will indicate the amount of
power in the major lobe compared to the total power.
A very high beam efficiency is necessary for antennas used in
radiometry, astronomy, radar, and other applications where received
signals through the minor lobes must be minimized.
2.10 BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as "the range of frequencies
within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some
characteristic, conforms to a specified standard."
The bandwidth can be considered to be the range of frequencies, on
either side of a center frequency, where the antenna characteristics
(such as input impedance, pattern, beamwidth, polarization, side lobe
level, gain, beam direction, radiation efficiency) are within an acceptable
value of those at the center frequency.
The bandwidth is usually expressed as the ratio of the
upper‐to‐lower frequencies of acceptable operation. For example,
a 10 : 1 bandwidth indicates that the upper frequency is 10 times
greater than the lower.
2.11 POLARIZATION
Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as "the
polarization of the wave transmitted (radiated) by the antenna.
Polarization of a wave is defined as "that property of an
electromagnetic wave describing the time varying direction and relative
magnitude of the electric‐field vector "
When the direction is not stated, the polarization is taken to be the
polarization in the direction of maximum gain."
Polarization of the radiated energy varies with the direction from the
center of the antenna, so that different parts of the pattern may have
different polarizations.
Polarization is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow
representing the instantaneous electric field. A typical trace as a
function of time is shown in Figures 2.18(a) and (b).
Figure 2.18
8 Rotation of aa plane electromagnetic waave and its po
olarization elliipse at z = 0 as a function o
of time.
Polarizat
P ion may be classiified as
1.
1 Ellipticcal
The figure thaat the eleectric fielld traces is an ellipse.
Linear and cirrcular polarization
ns are special cases of elliptical
2. Linear
If the vector that describes the electric field at a point in space as a
function of time is always directed along a line, the field is said to be
linearly polarized.
Vertical polarization
horizontal polarization
3. Circular
The figure of the electric field is traced in a
Clockwise (CW): the electric field vector is right‐hand polarization
Counterclockwise (CCW): the electric field vector is left‐hand
polarization.
4. Co‐polarization and cross polarization
At each point on the radiation sphere the polarization is usually
resolved into a pair of orthogonal polarizations, the co‐polarization and
cross polarization. Co‐polarization represents the polarization the
antenna is intended to radiate (receive) while cross‐polarization
represents the polarization orthogonal to the co‐polarization.
2.11.1 Linear, Circular, and Elliptical Polarizations
The instantaneous field of a plane wave, traveling in the negative z
direction, can be written as
, , , (2‐55)
According to (2‐5), the instantaneous components are related to their
complex counterparts by
, ωt+kz) ωt+kz+ )
ωt+kz+ ) (2‐56)
, ωt+kz) ωt+kz+ )
ωt+kz+ ) (2‐57)
where and are, respectively, the maximum magnitudes of the
x and y components.
A. Linear Polarization
For the wave to have linear polarization, the time‐phase difference
between the two components must be
n, 0, 1, 2, 3, … (2‐58)
Which means that the phases of z, t and z, t are the same or
reverse.
B. Circular Polarization
Circular polarization can be achieved only when
the magnitudes of the two components are the same
the time‐phase difference between them is odd multiples of /2.
That is,
| | E E (2‐59)
2n π, n 0, 1, ,2, … for CW (2‐60)
For elliptical
e polarization, the curvve
traced at
t t a given
n position
n as a fu
unction o
of
time
t is a
a tilted ellipse,
e ass shown in Figurre
2.18(b). T
2 The ratio
o of the major axxis to the
minor ax
m xis is the axial ratio (AR),
AR 2‐65
, 1AR 5
where
w
/ /
OA E E E E 2E E cos 2Δϕ 2‐66
/ /
OB
B E E E E 2E
E E coss 2Δϕ 2‐67
ed τ givven by
The tilt of the ellipse, relative tto the y aaxis, is reepresente
τ tan
n cos 2ϕ 2‐68
SUMMARY
1. Linear Polarization
A time‐harmonic wave is linearly polarized at a given point in space if the
electric field (or magnetic field) vector at that point is always oriented along the
same straight line at every instant of time. This is accomplished if the field
vector (electric or magnetic) possesses:
a. Only one component, or
b. Two orthogonal linear components that are in time phase or 180o (or
multiples of 180 o) out of phase.
