Chapter 5

Cells, Modules and Arrays

Principles of Operation ● I-V Characteristics ● Response

to Irradiance and Temperature ● Series/Parallel
Connections ● Specifications and Ratings

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar

 Overview

 Describing the photovoltaic (PV) effect and comparing the fabrication of

solar cells from various manufacturing processes.

 Defining the current-voltage (I-V) characteristic for a PV device and the

key operating parameters.

 Understanding how sunlight, temperature and electrical load affect the

output of a PV device.

 Determining the electrical output of similar and dissimilar PV devices

connected in series and parallel.

 Explaining the purpose and operation of bypass diodes.

 Describing the performance rating conditions and labeling requirements

for PV modules.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 2

 Cells, Modules and Arrays

Cell

Module

Array
 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 3
 Solar Cells
 Solar cells are semiconductor devices that convert sunlight to DC
electricity.

(-)
Electrical
Load

Photovoltaic cell
DC current flow

Phosphorous-doped silicon
Boron-doped silicon (N-type) layer ~ 0.3 μm
(P-type) wafer < 250 μm
(+)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 4

 The Photovoltaic Effect

 The photovoltaic effect is the process of creating a voltage

across charged materials that are exposed to electromagnetic
radiation.

 Photons in sunlight impart their energy to excess charge carriers

(electrons and holes) allowing them to freely move about the
material.

 Charge opposition between the two materials creates an

electrical field that provides momentum and direction to the free
charge carriers, resulting in the flow of electrical current flow
when the cell is connected to a load.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 5

 Silicon Solar Cells
 Silicon solar cells produce about 0.5 to 0.6 volt independent of
cell area, depending on temperature.
 The current output of a solar cell depends primarily on the cell
area, its efficiency, and the incident solar radiation.
 Modern silicon solar cells are up to 8 inches in diameter and
produce up to 4 watts and 8 amps under full sunlight.

Monocrystalline cell Polycrystalline cell

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 6
 Crystalline Silicon Wafer Production

 The following processes are commonly used to create P-type

silicon wafers:

 The Czochralski method produces a single or monocrystalline wafer.

 The cast ingot method produces a multigrain or polycrystalline wafer.

 The ribbon method produces polycrystalline wafers by drawing molten

silicon between dies in a continuous process.

 Wafer are additionally processed to produce a complete solar

cell.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 7

 Moncrystalline Wafer Production:
Czochralski Method

 Single crystal or monocrystalline

silicon wafers are grown in the
form of a cylindrical ingot,
creating a perfect crystal.

 A seed crystal is inserted into

molten polysilicon doped with
boron, rotated and drawn
upward allowing the P-type
silicon material to cool into a
cylindrical ingot.

Czochralski Method

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 8

 Polycrystalline Silicon Wafer
Production

 Polycrystalline or multi-
crystalline silicon wafers are
cast, forming a block-shaped
ingot that has many crystals.

 Molten polysilicon doped with

boron is poured into a
rectangular crucible, and slowly
cooled at controlled rate.
Cast Ingot Method
 Polycrystalline wafers are also
made using the ribbon method.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 9

 Solar Cell Manufacturing
 Once a P-type silicon ingot is produced, a number of additional
steps are required to create an actual solar cell.

Cropping
Sawing

Phosphorous diffusion

Screen printing Electrical testing SolarWorld USA

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 10

 Flat-Plate PV Modules
 Flat-plate PV modules respond to both direct and diffuse solar
radiation, and are the smallest field installable generating unit.

SolarWorld

Single (mono) crystalline Polycrystalline

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 11
 Flat-Plate PV Modules

Polycrystalline Single (mono) crystalline

36 cell modules

60 cell polycrystalline module

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 12

 Typical PV Module Construction

Continuous silicone seal

Tempered glass
EVA embedding

Solar cells
Tough polymer
back sheet

High strength frame

SolarWorld USA

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 13

 Emerging PV Module
Technologies

 Thick wafer silicon P-N junction solar cells are considered first
generation PV devices.

