Chapter 3

Methods of Structural
EvafunÍbn
27 Ptpeline Conditions 32 ProgramPlan
2t StructuralConditior¡s 32 EvaluationAssessment
?A CorrosionConditions 33 Monitoring
2E QualilicationandQuantilication Y Stabiliz¡tion
28 Brick Sewers Y Reh¡biütation
29 Concrete and Clay Sewer.s 35 Replacement
30 Rehabililadon Asscssment 35 References

Structural condition assessment is a principle objective of any pipeline sys-

tem inspection program. closed-circuit television (ccrv) or entry informa-
tion of the selected sewer segment requires careful review and analysis to
identify where structural rehabilitation or replacement is required.
Field inspection provides information on the corrosion or deterioration of
a cementitious or corrodible material. This also provides information about
specific location conditions that affect the hydraulic performance of individ-
ual pipeline reaches, such as sediment, debris, roots, open joints, and mis-
aligned joints.

Brurr*u coNDrrroNs
In addition to revealing opportunities for correcüng capacity needs, pipeline
evaluation should identify structural and corrosion defects requiring conec-
tion, their severit¡ and the potential consequence offailure. pipeline condi-
tion assessment helps establish priorities for rehabilitation or replacement.
The likelihood offailure and the associated risk analysis are intrinsic to the

Methods of Structural Evaluatíon 27

evaluation when budgetary constraints affect the work(Sewerage Rehabilita'
tion Manual,1986).

STRUCTURAL CONDITIONS. Sewer pipeline can become impaired for a

number of reasons. Pipeline repair can be accomplished more readily when
the cause of failure is determined.
Various types of pipes are prone to cerüain types of failure based on their
physical design. In older pipe designs, for example, cement-packed or
grouted joints tend to deteriorate over time. Some joints are out-of-round, per-
mitting root penetration followed by cracking and infiltraticn; some were
cracked or broken when installed, permitting similar problems; some were de-
signed or inst¿lled without proper joint articulation near süuctures or other
differential settlement areas; some were installed without proper bedding be-
fore backfilling and developed pipeline sags; and some pipeünejoints were
improperly grouted, packed, üarred, or gasketed.
Generally, any type of pipe when improperly designed or installed may
cause structural failure or be prone to infiltration. Improper connection of
service laterals may cause structural problems to the main line. Locating the
deficiency and determining its cause permit proper correction. Older vitified
clay pipe may have more porous walls because it was not highly vitrified.

CORROSION CONDITIONS. When pipeline, manholes, or structures

have failed or are failing from corrosion, their history should be inspected.
As velocities and flows normally inhibit corrosion, corrosion is usually
most active during a system's early use, when low flows occur before design
discharges.
Two important aspects of corrosion evaluation are physical or CCTV in-
spection of the sewer lines and the calculation of a sewer's remaining life ex-
pect¿ncy. This work is covered in detail in the American Society of Civil
Engineers manual Sulfide in Wast ew ate r Colle ction and Treatunent Sy stems
(1989).

QUALIFICATION AND QUANTIFICATION. A rating system must be

established for identifying the süuctural or corrosion failure mode and the
failure state, magnitude, conditions, and progress. To evaluate and compare
the pipeline condition, various assumptions must be made regarding charac-
teristics that indicate potential failure (see Chapter 2).

BRICK SEWERS. The frst deterioration that occurs in brick sewers is gen-
eral morlar loss by erosion, corrosion, or aging. In many sewers, the cement
between bricks has entirely degraded to a layer of loosely bound sand parti-
cles, and the mortar can easily be removed from between üe bricks. Never-
theless, many such sewers have maintained their original cross-sectional
shape and, as long as the deteriorated morta¡ remains in place, the sewer

28 Existing Sewer Evaluatian and Rehabilitation

 structure will support the soil roadings. The structural danger is that the soft_
ened mortar may be eroded by high
flows in the sewer or by groundwater in-
filtration' The soft morüar arso offers little resistance
to root intrusion, which
can accelerate mortar loss, produce structural
deformation, and obstruct flow
when a sewer loses a significant portion of the
mortar between bricks, it
begins to deform under the soil loads. complete
ross of the morüar resurts in
loosened and, eventualry, missing bricks,
aliowing severe deflections. The
sewer may also deform vertically by deveroping
longitudinal cracks on the
crown either before or after the morüar is severely
degraded. Large deforma_
tions or extensive cracking are the final prefailure
warnings in brick sewers.
Brick sewer structural condition evaluation criteria
are presented in
Table 3.1. The rerative importance of the
criteria is indicated by their
position on the list, with the most criticar
risted first, indicating ttre greatest
structural deterioration.