2. Circular Polarization
A time‐harmonic wave is circularly polarized at a given point if the electric
(or magnetic) field vector at that point traces a circle as a function of time. The
necessary and sufficient conditions to accomplish this are:
a. The field must have two orthogonal linear components, and
b. The two components must have the same magnitude, and
c. The two components must have a time‐phase difference of odd multiples
of 90 o.
3. Elliptical Polarization
A wave is elliptically polarized if it is not linearly or circularly polarized.
Although linear and circular polarizations are special cases of elliptical, usually
in practice elliptical polarization refers to other than linear or circular. The
necessary and sufficient conditions to accomplish this are if the field vector
(electric or magnetic) possesses all of the following:
a. The field must have two orthogonal linear components, and
b. The two components can be of the same or different magnitude.
c. (1) If the two components are not of the same magnitude, the time‐phase
difference between the two components must not be 0 or multiples of
180 (because it will then be linear). (2) If the two components are of the
same magnitude, the time‐phase difference between the two components
must not be odd multiples of 90 o (because it will then be circular).
2.11.2 Polarization Loss Factor and Efficiency
The polarization of the receiving antenna will not be the same as the
of the incident wave. This is stated as "polarization mismatch." The
amount of power extracted by the antenna from the incident signal will
not be maximum because of the polarization loss. Assuming the electric
field of the incident wave is
E ρ E 2‐69
where ρ is the unit vector of the wave. Assuming the polarization of
the electric field of the receiving antenna is
E ρ E 2‐70
where ρ is its unit vector (polarization vector). The polarization loss
factor (PLF) is defined
PLF |ρ ∙ ρ | cos|ψ | dimensionless 2‐71
where
w ψ is th
he anglee betweeen the two uniit polarization of
o the
incoming
i g wave annd of thee vectors shown in Figure 2.19.
If thee antennaa is polarization matched
d,
i PLF
its 1 and
d the anttenna will extracct
maximum
m m power from thee incoming wave.
Anoth
her figurre‐of‐merit descrribing the
polarizat
p ion charracteristiccs of a w
wave and
that
t of an anteenna is the po
olarization Figu
ure 2.19 Po olarization unit
vectorss of inciden
nt wave (ρρ ) and
efficiency
e y. antennna (ρ )
Polarization eefficiencyy is defin
ned as:
"Thee ratio off the pow
wer received by aan anten
nna from
m a given plane
wave
w of arbitraryy polarization to the pow
wer that would be
b receivved by
the same
t e antenna from a plane w
wave of th
he same power flux densitty and
Where
| ∙ |
2‐71a = vector effective length of the antenna
| | ∙| |
= incident electric field
The vector effective length is a vector that describes the
polarization characteristics of the antenna. Both the PLF and lead to
the same answers.
Example 2.9
The electric field of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave given by
,
is incident upon a linearly polarized antenna whose electric field polarization
can be expressed as
, ,
Find the polarization loss factor (PLF)
SOLUTION
For the incident wave and the antenna
,
√
The PLF is:
PLF | ∙ | | ∙ | 10 log 0.5 3dB
√
1. Even the incoming wave and the antenna are linearly polarized, there is a
3‐dB loss in extracted power because the polarization of the incoming wave is
not aliggned with
h the polarization o
of the anteenna.
2.
2 If thee polarization of th
he incomin ng wave iss orthogoonal to the e polarizaation of
the antenna,
a then there will bee no poweer extractted by the antenna from
the incoming wave and
d the PLF w
will be zero or ‐ d
dB.
In Figgures 2.20(a, b) wee illustratee the polaarization loss factorrs (PLF) off two
types of a
t antennas; wires and d apertures.
(aa) PLF for traansmitting aand receivin
ng aperture antennas
(b) PLF for transmitting and receivingg linear wiree antennas
Fiigure 2.25 P
Polarization lloss factors (PLF) for aperture and linear wire aantennas.