 Second generation devices are thin-film devices including:

 Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
 Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS or CIGS)

 Other advanced PV module designs include:

 Concentrating PV modules
 AC modules
 Polymer and organic solar cells

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 14

 Thin-Film PV Modules

 Thin-film PV modules are

produced by depositing ultra-
thin layers of semiconductor
materials on a flexible or rigid
substrate.

 Thin-film modules have

significant potential for cost and
weight reductions.

 Disadvantages include lower

efficiencies and higher
degradation rates than
crystalline silicon modules.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 15

 Concentrating PV Modules

 Use optics to focus sunlight on

solar cells up to 200-500 X.

 Employ advanced multijunction

solar cells approaching
efficiencies of up to 40%.

 Utilize only direct component of

total global solar radiation, and
employ two-axis sun tracking.

 Design challenges include

managing high temperatures and
high DC currents.
NREL, Bill Timmerman

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 16

 AC Modules and Micro-Inverters

 Alternating-current (AC) modules

are an integrated PV module and
inverter product intended for
installation as a single unit.

 AC modules do not have any

field-installed DC wiring.

 Micro-inverters are separate

module level inverters intended
for field installation.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 17

 Photovoltaic Arrays
 PV arrays are constructed from building blocks of individual PV
modules, panels and subarrays that form a mechanically and
electrically integrated DC power generation unit.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 18

 Photovoltaic Arrays

Ground-mounted rack array

Pole-mounted tracking array

Standoff roof-mounted array

Building-integrated array
 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 19
 Photovoltaic Arrays

Roof-mounted standoff array

Roof-mounted rack array

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 20

 Leading Manufacturers of
PV Cells and Modules
 BP Solar  Schott Solar

 First Solar  Sharp Solar

 JA Solar  SolarWorld

 Kyocera  SunPower

 Mitsubishi  Suntech

 Motech  Trina

 Q-Cells  Yingli

 Sanyo
 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 21
 Current-Voltage (I-V)
Characteristic
 The electrical performance of a
PV device is given by it current-
voltage (I-V) curve.

 Represents an infinite number of

I-V operating points.

 Varies with solar radiation and

device temperature.

Voltage (V)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 22

 Key I-V Parameters

 PV device performance is
specified by the following I-V
parameters at a given
temperature and solar irradiance Isc
condition: Pmp
Imp

 Open-circuit voltage (Voc)

 Short-circuit current (Isc)
Area = Pmp
 Maximum power point (Pmp)
 Maximum power voltage (Vmp)
 Maximum power current (Imp)

Voltage (V) Vmp Voc

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 23

 Power vs. Voltage Curve
Current vs. Voltage
Power vs. Voltage
Pmp
Isc
Imp

Pmp = Imp x Vmp

Voltage (V) Vmp Voc

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 24

 PV Module Rating Conditions

 The electrical performance of PV

modules is rated at Standard Test
Conditions (STC):
 Irradiance: 1,000 W/m2 , AM 1.5
 Cell temperature: 25°C

Source: SolarWorld USA

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 25
 Fill Factor
 Fill factor (FF) is an indicator of the quality of a solar cell.

 FF = (Vmp x Imp) / (Voc x Isc) = Pmp / (Voc x Isc)

Isc
Imp

Pmp = Imp x Vmp

Isc x Voc

Voltage (V) Vmp Voc

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 26
 Efficiency

Pmp
η=
 Efficiency of a PV device is the E× A
ratio of the electrical power where
output and the solar irradiance η = efficiency
input over the device area,
Pmp = maximum power rating (W)
expressed as a percentage:
E = solar iradiance (W/m 2 )
A = surface area (m 2 )

 Example: Pmp
η=
 What is the efficiency for a PV E× A
module that has a surface area of 200 W
1.4 m2, and produces 200 W η=
(1000 W/m 2 × 1.4 m 2 )
maximum power when exposed to
1000 W/m2 solar irradiance?
=η 0.143
= 14.3%

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 27

 Response to Electrical Load

 The electrical load connected to a PV device determines its

operating point.
 If a battery is connected to a PV device, the battery voltage sets the
operating voltage for that PV device.
 In a grid-connected PV system, the inverter loads the PV array at its
maximum power point.