coNcRETE AND cLAy sEwERs. Evaluarion crireria

for the strucrural
condition ofconcrete and clay sewers are ress
cornplex than those for brick

Thble 3.1 Brick sewer structural condition evaluation criteria.*

Structural conütion Evaluation criteria
Sags The pipeline invert drops below the downstream
invert.
Vertical deflection and Vertical dimension of the sewer is reduced. Crack
cracks
lines are
visible in the brickwork or mort¿r; bricks have
moved apart from
one another. Bricks are süll in place.
Missing bricks Single bricks or areas of bricks are missing. More
than one ring
may be affected.
Lateral deflections Sewer is deformed or original cross section
of sewer is altered"
Root inFusion Tree or plant roots have grown into or entered
the sewer through
the brick intersüces.
Missing mortar Mortar between brickwork is missing to a degree
varying from
surface loss to medium or total loss. iricks
aie still in pláce.
Loose bricks Aforerunner of missing bricks is displaced bricks,
that is, single
bricks or a¡eas of bricks have moved from
their originat position.
hotruding lateral A service outlet or pipe section protrudes or extends
into the
sewer, varying in magnitude.
Soft mortar A forerunner of loose or missing brick and sewer
shape change is
soft mofar, usually caused by cónosion.
Depth of cover The deeper and larger the sewer, the rnore
critical the potential
problem.
* Other criteria may be incorporated.

Methods of Structural Evaluatíon

29
sewers.Nevertheless,thereatemorecriteriatoevaluateprimarilybecauseof
the greater diameter and size range of the sewers involved'
a critical
Iúany concrete and clay sewers continue to function even with
de-
structural condition. However, the pipeline will continue to deteriorate,
The soil
pending on the condition and the internal or external environment.
magni-
.*"* above the pipe will eventually collapse, depending on the
tude of the problem. These criteria a¡e listed in Table 3'2'
Properuseofstructuralconditionevaluationcriteriaisthesystemde-
factor should assigned
signer;s responsibility. A numerical importance rating
Internal condition rating factors are presented in Table
3'3'
to each criterion.
given pipeline
Depending on the extent of the condition throughout a
factor is used' such as 1' 2' or
reach, a minor, moderate, or sevete multiplier
such as soil types' sur-
3, respectively. Also, the effects ofexternal factors
chargl, water table and fluctuation, and traffic are used'

Ru u oB I LITAT I o NAss'ssMBNr
procedure for a given
The choice of a proper, cost-effective rehabilitation
sewerisbestmadethroughathoroughunderstandingofallpossiblemethods
alongwithknowledgeofpipelineconditions.Acompleteevaluationisessen-
or replace
tiat in determining whetherlt is more cost effective to rehabilitate
a pipeline reach or if merely monitoring the pipeline is the conect
particular
choice.
Thewiderangeofoldpipingmaterialsandtheirrespectivejointsmakesit
rehabilitation meth-
impossible to generalize about how effective particular
ods are or whether rehabilitation is practical without
considering the age and
a particular
durability of the materials. Any decision to replace or rehabilitate
pipeline will depend on the performance to be gained from rehabilitation

compa'"ctoreplacementwithmodernmaterialsusingcorrectinstallation
practices.
reduce pipe
Rehabilitation methods, other than joint grouting or sealing,
section and can affect hydraulic performance. while
often acceptable, such
where major
reduction must be considered in the rehabilitation evaluation.
pipelinestructuralstrengtheningisrequired,thesacrificeofhydraulicfor
structural performance can be significant'
to se-
An understanding of the mechanisrns of structural failure is essential
factors involved
lecting effective rehabilitation techniques. There are several
in failure, the more significant being

. Corrosive soils or groundwater;

o Voiding ofbedding andbackfill as groundwaterenters orweakens
a

failing PiPe;
. Sulfide formation in wastewat€r;