The polarizattion loss must always be taken in
nto accou
unt in th
he link
calculatio
c ns design mmunication system
n of a com m becausee in some cases it m may be
a very crit
a tical facto
or.
Link calculatio
ons of co
ommunicaation systems for outer
o spaace explorations
a very stringent because of limitaations in spacecrafft weight. In such cases,
are
power is a
p a limiting consideraation. Thee design mmust prop perly take into accoount all
loss factors to ensuure a succcessful opeeration off the systeem.
An aantenna th
hat is ellip
ptically po
olarized iss composeed of two crossed d dipoles,
as
a shown in Figuree 2.26. Th poles provide the two orthogonal
he two crrossed dip
field comp
f ponents.
Figure 2.26 Geomeetry of ellipttically polarized cross‐d
dipole antenna.
he two dipoles aree identicaal, the fieeld intenssity of each along zenith
If th
(perpendi
( icular to tthe plane of the twwo dipoles) would be of the e same inttensity.
Also, if th
A he two dip
poles werre fed witth a 90◦ degree tim
d me‐phase
e differencce, the
polarizatio
p on along zzenith wo
ould be cirrcular and
d elliptical.
2.12
2 INPPUT IM
MPEDA
ANCE
Inpuut impedaance is deefined as "the impeedance presented at an anttenna’s
terminals
t or the ratio of the
e voltage tto currentt at a pairr of terminals or th
he ratio
of the app
o propriate compone ents of thee electric to magneetic fields at a point."
(2‐72)
where
w ZA = anteenna impeedance at terminals a‐b (ohms)
RA = anteenna resisttance at tterminals a‐b (o
ohms)
XA = anteenna reacttance at terminals a‐b (ohms)
Assumme the an
ntenna is attached
d to a gen
nerator
with inter
w rnal impeddance
2‐74
where
w
R = rresistancee of generrator impeedance (ohms)
X = rreactance
e of generrator impeedance (ohms)
Being
B use
ed in the transmittting mod
de, the an
ntenna
and gener
a rator can be repressent by Figgure 2.27 7(b).
To find
f the amount of power delivered to for rad diation an
nd the
amount d
a dissipated in ass heat ( /2), w
we first fin
nd the currrent deveeloped
within the
w e loop whhich is giveen by
A 2‐75
| |
and its magnitude by | | 2‐75a
| | /
where is the peak generator voltage.
The power delivered to the antenna for radiation is given by
| |
| | | W 2‐76
and that dissipated as heat in antenna by
| |
| | | W 2‐77
The power dissipated as heat on the internal resistance Rg of the generator is
| |
W 2‐78
The maximum power delivered to the antenna occurs when conjugate
matching is achieved
; 2‐79, 20‐80
For this case
| | | |
2‐81
| |
2‐82
| | | | | |
2‐83
From (2‐81)‐(2‐83), it is clear that
2‐84
The power supplied by the generator during conjugate matching is
W 2‐85
dimensionless 2‐90
For a metal rod of length and area , the dc resistance is given by
ohms 2‐90a
If the skin depth 2/ of the metal is very small compared to
the smallest diagonal of the cross section of the rod, the current is confined to a
thin layer near the conductor surface. Therefore the high‐frequency resistance
can be written, based on a uniform current distribution, as
ohms 2‐90b
Where
2 is the perimeter of the cross section of the rod ( : the radius of wire)
is the conductor surface resistance
is the angular frequency
is the free‐space’s permeability
is the metal’s conductivity.
Example 2.13
A resonant half‐wavelength dipole is made out of copper ( 5.710 s/m)
wire. Determine the conduction‐dielectric (radiation) efficiency of the dipole
antenna at 100 MHz, the radius of the wire b is 310 , and the
radiation resistance of the /2 dipole is 73 ohms.