 From Ohm’s Law, the electrical load resistance that operates a PV

device at its maximum power point is equal to Vmp/Imp (ohms).

+
Electrical
PV Device
Load
-

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 28

 Operating Point

Isc
Imp

Pmp = Imp x Vmp

Voltage (V) Vmp Voc

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 29

 PV Modules for
Battery Charging
PV module maximum power voltage must be higher
than battery voltage at highest operating temperature

Operating voltage range for 12-volt lead-acid battery:

11.5 to 14.5 volts.

Maximum power points

Current (A)

Module with 42 series-connected cells at 50°C

(voltage is more than adequate for charging,
but power is wasted)

Module with 30 series-connected

cells at 50°C (voltage too low to
deliver maximum current to battery) Module with 36 series-connected cells
operating at temperature of 50°C (optimal)

10 20

Voltage (V)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 30

 Effect of Electrical Load on
Operating Point

Decreasing
R=0 resistance Increasing
resistance

Load lines of constant

resistance

Constant Temperature

R= ∞
Voltage

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 31

 I-V Measurement Methods

Electrolytic
capacitor

Variable Variable
resistor battery
PV Device

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 32

 Solmetric PVA-600 PV Analyzer

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 33

 Raydec DS-100 IV Curve Tracer

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 34

 Spire 4600 SLP Flash Simulator

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 35

 Response to Electrical Load:
Example
 The maximum power voltage (Vmp) and maximum power current
(Imp) for a PV module are 35.8 volts and 4.89 amps, respectively.
What is the maximum power and load resistance required to
operate at maximum power?

 The maximum power is calculated by the product of the

maximum power voltage and maximum power current:
35.8 volts x 4.89 amps = 175 watts

 From Ohm’s Law, resistance is equal to the voltage divided by

the current:
35.8 volts / 4.89 amps = 7.32 ohms

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 36

 Solar Cell Equivalent Circuit

 A solar cell equivalent circuit consists of a current source in

parallel with a diode and shunt resistance, connected to a series
resistance.

Series resistance

Current Diode
source Shunt resistance Load resistance

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 37

 Series Resistance

Low Rs
Increasing Rs decreases
Pmp, Vmp and Imp, and
also reduces FF and
Moderate Rs efficiency.

High Rs

Rs = - ∆V / ∆ I ∆I

∆V
Voltage

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 38

 Shunt Resistance

Decreasing Rsh decreases

∆I
Pmp, Vmp and Imp.

∆V

Rsh = - ∆V / I

High Rsh

Moderate Rsh

Low Rsh

Voltage

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 39

 Response to Solar Irradiance

Current increases with

1000 W/m2 increasing irradiance

750 W/m2

500 W/m2 Maximum power increases

with increasing irradiance
Maximum power voltage
250 W/m2
changes little with irradiance

Voc changes little

with irradiance

Voltage Constant Temperature

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 40

 Response to Solar Irradiance

Voc changes little with

irradiance above 200 W/m2

Isc increases with

increasing irradiance

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Irradiance (W/m2) Constant Temperature

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 41

 Response to Solar Irradiance
 The power and current output of a PV device are proportional to
the solar irradiance:

E2 I 2 P2
= =
E1 I1 P1

 Example: A PV module produces 200 watts maximum power at

1000 W/m2. Assuming constant temperature, the maximum power
output at an irradiance level of 600 W/m2 would be:

E2 600
P2 = × P1 = × 200 = 120 W
E1 1000

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 42

 Response to Temperature
 For crystalline silicon PV devices, increasing cell temperature results in a
decrease in voltage and power, and a small increase in current.