30 Bxisting Sewer Evaluatbn and Rehabilitation

 Thble 3.2 concrete and clay sewer structural condition evaluation criteria-*

Structural condition Evaluation criteria

Collapsed pipe There is compleúe loss of structural integrity of the pipe. Most of
the cross-sectional area is lost.
Structwal cracking with Pipe wall is displaced.
deflection
Longitudinal Defect runs approximately along the axis of the sewer.
Circumferential Defect runs approximately at right angles to the axis of the sewer.
Multiple Longitudinal and circumferential defects are combined.
Slab-out A large hole in the sewer wall exists with pieces missing.
Sag The pipeline invert drops below the downstream invert.
Structural cracking Sewer wall is cracked but not displaced, longitudinally,
without deflection circumferentially, or multiply.
Cracked joints The spigot or bell of a pipe is cracked or broken.
Open joints Adjacent pipes are longitudinally displaced at the joint.
Holes A piece of pipe wall or joint is missing,
Root intrusion Tree or plant roots have grown into or entered the sewer through
an opening in the pipe wall.
Protruding joint material The original joint sealing material is displaced into the sewer
from its original location.
Corrosion The cementitious pipe material shows evidence of deterioration,
illustraüed by the following stages.
Stage 1 The pipe wall surface shows irregular smoothness, that is, wall
aggegate is exposed.
Stage 2 The reinforcing steel is exposed.
Stage 3 The reinforcing súeel is gone or the pipe wall is no longer intact,
revealing tle surrounding soil.
Pulled joint Adjacent pipejoints are deflected beyond allowable tolerances.
Protruding lateral A service outlet or pipe section protrudes or exüends into the
sewer, varying in magnitude.
Vertical displacement The spigot of the pipe has dropped below the normal joint
closure.
Depth of cover The deeper and larger the sewer, the more critical the potential
problem.
* Other criteria may be incorporated.

. Corrosive and erosive industrial effluent;

o Root intrusion at deteriorated joints or pipe banel;
. Differential settlement of soil adjacent to the pipe;

Methods of Structural Evaluatían 31

 v

Table 3.3 Internal conütion rating factors.

Description Rating factor

Collapse or collapse irnminent 5
Collapse likely in forseeable future 4
Collapse unlikely in near future, deüerioration likely 3
Minimal collapse risk in short term but potential 2
for further deterioration

o Loading in excess of design limits; and

o Improfrer installation during original construction.

A pipeline investigation should help determine possible causes of failure,

and eliminating causes will reduce the list to a manageable size for continued
study. Soil borings, wastewater analysis, pipe crown or manhole wall pH de-
terminaüon, and pipe wall structural and pipe or soil interaction analysis pro-
vide technical information needed to develop a conclusion.

ROGRAM PIA,N
When evaluation and physical assessment have been completed, rehabilita-
tion begins. Differences in the rates at which sewer system components dete-
riorate are used to establish priorities of rehabilitation actions.
Some rehabilitation techniques are more effective in dealing with certain
types of failure than others, thus rehabilitation that addresses failure symp-
toms without considering failure mechanisms invites costly errors. Through a
staged screening process, the applicability ofrepair methods should be as-
sessed in relation to special construction problems, sizes and shapes ofexist-
ing pipes, pipe conditions to be corrected, and desired capaciües of the
rehabilitated system. Significant differences in the capabilities of rehabilita-
tion methods will significantly reduce the field of alternatives.

UALUATIONASSESSMENT
The goal of sewer rehabilitation is to arrest deterioration. Rehabilitation
ranges from repairing or stabilizing existing pipe or pipeline to major in-
place construction of linings or full replacement.
There is the option of defening rehabilitation until the risk of collapse is
unacceptable, though this point varies because acceptable risk depends on
factors external and internal to the sewer. Though option is viable because
sewers do not normally fail without fust showing signs of distress, it requires

32 Existing Sewer Evaluation and Rehahilífalinn

scheduled monitoring of the progress of deterioration. Expenditure of con-
struction funds is delayed until there is a risk of losing rehabilitation options
through increasing pipeline degradation.
The choice of rehabilitation approach should be based on the information
available on the sewer system and on the financing available for the project.
Based on the information initially developed, the following alternatives are
proposed for evaluation:

¡ Level l-monitoring and information collection;

r Level 2-stabilization of existing sewer;
e Level 3-rehabilitation of existing sewer; and
¡ Level 4-replacement of eústing sewer.

MONITORING. This alternative involves additional information to support

a decision to either rehabilitate or stabilize an existing sewer. By verifying
the quality of the piping and the competence of the soil around the sewer, a
program can be formulated that at least stabilizes a sewer. Conversely, if addi-
tional data collection reveals more serious problems, a higher level of reha-
bilitation may be needed.
A routine inspection progam should be established to monitor perfor-
mance and develop needed design information that could help cut rehabilita-
tion costs.
For critical sewers, follow-up inspections should be made approximately
1 year after the iniüal inspection, unless a level 3 or 4 program is initiated. In-
spection also is required to verify the construction integrity of a lined or re-
placed sewer, though intervals between inspections can increase as
confidence in the sewer's condition increases. subsequent inspections can be
made every 2 to 3 years, depending on initial and subsequent findings. Fre-
quent initial inspections provide an early indication of change and opportuni-
ties to adjust the monitoring program or the decision-making process.
This approach recognizes that the pipe will reveal conditions that may in-
dicate further degradation or excessive distress in the sewer. Although regular
sewer inspections should be conducted regardless of the construction mate-
rial, those systems known to have problems or with unlined concrete pipe,
cracked clay pipe, and loose brick are more critical.
Monitoring and research should provide the following pipeline
informaüon:

o Failure mode
Corrosion
Structural
Pipe deficiency
Joint leaks

Methods of Structural Evaluation 33

 Failure state
Magnitude
Condition
Progress
Soil condition
Soil type (pipe zone)
- Soil type (backfill)
Groundwater

The age of the sewer and various operating procedures must also be consid-
ered in the monitoring program.

STABILIZATION. Point repair or stabilization of the existing sewer can ex-

tend the useful üfe of the pipeline. Point, or spot, repair is the replacement of
a collapsed or seriously fractured pipe length between manholes instead of to-
tal pipeline rehabilitation or replacement. When a point repair program is im-
plemented, additional repair is needed to correct new defects discovered
during subsequent inspections. It is normally more cost effective to proceed
with rehabilitation when conducting the initial point repair for the entire pipe-
üne if it is wananted.
An alternaüve involves modifying and stabilizing soil around the pipeline,
which is intended to restore soil competence around the sewer and produce
uniform circumferential loading that favors the strengths of a pipe. Cement or
chemical grout stabilization could be appropriate with either stabilization or
rehabilitation.

REHABILITATION. When suffering from corrosion, breaks or fractures,

unsound materials, or other signs ofexcessive loading or deterioration, pipe-
lines require repair measures beyond mere stabilizaüon. Rehabilitation is the
next level of effort and involves various lining sysúems construcüed within
the existing sewer.
Rehabilitation can provide conosion protection and certain levels oftoler-
ance under structural duress. A design using some rehabilitation methods can
withstand external and internal loading conditions considering the remaining
structural value ofthe existing reinforced concrete or vitrified clay pipe. Pipe-
line size and environmental factors such as accessibility and effect on current
service requirements influence the choice of a rehabilitation method. Pipe in-
sertion or sliplining is well suiúed for cornmon pipeüne sizes and shapes,
though not all types of pipeline problems can be rehabilitated by this method.
Pipeline capacity, size, shape, and condition may permit or require other
choices, including custom materials and rehabilitation methods.
Criteria used to select acceptable rehabilitation methods based on the con-
dition of the existing pipe and pipeline can be divided into three caüegories.

34 Existing Sew er Evaluotion and Reha.bililaÍion

 condition tr applies to unprotected concrete surfaees with surface corro-
sion and exposed a*Ere}ate or rninor cracks or fractures having no pipe wall
displacement. Ifjoints are leaking or open with mi¡ror displacement, chemi-
cal grouting or mechanical sealing devices may be usecl. Foint repair nor-
mally is used at needed locations. Total replacement usually is unnecessary at
this point.
condition tr applies to unprotected concrete surfaces with corrosion
where steel reinforcement is exposed. Also, cracks or fractures having minor
displacement may be rehabilitated. Foint repair norrnally is used at needed lo-
cations, and tot¿l replacement may b,e desirable.
condition III appties to unprotected concrete surfaces with corrosion
where steel reinforcement is missing or holes through the wall exist. Also,
cracks or fractures having serious displacernent and hotres or slab-outs occur-
ring in the wall typically can be rehabilitated. The existing pipeline will re-
quire pulling a television c¿rmera or slipliner prooñng seetion though the line
to verify available cross sections to rehabilitate. point repair often is required
in addiüon to tot¿l rehabilitation, though total replacement may be prefer-
able. Life cycle and cost effectiveness should be evaluated at this tirne.

REPTACEMENT. when pipelines are found to be beyond repair using any

of the rehabilit¿tion rnethods, total replacement is recommended. Normally,
this condition exists at specific locations, and point repair or rehabilitation
may be the rnost cost-effective measure fcrr the rernaining system. where
pipelines are determined to be hydraulically overloaded and upgrade rehabili-
tation will not improve the flow condition, pipeline replacement or relief line
construction is recommended.

EFER.ENCES
American society of civil Engineers (19s9) sutf;de inwastewater conbcüon
andTreatrnent Systems. Manual of practice No. 69, New york, N.y.
sewerage Rehabilitation Manual (1986) (Addenda published in 1990). 2nd
Ed., Water Res. Cent., Eng., U.K.

Methods of, Sbuctural Evalu"stion 35