SOLUTION
At 10 Hz
3 ; 3/2 ;
2 2 3 10 6 10
1 0.25 10 4 10
0.349
2 6 10 5.7 10
2.15
2 ANT
TENNA VECTOR
R EFFEC
CTIVE LENGTH
L H AND EQUIVA
E ALENT
ARE
EAS
An antenna
a in the receiving
r g mode, whateveer its forrm, is ussed to
capture (
c (collect) electrommagnetic waves and to exttract pow wer from m them,
as shown
a n in Figurres 2.29(a) and (bb).
For eeach antenna, itss equivalent lengtth and equivalen nt areas ccan be
defined t
d to descriibe the rreceivingg characteristics o
of an anttenna, w
when a
wave is in
w ncident u
upon the e antennaa.
2.15.1 Vector Effective Length
The effective length of an antenna is a quantity to determine the voltage
induced on the open‐circuit terminals of the antenna when a wave
impinges upon it. It should be noted that it is also referred to as the
effective height.
The vector effective length for an antenna is a complex vector
represented by
, , , (2‐91)
It is a far‐field quantity and it is related to the far‐zone field
radiated by the antenna, with current in its terminals
(2‐92)
The effective length is particularly useful in relating the open‐circuit voltage
of receiving antennas. This relation can be expressed as
∙ (2‐93)
where
= open‐circuit voltage at antenna terminals
= incident electric field
= vector effective length
In (2‐93) can be thought of as the voltage induced in a linear antenna
of length when and are linearly polarized.
From the relation of (2‐93) the effective length of a linearly polarized
antenna receiving a plane wave in a given direction is defined as
The ratio of the magnitude of the open‐circuit voltage developed at the
terminals of the antenna to the magnitude of the electric‐field strength in the
direction of the antenna polarization.
In addition, the antenna vector effective length is used to determine
the polarization efficiency of the antenna.
Example 2.14
The far‐zone field radiated by a small dipole of length and
with a triangular current distribution is given by
8
Determine the vector effective length of the antenna.
Solution: According to (2‐92), the vector effective length is
(2‐92)
⇒
2
This indicates the effective length is a function of the direction angle .
The maximum open circuit voltage at the dipole terminals occurs when the
incident direction of the wave is normal to the dipole ( 90 ).
In addition, the effective length of the dipole to produce the same output
open‐circuit voltage is only half (50%) of its physical length if it were replaced
by a thin conductor having a uniform current distribution
The maximum effective length of an element with an ideal uniform current
distribution is equal to its physical length.
2.15.2 Antenna Equivalent Areas
Antenna Equivalent Areas The loss area
The scattering area the capture area
Antenna Equivalent Areas are used to describe the power
capturing characteristics of antennas when wave imping on them, which
in a given direction is defined as “the ratio of the available power at the
terminals of a receiving antenna to the power flux density of a plane
wave incident on the antenna from that direction, the wave being
polarization‐matched to the antenna. If the direction is not specified, the
direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied.”It is written as
| | /
(2‐94)
Where = effective area (effective aperture) (m2);
= power delivered to the load (W);
= power density of incident wave (W/m2)
| |
(2‐95))
Unde
er conditions of maximum m powerr transferr (conjuggate mattching),
an nd o (2‐95) reduces to the
, thee effectivve area of
maximum
m m effective
e aperturee given byy
| | | |
(2‐96)
When (2‐9
W dent poweer densityy, it leads to the captured
96) is multiplied byy the incid
power of
p (2‐89).
∗
∗ | |
(2‐97)
All captured power by an antenna is not delivered to the load. In
fact, under conjugate matching only half of the captured power is
delivered to the load; the other half is scattered and dissipated as heat.
To account for the scattered and dissipated power, in addition to the
effective area, the scattering, loss and capture equivalent areas are
defined.
The scattering area is defined as the equivalent area when
multiplied by the incident power density is equal to the scattered or
reradiated power. Under conjugate matching this is written as
| |
A (2‐97)
multiplied by the incident power density gives the scattering power.
The loss area is defined as the equivalent area, which when
multiplied by the incident power density leads to the power dissipated
as heat through . Under conjugate matching this is written as
| |
(2‐98)
multiplied by the incident power density gives the dissipated power.