Increasing temperature
reduces power output
Increasing
temperature
increases current

Increasing temperature
reduces voltage

T = 0°C

T = 25°C

T = 50°C

Voltage
 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 43
 Temperature-Rise Coefficient
 The temperature-rise coefficient relates the temperature of a
given PV array to the ambient air temperature and solar
irradiance:

Tcell =
Tamb + (CT − rise × E )
where
Tcell = cell temperature (C)
Tamb = ambient air temperature (C)
CT − rise = temperature-rise coefficient (C/kW/m 2 )

 At peak sun, the difference between PV array and ambient air

temperature can vary from 20 to 40°C, depending on the array
mounting system design.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 44

 Temperature Coefficients
 Temperature coefficients relate the effects of changing PV cell
temperature on voltage, current and power.

 Percentage change coefficients are commonly used to translate voltage,

current and power from one temperature condition to another
temperature.

 For crystalline silicon PV, percentage change temperature coefficients

are approximately:
 CV = -0.4%/°C (voltage decreases 1% for 2.5°C increase in temperature)
 CI = +0.04%/°C (current increases 1% for 25°C increase in temperature)
 CP = -0.45%/°C (power decreases 1% for 2.2°C increase in temperature)

 Since the temperature coefficient for current is an order of magnitude

less than for voltage or power, the effects of temperature on current are
not usually considered in systems design.
 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 45
 Temperature Translation
Equations
Vtrans = Vref + [Vref × CV × (Tcell − Tref )]
Ptrans = Pref + [ Pref × CP × (Tcell − Tref )]

where
Vtrans = translated voltage at Tcell (V)
Vref = reference voltage at Tref (V)
Ptrans = translated power at Tcell (W)
Pref = reference power at Tref (W)
CV = voltage-temperature coefficient (% per C)
CP = power-temperature coefficient (% per C)
Tcell = cell temperature (C)
Tref = reference temperature (C)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 46

 Response to Temperature:
Example 1
 A 72-cell crystalline silicon PV module has a rated open-circuit
voltage of 44.4 V at 25°C, and a voltage-temperature coefficient of
-0.33 %/°C. What would the open-circuit voltage be at a cell
temperature of 60°C?

Vtrans = Vref + [Vref × CV × (Tcell − Tref )]

Vtrans = 44.4 V + [44.4 V × -0.0033/ C × (60-25)C]
Vtrans = 44.4 V - 5.19 V = 39.2 V

 If the same PV module operates at -10°C (35°C lower than the

reference temperature), the translated voltage is:

Vtrans = 44.4 V + [44.4 V × -0.0033/ C × (-10 - 25)C]

Vtrans = 44.4 V + 5.19 V = 49.6 V

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 47

 Response to Temperature:
Example 2
 A crystalline silicon PV array has a power-temperature coefficient
of -0.45 %/°C and rated maximum power output of 50 kW at 25°C
and solar irradiance of 1000 W/m2. What would the array
maximum power be at a cell temperature of 50°C?

Ptrans = Pref + [ Pref × CP × (Tcell − Tref )]

Ptrans = 50 kW + [50 kW × -0.0045/ C × (50-25)C]
Ptrans = 50 kW - 5.6 kW = 44.4 kW

 If the same PV module operates at 0°C (25°C lower than the

reference temperature of 25°C), the translated power is:
Ptrans = 50 kW + [50 kW × -0.0045/ C × (0 - 25)C]
Ptrans = 50 kW + 5.6 kW = 55.6 kW

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 48

 Building PV Arrays

 PV modules are connected

electrically in series to build
voltage output.

 Series strings of PV
modules are connected in

Current (A)
parallel to build current and
power output.

Voltage (V)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 49

 Monopole and Bipolar
PV Arrays
 Monopole PV arrays consist of two output circuit conductors.

 Bipolar PV arrays combine two monopole arrays with a center

tap.