The capture area is defined as the equivalent area, which when
multiplied by the incident power density leads to the total power
captured by the antenna. Under conjugate matching this is written as
| |
(2‐99)
multiplied by the incident power density, it leads to the captured power.
The total capture area is equal to the sum of the other three, or
Capture Area Effective Area Scattering Area Loss Area
The aperture efficiency of an antenna, which is defined as the
ratio of the maximum effective area A of the antenna to its physical
area A , or
(2‐100)
Example 2
E 2.15
A unifo
orm planee wave is incident u upon a veery short llossless dipole (l <<< ), as
shown
s in Figure 2.29(a). Find the maximum
m effective area asssuming thhat the
radiation
r resistance of the dipole is R 800 / , and the incident field is
linearly po
olarized aalong the axis of thee dipole.
Solution:
S
F R
For 0, the m
maximum effectivee area
of (2‐96) r
o reduces too
| | | |
(2‐96)
| | 1
8
Since
S the
e dipole is
i very sh
hort, the induced
d current can be assumed to be
constant a
c and of uniform phaase. The innduced vooltage is
where
VT = induced voltage on the dipole
E = electric field of incident wave, l = length of dipole
For a uniform plane wave, the incident power density can be written as
/2
where is the intrinsic impedance of the medium ( 120 ohms for a free‐space
medium). Thus
| |
0.119
8 /2 80 /
2.16
2 MAXXIMUM DIRECT
TIVITY AND
A MA
AXIMUM
M EFFECT
TIVE AR
REA
To derive
d thhe relattionship betweeen direcctivity and maxximum
effective
e area, leet Anten
nna 1 bee a transsmitter and 2 a receiver. The
effective
e a direcctivities of each are designated as , and
areas and
, . Iff antenna 1 were isotrop pic, and the total
t wer. its
radiated pow
radiated
r power d density att a distan
nce would be
w
(2‐101))
Because
B o the directive properties
of p s
of the ant
o tenna, its actual de
ensity is
(2‐102))
The
T pow wer colleccted (recceived) by
b the antenna and
a transferred to
t the
load wou
l uld be
⟹ 4 (2‐103)
If antenna 2 is used as a transmitter, 1 as a receiver, and the
intervening medium is linear, passive, and isotropic, we can write that
4 (2‐104)
Equating (2‐103a) and (2‐104) reduces to
(2‐105)
Increasing the directivity of an antenna increases its effective area in
direct proportion. Thus, (2‐105) can be written as
(2‐106)
then D 1 and its maximum effective area can be expressed as
(2‐107)
For example, let the antenna be a very short dipole
whose effective area = 0.119 and maximum directivity = 1.5. The
maximum effective area of the isotropic source is then equal to
.
(2‐108)
.
Using (2‐108), we can write (2‐107) as
(2‐109)
In general then, the maximum effective aperture (A ) of any
antenna is related to its maximum directivity (D ) by
(2‐110)
2.17
2 FR
RIIS TRA ANSMIS SSION EQUAT
E ION AN ND RAD DAR RA ANGE
EQUAT
E TION
The analysiss and design off radar and com
mmunicaations syystems
require t
r the use o of the Friis Transmission Equation e Radar Range
n and the
Equation
E n.
2.17.1 Fr
2 riis Transsmission Equation
The Friis Transmissio
on Equattion relattes the power
p re
eceived to
t the
ransmitteed betweeen two antennaas separaated by R
power tr
p R , , D is
the large
t est dimen
nsion of eeither an
ntenna.
Assuming the transmitting antenna is isotropic. If the input power at the
terminals of the transmitting antenna is P , then its isotropic power
density W at distance R from the antenna is
W e 2‐113
e : the radiation efficiency of the transmitting antenna.
For a nonisotropic transmitting antenna, the power density of
(2‐113) in the direction , is
, ,
W e (2‐114)
Since the effective area of the receiving antenna is related to its
efficiency and directivity by
; , (2‐115)
the power collected by the receiving antenna is
, ,
P e D θ ,ϕ W ee |ρ ∙ ρ |
(2‐118)
The ratio of the received to the input power as
, ,
(2‐117)
The power received based on (2‐117) assumes that the transmitting
and receiving antennas are matched to their respective lines or loads
and the polarization of the receiving antenna is polarization‐matched to
the impinging wave.
If these two factors are also included, then the ratio of the received
to the input power of (2‐117) is represented by
, , 1 |Γ | 1 |Γ | |ρ ∙ ρ |
(2‐118)
For reflection and polarization‐matched antennas aligned for maximum
directional radiation and reception, (2‐118) reduces to
2‐119
Equations (2‐117), (2‐118), or (2‐119) are known as the Friis
Transmission Equation, and it relates the power (delivered to the
receiver load) to the input power of the transmitting antenna . The
term is called the free‐space loss factor, and it takes into
account the losses due to the spherical spreading of the energy by the
antenna.
2.17.2 Ra
2 adar Rannge Equaation
Assuuming that the trransmitteed poweer is incid
dent upo
on a targget, as
shown in
s n Figure 2
2.32.
The radar cross section (RC CS) or eccho areaa ( ) of
o a targget, is
defined
d as the area
a inteerceptingg that am o powerr which, when
mount of
scattered
s d isotroppically, prroduces aat the receiver a density which is equal
cattered by the actual target. In eq
to that sc
t quation fform
→ (2‐120)
| |
4 4
→ → | |
| |
→ 4 (2‐120a)
= radar cross section or echo area (m2)
R = observation distance from target (m)
W = incident power density (W/m2)
W = scattered power density (W/m2)
E (E ) = incident (scattered) electric field (V/m)
H H ) = incident (scattered) magnetic field (A/m)
Using the definition of radar cross section, we can consider that
the transmitted power incident upon the target is initially
captured;
then it is reradiated isotropically, insofar as the receiver is
concerned.
The amount of captured power is obtained by multiplying the
incident power density of (2‐114) by the radar cross section, or
, ,
W e (2‐114)
, ,
(2‐121)
The power captured by the target is reradiated isotropically, and the
scattered power density can be written as
,
(2‐122)
The amount of power delivered to the receiver load is given by
, ,
(2‐123)
Equation(2‐123) can be written as the ratio of the received power to the
input power, or
, ,
(2‐124)
Expression (2‐124) is used to relate the received power to the input
power, It does not include reflection losses and polarization losses. If
these two losses are also included, then (2‐124) must be expressed as
, ,
1 |Γ | 1 |Γ | |ρ ∙ ρ |
(2‐125)
For polarization‐matched antennas aligned for maximum directional
radiation and reception, (2‐125) reduces to
2‐126
Equation(2‐124 ), or (2‐125) or (2‐126) is known as the Radar Range
Equation. It relates the power P (delivered to the receiver load) to the
input power P transmitted by an antenna, after it has been scattered
by a target with a radar cross section (echo area) of .
Example 2.16
Two lossless X‐band 8.2– 12.4 GHz horn antennas are separated by a
distance of 100 . The reflection coefficients at the terminals of the
transmitting and receiving antennas are 0.1 and 0.2 , respectively. The
maximum directivities of the transmitting and receiving antennas (over
isotropic) are 16 dB and 20 dB, respectively. Assuming that the input power in
the lossless transmission line connected to the transmitting antenna is 2W, and
the antennas are aligned for maximum radiation between them and are
polarization‐matched, find the power delivered to the load of the receiver.
Solution:
For this problem
e e 1 because antennas are lossless.
|ρ ∙ ρ | 1 because antennas are polarization‐matched
D D ,D D because antennas are aligned for maximum
radiation between them
D 16 dB➱39.81 (dimensionless)
D 20 dB➱100 (dimensionless)
Using (2‐118), we can write
2.17.3 Antenna Radar Cross Section
The radar cross section is a far‐field parameter, which is used to
characterize the scattering properties of a radar target.
monostatic or backscattering RCS
bistatic RCS
The RCS of a target is a function of
1. polarization of the incident wave,
2. the angle of incidence,
3. the angle of observation,
4. the geometry of the target,
5. the electrical properties of the target,
6. the frequency of operation.