Positive (+) Negative (-) Positive (+) Center Tap Negative (-)

PV Array PV Array PV Array

Monopole Array Bipolar Array

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 50

 Connecting Similar
PV Devices in Series

(+) 1 (-) (+) 2 (-) (+) n (-)

Vseries string = V1 + V2 ….. + Vn

Vseries string = V1 x n
Neg (-)
Pos (+)
Iseries string = I1 = I2 ….. = In (for similar
devices)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 51

 I-V Curves for
Similar PV Devices in Series
For similar PV devices in series:
Vseries = V1 + V2 ….. + Vn
Vseries = V1 x n
Iseries = I1 = I2 ….. = In
Current (A)

“n” devices
2 devices
1 device in series
in series

Voltage (V)
 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 52
 Dissimilar PV Devices in
Series
 When dissimilar PV devices are connected in series, the voltages
still add, but the current is limited by the lowest current output
device in series.

 Not acceptable.

Pos (+) (-) (+) Neg (-)

A B

Vseries = VA + VB
Pos (+) Iseries = IA < IB Neg (-)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 53

 Connecting PV Devices
in Parallel
Pos (+)

(+) (+) (+)

1 2 n
(-) (-) (-)

Neg (-)

For PV devices in parallel:

Vparallel = V1 = V2 ….. = Vn (for similar devices)
Vparallel = (V1 + V2 … + Vn) / n
Iparallel = I1 + I2 ….. + In

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 54

 I-V Curves for
Similar PV Devices in Parallel

For PV devices in parallel:

Devices 1+2
in parallel Vparallel = V1 = V2 ….. = Vn (for similar
devices)
Current (A)

Vparallel = (V1 + V2 … + Vn) / n

Iparallel = I1 + I2 ….. + In
Device 1+2
independently

Voltage (V)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 55

 Connecting Dissimilar PV
Devices in Parallel
 When PV devices with the same voltage but with different current
output are connected in parallel, the individual currents add, and
the voltage is the average of devices.

A
Vparallel = (VA + VB) / 2
Iparallel = IA + IB
Neg (-) Pos (+)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 56

 Connecting Dissimilar PV
Devices in Parallel
 Series strings of PV modules with similar voltage but having
different current output may be connected in parallel.

For dissimilar current PV

devices in parallel:
Vparallel = (V1 + V2 … + Vn) / n
Current (A)

Devices 1+2
in parallel

Iparallel = I1 + I2 ….. + In
Device 1

Device 2

Voltage (V)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 57

 Bypass Diodes
 Bypass diodes are connected in parallel with series strings of
cells to prevent cell overheating when cells or parts of an array
are shaded.

When cells are not shaded, the When a cells is shaded, the bypass
bypass diode is reverse biased and diode is forward biased and conducts
does not conduct current current

Neg (-) Pos (+)

Shaded cell

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 58

 Without Bypass Diodes

Current (A)
Large power dissipation in module with
lower current (failing module)

Power produced by module with

higher current (healthy module)

operating current

Module 2

Module 1

0
<< Negative voltage (reverse bias) Positive voltage (forward bias) >>
Voltage (V)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 59

 With Bypass Diodes

Current (A)
Low power dissipation in module with
lower current (failing module)

Power produced by module with

higher current (healthy module)

operating current
Module 2

Module 1

0
<< Negative voltage (reverse bias) Positive voltage (forward bias) >>
Voltage (V)

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 60

 Module Junction Box with
Bypass Diodes

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 61

 PV Module Rating Conditions

 The electrical performance of PV

modules is rated at Standard Test
Conditions (STC):
 Irradiance: 1,000 W/m2 , AM 1.5
 Cell temperature: 25°C

Source: SolarWorld USA

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 62
 Other PV Module Ratings
 Standard Operating Conditions (SOC)
 Irradiance: 1,000 W/m2
 Cell temperature: NOCT

 Nominal Operating Conditions (NOC)

 Irradiance: 800 W/m2
 Cell temperature: NOCT

 Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)

 Irradiance: 800 W/m2
 Ambient Temp: 20°C
 PV Array: open-circuit
 Wind Speed: 1.0 m/s

 PVUSA Test Conditions (PTC):

 1000 W/m², 45°C, 1 m/s

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 63

 PV Module Rating Conditions

STC
SOC

PTC
NOC

Voltage

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 64

 Approved Modules

 Certain listed PV modules have been approved as “eligible

equipment” for California incentive programs.
 See: www.gosolarcalifornia.org

 These modules have had additional independent performance

tests for PTC ratings.