The units of RCS of three‐dimensional targets are m2,or dBsm, or RCS/2 in
dB.
The RCS of a target can be controlled using primarily two basic methods:
shaping and the use of materials.
Shaping is used to attempt to direct the scattered energy toward
directions other than the desired. However, for many targets shaping has
to be compromised in order to meet other requirements, such as
aerodynamic specifications for flying targets.
Materials are used to trap the incident energy within the target and to
dissipate part of the energy as heat or to direct it toward directions other
than the desired.
Usually both methods, shaping and materials, are used together in order to
optimize the performance of a radar target.
One of the“golden rules”to observe in order to achieve low RCS is to
“round corners, avoid flat and concave surfaces, and use material treatment in
flare spots.”
Problems
2.4. Find the half-power beamwidth (HPBW) and first-null beamwidth (FNBW),
in radians and degrees, for the following normalized radiation intensities:
a U θ cos θ b U θ cos θ
c U θ cos 2θ d U θ cos 2θ
e U θ cos 3θ f U θ cos 3θ
0 θ 90 , 0 φ 360
2.8. You are an antenna engineer and you are asked to design a high
directivity/gain antenna for a space-borne communication system operating at 10
GHz. The specifications of the antenna are such that its pattern consists basically
of one major lobe and, for simplicity, no minor lobes (if there are any minor
lobes they are of such very low intensity and you can assume they are negligible
/zero). Also it is desired that the patternis symmetrical in the azimuthal plane. In
order to meet the desired objectives, the mainlobe of the patternshould have a
half-power beamwidth of 10 degrees. Inorder to expedite the design, it is
assumed that the major lobe of the normalized radiation intensity of the antenna
is approximated by
U θ, φ cos θ
and it exists only in the upper hemisphere (0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2, 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π). Determine
the:
(a) Value of n (not necessarily an integer) to meet the specifications of the major
lobe. Keep 5 significant figures in your calculations.
U θ, φ cos θ sin φ
for 0≤θ≤π/2 an d 0≤φ≤2π(i.e., inthe upper half-space). It is zero in the lower
half-space. Find the
(a) exact directivity (dimensionless and in dB)
(b) elevationplan e half-power beamwidth (in degrees)
2.17. The maximum gain of a horn antenna is +20 dB, while the gain of its first
sidelobe is −15 dB. What is the difference in gain between the maximum and
first sidelobe:
(a) in dB
(b) as a ratio of the field intensities.
2.34. A 300 MHz uniform plane wave, traveling along the x-axis in the negative
x direction, whose electric field is given by
r
Ew E0 jaˆ y 3aˆ z e jkx
where Eo is a real constant, impinges upon a dipole antenna that is placed at the
originan
o d whose electric field radiated tow
ward the x-axis in
n the positive x
direction
d is
i givenby
y
r
Ea Ea aˆ y 2 aˆ z e jkx
where
w Ea is a real constant.
c Determin
D ne the follo
owing:
(a)
( Polarizzation of the incideent wave (includinng axial raatio and seense of rootation,
if
i any). Yo
ou must juustify (staate why?).
(b)
( Polarizzation of the antenn
na (includ
ding axiall ratio and
d sense off rotation, if any).
You
Y must justify (sstate why? ?).
(c)
( Polarizzation losss factor (d
dimension
nless and in dB).
2.35.
2 Thee electric field of a uniform plane waave travelling along
g the neggative z
directionis given by
Ewi aˆ x jaˆ y E0 e jkz
and is incident upon a receiving antenna placed at the origin and whose radiated
electric field, toward the incident wave, is given by
e jkr
Ea aˆ x 2aˆ y E1
r
Determine the following:
(a) Polarizationof the incident wave, and why?
(b) Sense of rotation of the incident wave.
(c) Polarization of the antenna, and why?
(d) Sense of rotation of the antenna polarization.
(e) Losses (dimensionless and in dB) due to polarization mismatch between the
incident wave and the antenna.