 Many other states refer to this list for eligible equipment for their
incentive programs.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 65

 Photovoltaic Module Standards

 Installation Requirements:
 National Electrical Code, NFPA 70
 Must be installed in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions

 Product Listing
 UL 1703: Standard for Safety for Flat-Plate Photovoltaic Modules and Panels

 Design Qualification (reliability testing)

 IEC 61215: Crystalline Silicon Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules - Design
Qualification and Type Approval
 IEC 61646: Thin-Film Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules - Design Qualification
and Type Approval

 Performance Measurement
 ASTM E1036: Standard Test Methods for Electrical Performance of Non-
concentrator Terrestrial Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays Using Reference Cells

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 66

 PV Module Markings

 All PV modules must be marked

with the following information [NEC
690.51]:

 Open-circuit voltage
 Short-circuit current
 Operating voltage
 Operating current
 Maximum power
 Polarity of terminals
 Maximum overcurrent device
rating
 Maximum permissible system
voltage

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 67

 Fire Classification

 PV modules may be evaluated for external fire exposure for

building roof covering materials.

 The fire class is identified in the individual Recognitions as class

A, B or C in accordance with UL's Roofing Materials and Systems
Directory.

 Modules not evaluated for fire exposure are identified as NR (Not

Rated), and not suitable for installation on buildings.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 68

 PV Module Design Qualification

 PV modules attaining optional design qualification undergo

additional reliability testing that validates long-term warranties.

 The tests include:

 Thermal cycling tests

 Humidity - freezing tests
 Impact and shock tests
 Immersion tests
 Cyclic pressure, twisting, vibration and other mechanical loading tests
 Wet/dry hi-pot, excessive and reverse current electrical tests
 Other electrical and mechanical tests.

 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays: 5 - 69

 Module Installation Instructions

 Listed PV modules must be installed in accordance with

instructions provided (shipped) with product.

 Includes safety information, working with PV modules during sun

hours (energized electrical equipment), mounting configurations,
and electrical wiring and grounding instructions.

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 PV Module Safety
 Most manufacturer’s literature states that module installation
should be done by qualified, licensed electrical professionals.

 Safety precautions for installing PV modules include:

 Do not insert electrically conducting parts into the plugs or sockets.
 Do not wear metallic jewelry while performing installation.
 Do not fit solar modules and wiring with wet plugs and sockets. Tools and
working conditions must be dry.
 Exercise extreme caution when carrying out work on wiring and use the
appropriate safety equipment (insulated tools/gloves, fall protection, etc.)
 Do not use damaged modules. Do not dismantle modules. Do not remove
any part or label fitted by the manufacturer. Do not treat the rear of the
laminate with paint, adhesives or mark it using sharp objects.
 Do not artificially concentrate sunlight on modules.

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 Handling PV Modules

 Care in handling, transporting, storing and installing PV modules

includes the following:

 Leave modules in packaging until they are to be installed.

 Carry modules with both hands, do not use connectors as a handle
 Do not stand modules on hard ground or on their corners
 Do not place modules on top of each other or stand on them
 Do not mark or work on them with sharp objects
 Keep all electrical contacts clean and dry
 Do not install modules in high winds

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 Module Selection Criteria

 The selection of PV modules for a given project may be based on

any number of factors, including:

 Module physical and electrical specifications

 Manufacturer certification to quality standards (ISO 9000)
 Module warranty and design qualification (IEC 61215/61216)
 Customer satisfaction and field results
 Company ownership and years in business
 Costs and availability

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 Summary
 Photovoltaic (PV) cells are semiconductor devices that produce
electrical output when exposed to sunlight.

 The current-voltage characteristic (I-V curve) is the basic

descriptor of PV device performance.

 The output of a PV device is dependent upon sunlight intensity,

temperature and electrical load.

 PV devices are connected in series to build voltage, and in

parallel to build current and power output.

 PV modules are installed in accordance with installation

instructions and local building codes.
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 Questions and Discussion

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